UGC NET Exam Prep

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know the subject or area you'd like to focus on.

Got it! I’ll create detailed notes on these topics to aid in your UGC NET preparation. I'll include
explanations, examples, and relevant formulas to make the concepts clear and easy to
revise. Let’s begin with Sets and Relations if that works for you. Let me know how you'd like
to proceed!

SETS AND RELATIONS

1. Sets and Set Operations

Definition of a Set

A set is a well-defined collection of distinct objects. These objects are called elements or
members of the set.

Examples:

A = {1, 2, 3, 4} (a finite set)

B = {x∣x is an integer and x > 0} (an infinite set)

Types of Sets

1. Finite Set: Contains a finite number of elements. A = {1, 2, 3}

2. Infinite Set: Has an uncountable or countable infinite number of elements.
B = {x∣x > 0}
3. Subset: If A⊆ B , every element of A is also in B .
{1, 2} ⊆ {1, 2, 3}
4. Universal Set (U ): Contains all elements under consideration.

5. Empty Set (ϕ): A set with no elements. ϕ = {}

Set Operations

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 1. Union (A ∪ B ):
The set of all elements in A or B or both.
A ∪ B = {x∣x ∈ A or x ∈ B}
Example: {1, 2} ∪ {2, 3} = {1, 2, 3}

2. Intersection (A ∩ B ):
The set of all elements common to A and B .
A ∩ B = {x∣x ∈ A and x ∈ B}
Example: {1, 2} ∩ {2, 3} = {2}

3. Difference (A − B ):
The set of elements in A but not in B .
A − B = {x∣x ∈ A and x ∈ / B}
Example: {1, 2, 3} − {2, 3} = {1}

4. Complement (Ac ):
The set of all elements not in A (relative to U ).
Ac = {x∣x ∈
/ A}

2. Relations and Their Representation

Definition of a Relation

A relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of the Cartesian product A × B . If (a, b) ∈

R, then a is related to b.
Example: Let A = {1, 2}, B = {x, y}, and R = {(1, x), (2, y)}.

Properties of Relations

1. Reflexive: ∀a
∈ A, (a, a) ∈ R.
Example: R = {(1, 1), (2, 2)}

2. Symmetric: If (a, b)
∈ R, then (b, a) ∈ R.
Example: R = {(1, 2), (2, 1)}

3. Transitive: If (a, b)
∈ R and (b, c) ∈ R, then (a, c) ∈ R.
Example: R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)}

4. Anti-Symmetric: If (a, b)
∈ R and (b, a) ∈ R, then a = b.
Example: R = {(1, 1), (2, 2)}

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3. Equivalence Relations
A relation R on a set A is an equivalence relation if it is:

1. Reflexive

2. Symmetric

3. Transitive

Example:

Let A = {1, 2, 3}, and R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1)}.
R is an equivalence relation because it satisfies all three properties.

Equivalence Classes

Given an equivalence relation R, the equivalence class of an element a is:

[a] = {x ∈ A∣(a, x) ∈ R}

4. Partially Ordered Sets (Posets)

Definition

A partially ordered set (poset) is a set P equipped with a binary relation ≤ that is:

1. Reflexive

2. Anti-symmetric

3. Transitive

Example:

Let P = {1, 2, 3} with ≤ defined as divisibility:

1 ≤ 2, 1 ≤ 3, 2 ≤ 3.
(P , ≤) is a poset.

Hasse Diagram

A graphical representation of a poset where:

1. Elements are represented as vertices.

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 2. Edges represent the partial order without showing reflexive pairs or transitive relations
explicitly.

Example:
For P = {1, 2, 4} with divisibility, the Hasse diagram shows 1 → 2 → 4.

Practice Questions
1. Prove whether the relation R = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (1, 3)} is transitive.
2. Draw the Hasse diagram for P = {1, 2, 3, 6} with divisibility as the order.
3. If A = {1, 2, 3} and R = {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3), (1, 2), (2, 1)}, verify if R is an
equivalence relation.

Should I proceed to Counting, Mathematical Induction, and Discrete Probability, or would

you like further clarification here?

COUNTING, MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION, AND DISCRETE PROBABILITY

1. Basics of Counting

Counting Principle

1. Addition Rule: If a task can be done in m ways and another independent task in n ways,
then either of the two tasks can be done in m + n ways.

Example: If you have 3 types of shirts and 4 types of pants, you can wear either a
shirt or pants in 3 + 4 = 7 ways.
2. Multiplication Rule: If a task can be done in m ways and another task can be done in n
ways after the first task, then both tasks together can be done in m × n ways.

Example: Choosing 3 shirts and pairing with 4 pants: 3 × 4 = 12.

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2. Pigeonhole Principle

Definition

If n items are placed into m containers, where n > m, then at least one container must
contain more than one item.

Example: If you have 5 socks and only 4 drawers, at least one drawer must contain at
least 2 socks.

Generalized Pigeonhole Principle

If n items are placed into m containers, at least one container holds at least ⌈n/m⌉ items.

3. Permutations and Combinations

Permutations (Ordered arrangements)

The number of ways to arrange n distinct items in r positions:

n!
P (n, r) = (n−r)!
​

3!
Example: Arranging 3 letters A, B, C in 2 positions: P (3, 2) = (3−2)!
​ = 6.

Combinations (Unordered selections)

The number of ways to choose r items from n distinct items:

C(n, r) = n!
r!(n−r)!
​

Example: Choosing 2 letters from A, B, C :

3!
C(3, 2) = 2!(3−2)!
​ = 3.

4. Inclusion-Exclusion Principle

Definition

For two finite sets A and B :

∣A ∪ B∣ = ∣A∣ + ∣B∣ − ∣A ∩ B∣
For three finite sets A, B, C :
∣A ∪ B ∪ C∣ = ∣A∣ + ∣B∣ + ∣C∣ − ∣A ∩ B∣ − ∣B ∩ C∣ − ∣C ∩ A∣ + ∣A ∩ B ∩ C∣

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 Example: If ∣A∣
= 10, ∣B∣ = 8, ∣A ∩ B∣ = 3:
∣A ∪ B∣ = 10 + 8 − 3 = 15.

5. Mathematical Induction

Principle of Mathematical Induction

To prove a statement P (n) for all n ≥ 1:

1. Base Case: Show P (1) is true.

2. Inductive Step: Assume P (k) is true. Prove P (k + 1) is true.

n(n+1)
Example: Prove 1 + 2 + ⋯ + n = 2
: ​

1(1+1)
1. Base Case: n = 1, LHS = 1, RHS = 2
​ = 1. True.
2. Inductive Step: Assume 1 + 2 + ⋯ + k = k(k+1)
2
.
​

For k+ 1:
k(k+1) (k+1)(k+2)
1 + 2 + ⋯ + k + (k + 1) = 2
​ + (k + 1) = 2
​. True.

6. Probability

Basic Terms

1. Experiment: Any process that results in outcomes (e.g., rolling a die).

2. Sample Space (S ): The set of all possible outcomes.

S = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} for a die.
3. Event: A subset of the sample space.
Example: Event A: Rolling an even number {2, 4, 6}.

Probability Formula
∣A∣
P (A) = ∣S∣
​

Example: Probability of rolling a 4: P (4) = 16 . ​

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7. Bayes’ Theorem

Formula

Bayes' theorem calculates conditional probability:

P (B∣A)⋅P (A)
P (A∣B) = P (B)
​

Where:

P (A∣B): Probability of A given B .

P (B∣A): Probability of B given A.
P (A): Prior probability of A.
P (B): Prior probability of B .

Example

A factory has 60% of items from Machine A (90% are good) and 40% from Machine B (80%
are good). Find the probability that a good item came from Machine A.

Let A: Item from Machine A, B : Good item.

P (A) = 0.6, P (B∣A) = 0.9

P (B∣B ′ ) = 0.8, P (B) = P (B∣A)P (A) + P (B∣B ′ )P (B ′ ) = 0.9 ⋅ 0.6 + 0.8 ⋅ 0.4 =
0.86.

P (B∣A)⋅P (A) 0.9⋅0.6

P (A∣B) = P (B)
​
= 0.86
​ ≈ 0.6279.

Practice Questions
1. How many ways can 5 people be seated in a row if two specific people must sit next to
each other?

2. Prove by induction: 12 + 22 + ⋯ + n2 = n(n+1)(2n+1)

6
.
​

3. Using Bayes' theorem, calculate the probability that a randomly chosen black card from
a deck is a spade.

Let me know if you’d like clarification on any concept or proceed to Group Theory!

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Thank you! I’ll provide comprehensive notes on each topic to aid your preparation. Let’s start
with Group Theory, followed by Graph Theory, Boolean Algebra, and Optimization.

GROUP THEORY

1. Groups

Definition

A group G is a set with a binary operation (∗) satisfying:

1. Closure: ∀a, b ∈ G, a ∗ b ∈ G.
2. Associativity: ∀a, b, c ∈ G, (a ∗ b) ∗ c = a ∗ (b ∗ c).
3. Identity Element: ∃e ∈ G such that ∀a ∈ G, a ∗ e = e ∗ a = a.
4. Inverse Element: ∀a ∈ G, ∃a−1 ∈ G such that a ∗ a−1 = a−1 ∗ a = e.

Examples

1. Z (integers) under addition is a group.

2. R ∖ {0} (non-zero reals) under multiplication is a group.

2. Subgroups

A subset H ⊆ G is a subgroup of G if:

1. H is non-empty.
2. H is closed under the group operation.
3. H contains inverses of its elements.

Example:

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 G = Z, H = 2Z (even integers) is a subgroup under addition.

3. Semi Groups

Definition

A semi-group is a set S with an associative binary operation. It need not have an identity or
inverses.
Example:
(N, ⋅): Natural numbers under multiplication.

4. Product and Quotients of Algebraic Structures

Product:
For groups G1 and G2 , their direct product G1
​ ​ ​ × G2 is a group with operation (a, b) ∗
​

(c, d) = (a ∗ c, b ∗ d).
Example:
(Z, +) × (Z, +).
Quotient Groups:
If H is a normal subgroup of G, the set of cosets G/H forms a group under the
operation (aH) ∗ (bH) = (ab)H .

5. Isomorphism

Two groups G and H are isomorphic (G ≅ H ) if there exists a bijective function ϕ : G → H

such that:
ϕ(a ∗ b) = ϕ(a) ⋅ ϕ(b) ∀a, b ∈ G.
Example: (Z, +) ≅ (2Z, +).

6. Homomorphism

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A map ϕ : G → H is a homomorphism if:
ϕ(a ∗ b) = ϕ(a) ⋅ ϕ(b).
Example: ϕ : (Z, +) → (Z, +), where ϕ(x) = 2x, is a homomorphism.

7. Automorphism

An automorphism is an isomorphism from a group G to itself.

Example: ϕ : Z6 → Z6 defined by ϕ(x) = 2x mod 6 is an automorphism.
​ ​

8. Rings

Definition

A ring is a set R with two binary operations (+, ⋅) such that:

1. R is an abelian group under addition.

2. R is a semi-group under multiplication.
3. Multiplication is distributive over addition.
a ⋅ (b + c) = a ⋅ b + a ⋅ c.

Examples:

Z, Q, R.

9. Integral Domain Fields

Integral Domain: A commutative ring with no zero divisors (a ⋅ b =0 ⟹ a=

0 or b = 0).
Example: Z.

Field: A commutative ring where every non-zero element has a multiplicative inverse.
Example: Q, R.

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10. Applications of Group Theory

1. Cryptography: RSA and elliptic curve cryptography use group properties.

2. Physics: Symmetry in molecules and crystal structures.

3. Coding Theory: Error detection and correction codes.

4. Computer Graphics: Transformations and rotations.

Would you like to continue with Graph Theory next?

GRAPH THEORY

1. Simple Graph

Definition

A simple graph G = (V , E) consists of:

1. V : A finite set of vertices.
2. E : A finite set of edges, where each edge connects two distinct vertices.

Example:

V = {A, B, C}, E = {(A, B), (B, C)}.

Key Properties:

No self-loops (edges from a vertex to itself).

No multiple edges between two vertices.

2. Multigraph

Definition

A multigraph allows multiple edges (parallel edges) between the same pair of vertices and
can have self-loops.

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Example:

V = {A, B}, E = {(A, B), (A, B), (A, A)}.

3. Weighted Graph

Definition

A weighted graph assigns a weight (numerical value) to each edge. Weights can represent
distances, costs, or capacities.

Example:

G = (V , E, W ), where W : E → R.

4. Paths and Circuits

Path: A sequence of vertices where each adjacent pair is connected by an edge.

Example: A → B → C.
Circuit: A path that starts and ends at the same vertex.

5. Shortest Paths in Weighted Graphs

Algorithms:

1. Dijkstra's Algorithm: Finds the shortest path from a source vertex to all others.

Works for graphs with non-negative weights.

2. Bellman-Ford Algorithm: Handles graphs with negative weights but detects negative
cycles.

6. Eulerian Paths and Circuits

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Eulerian Path

A path that traverses each edge exactly once.

Exists if exactly 0 or 2 vertices have odd degrees.

Eulerian Circuit

An Eulerian path that starts and ends at the same vertex.

Exists if all vertices have even degrees.

7. Hamiltonian Paths and Circuits

Hamiltonian Path

A path that visits each vertex exactly once.

Hamiltonian Circuit

A Hamiltonian path that starts and ends at the same vertex.

Key Difference: Eulerian paths focus on edges; Hamiltonian paths focus on vertices.

8. Planar Graphs and Graph Coloring

Planar Graph

A graph that can be drawn on a plane without edges crossing.

Euler's Formula: V − E + F = 2, where F is the number of faces.

Graph Coloring

Assign colors to vertices such that no two adjacent vertices share the same color.

Chromatic Number (χ(G)): Minimum number of colors needed.

9. Bipartite Graphs

Definition

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A graph whose vertices can be divided into two disjoint sets U and V such that every edge
connects a vertex in U to a vertex in V .

Key Test: A graph is bipartite if it contains no odd-length cycles.

10. Trees and Rooted Trees

Tree

A connected graph with no cycles.

Properties:

1. A tree with n vertices has n − 1 edges.

2. Any two vertices are connected by exactly one path.

Rooted Tree

A tree with a designated root vertex.

Parent, child, and leaf relationships are defined.

11. Prefix Codes

Definition

A set of binary codes where no code is a prefix of another.

Used in data compression (e.g., Huffman coding).

12. Tree Traversals

1. Preorder Traversal: Visit root, then left subtree, then right subtree.

2. Inorder Traversal: Visit left subtree, then root, then right subtree.

3. Postorder Traversal: Visit left subtree, then right subtree, then root.

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13. Spanning Trees and Cut-Sets

Spanning Tree

A subgraph that includes all vertices of the graph with the minimum number of edges,
forming a tree.

Cut-Set

A set of edges that, if removed, increases the number of connected components in the
graph.

Key Algorithms

1. Kruskal's Algorithm: Finds the minimum spanning tree by adding edges in increasing
weight order without forming cycles.

2. Prim's Algorithm: Builds the spanning tree by starting from a vertex and adding the
smallest edge connecting the tree to another vertex.

Practice Questions

1. Prove that a tree with n vertices has n − 1 edges.

2. Find the minimum spanning tree using Prim’s algorithm for a given weighted graph.

3. Determine if the given graph is bipartite.

Would you like to proceed with Boolean Algebra or continue with any subtopics here?

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA

1. Boolean Functions and Their Representation

Definition

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Boolean algebra deals with binary variables and logic operations. It is a mathematical
structure used in digital electronics, computer science, and set theory.

Basic Operations

1. AND (⋅):
A ⋅ B = 1 if both A and B are 1, else 0.
Truth Table:

A B A⋅B
0 0 0

0 1 0

1 0 0

1 1 1

2. OR (+):
A + B = 1 if either A or B is 1, else 0.
3. NOT (A):
A = 1 if A = 0, else A = 0.

Representation of Boolean Functions

1. Truth Tables:
A tabular representation of all possible input combinations and corresponding output
values.

2. Algebraic Expression:
Boolean functions are expressed using ⋅, +, and .
Example: F (A, B) = A ⋅ B + B.
3. Canonical Forms:

Sum of Products (SOP): F = A ⋅ B + A ⋅ B.

Product of Sums (POS): F = (A + B) ⋅ (A + B ).

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2. Simplifications of Boolean Functions

Rules and Properties

1. Idempotent Laws: A + A = A, A ⋅ A = A.
2. Null Laws: A + 0 = A, A ⋅ 1 = A.
3. Dominance Laws: A + 1 = 1, A ⋅ 0 = 0.
4. Complement Laws: A + A = 1, A ⋅ A = 0.
5. Distributive Laws: A ⋅ (B + C) = A ⋅ B + A ⋅ C .

Simplification Techniques

1. Algebraic Manipulation:
Apply Boolean laws to reduce expressions.
= A ⋅ B + A ⋅ B:
Example: Simplify F
F = A ⋅ (B + B ) = A ⋅ 1 = A.
2. Karnaugh Maps (K-Maps):
A graphical method to simplify Boolean expressions.

Group adjacent 1s to minimize terms.

Combine using SOP or POS form.

Example:
Simplify F= A ⋅ B + A ⋅ B + A ⋅ B:
Using K-map, F = A + B.

3. Quine-McCluskey Method:
Tabular method for systematic simplification. Useful for larger functions.

Applications of Boolean Algebra

1. Digital Circuit Design:

Used to design logic gates like AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, etc.

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 2. Error Detection and Correction:
Boolean expressions are critical in creating parity bits and checksums.

3. Search Algorithms:
Boolean logic optimizes database queries and search operations.

Practice Questions

1. Simplify F = A ⋅ B + A ⋅ (B + C).
2. Draw a K-map for F = A ⋅ B + B ⋅ C + A ⋅ C and simplify.
3. Prove using Boolean algebra: (A ⋅ B) ​ = A + B.

Would you like to proceed with Optimization next?

OPTIMIZATION
Optimization involves finding the best solution to a problem, often under constraints. It is
widely applied in mathematics, operations research, computer science, and engineering.

1. Linear Programming - Mathematical Model

Definition

Linear programming (LP) deals with optimizing a linear objective function subject to a set of
linear constraints.

Standard Form:
Maximize or Minimize:
Z = c 1 x1 + c 2 x2 + ⋯ + c n xn
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

Subject to:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ⋯ + a1n xn ≤ b1 ,
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​

x1 , x2 , … , xn ≥ 0.
​ ​ ​

Example

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Maximize: Z = 3x1 + 5x2
​ ​

Subject to:
x1 + 2x2 ≤ 6,
​ ​

3x1 + 2x2 ≤ 12,

​ ​

x1 , x2 ≥ 0.
​ ​

2. Graphical Solution

Steps:

1. Plot the constraints on a graph.

2. Identify the feasible region (area satisfying all constraints).

3. Evaluate the objective function at each vertex of the feasible region.

4. The vertex with the optimal value is the solution.

3. Simplex and Dual Simplex Method

Simplex Method

A tabular method to solve LP problems. It involves:

1. Identifying a basic feasible solution.

2. Iteratively improving the solution by pivoting until optimality is reached.

Dual Simplex Method

Used when the solution violates constraints but satisfies optimality conditions. It resolves
infeasibilities iteratively.

4. Sensitivity Analysis

Definition

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Studies the effect of changes in coefficients of the objective function or constraints on the
optimal solution.

Key Metrics:

Allowable increase or decrease in objective function coefficients.

Shadow price: Change in the objective value per unit change in a constraint's right-hand
side.

5. Integer Programming

Definition

A special type of LP where some or all decision variables are restricted to integer values.

Applications:

Resource allocation problems.

Scheduling.

6. Transportation and Assignment Models

Transportation Problem

Optimizes the cost of transporting goods from sources to destinations while satisfying
supply and demand constraints.

Assignment Problem

Assigns resources (e.g., workers to jobs) to minimize cost or maximize efficiency.

Example:
Assign 3 workers to 3 tasks with varying costs while ensuring each task is assigned to one
worker.

7. PERT-CPM: Diagram Representation

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PERT (Program Evaluation and Review Technique)

Used to manage uncertain project durations.

Nodes represent events; edges represent activities.

Calculates expected time using:

Optimistic Time+4(Most Likely Time)+Pessimistic Time
Expected Time = 6
​.

CPM (Critical Path Method)

Determines the longest path (critical path) in a project to identify the minimum completion
time.

8. Critical Path Calculations

Steps:

1. Identify all paths from the start to the end node.

2. Calculate the duration of each path.

3. The critical path is the one with the maximum duration.

9. Resource Levelling

Definition

Redistributes project resources (e.g., manpower, machines) to avoid peaks and troughs,
ensuring consistent utilization.

10. Cost Consideration in Project Scheduling

Time-Cost Tradeoff

Reduces project duration by increasing costs (e.g., overtime work). Determines the optimal
balance between project cost and time.

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Practice Questions

1. Solve the following LP problem using the graphical method:

Maximize Z = 5x1 + 4x2 , subject to:
​ ​

x1 + x2 ≤ 8, x1 ≤ 6, x1 , x2 ≥ 0.
​ ​ ​ ​ ​

2. Calculate the critical path for the given project:

A → B(3), B → C(2), A → D(4), D → C(1).
3. Formulate the transportation problem for 3 warehouses supplying 4 markets.

These notes cover Group Theory, Graph Theory, Boolean Algebra, and Optimization
comprehensively. Let me know if you'd like further explanation or practice problems for any
topic!

MATHEMATICAL LOGIC
Mathematical logic provides the foundation for reasoning, helping to validate or refute
statements systematically.

1. Propositional and Predicate Logic

Propositional Logic

Definition

Propositional logic deals with propositions that are either true or false.

Proposition: A declarative statement.

Example:

"It is raining." (P )

"It is sunny." (Q)

Logical Connectives

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 1. Negation (¬P ): The opposite of proposition P .

2. Conjunction (P ∧ Q): True if both P and Q are true.

3. Disjunction (P ∨ Q): True if at least one of P or Q is true.
4. Implication (P → Q): P → Q is false only if P is true and Q is false.
5. Biconditional (P ↔ Q): True if P and Q have the same truth value.

Truth Table Example for P → Q:

P Q P →Q
T T T

T F F

F T T

F F T

Predicate Logic

Definition

Predicate logic extends propositional logic by dealing with predicates and quantifiers.

Predicate: A statement with variables that becomes a proposition when specific values
are substituted.
Example: P (x) : x > 5.
Domain: The set of values the variables can take.

Quantifiers

1. Universal Quantifier (∀): "For all."

Example: ∀x P (x): P (x) is true for all x in the domain.

2. Existential Quantifier (∃): "There exists."

Example: ∃x P (x): There exists at least one x such that P (x) is true.

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2. Propositional Equivalences
Logical equivalences help simplify or transform logical expressions.

Common Equivalences

1. Identity Laws:
P ∨ F = P, P ∧ T = P.
2. Domination Laws:
P ∨ T = T, P ∧ F = F.
3. Idempotent Laws:
P ∨ P = P, P ∧ P = P.
4. Double Negation:
¬(¬P ) = P .
5. De Morgan’s Laws:
¬(P ∧ Q) = ¬P ∨ ¬Q,
¬(P ∨ Q) = ¬P ∧ ¬Q.

Example Problem: Simplify ¬(P

∨ Q) ∧ R using De Morgan’s laws:
¬(P ∨ Q) ∧ R = (¬P ∧ ¬Q) ∧ R.

3. Normal Forms

Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF)

A logical formula expressed as a conjunction (∧) of disjunctions (∨):

Example: (P ∨ Q) ∧ (¬P ∨ R).

Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF)

A logical formula expressed as a disjunction (∨) of conjunctions (∧):

Example: (P ∧ Q) ∨ (¬P ∧ R).

4. Predicates and Quantifiers

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Example

Predicate: P (x) : x ≥ 18.

∀x P (x): "All x are 18 or older."
∃x P (x): "There exists an x who is 18 or older."

Negation of Quantifiers

¬(∀x P (x)) = ∃x ¬P (x).

¬(∃x P (x)) = ∀x ¬P (x).

5. Nested Quantifiers
Definition

Quantifiers can be nested to create complex logical statements.

Example:
∀x ∃y P (x, y): For every x, there exists a y such that P (x, y) is true.

6. Rules of Inference
Rules of inference allow valid arguments to be made from premises.

Common Rules

1. Modus Ponens:
P → Q, P ⟹ Q.
2. Modus Tollens:
P → Q, ¬Q ⟹ ¬P .
3. Disjunctive Syllogism:
P ∨ Q, ¬P ⟹ Q.
4. Hypothetical Syllogism:
P → Q, Q → R ⟹ P → R.

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Practice Problems
1. Simplify the logical expression: ¬(∀x P (x)).

2. Show the equivalence: ¬(P ∧ Q) = ¬P ∨ ¬Q.

3. Determine if ∀x P (x) → Q(x) implies ∃x P (x) → ∃x Q(x).

Let me know if you'd like explanations or examples for any specific subtopic!

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