5 ” ES 2 Ww 52a ala Ind zz2w Ows sez aa~ 252 925 a2 =e = ow aed C NEET SYLLABUS Physical World Physical Quantities Units of Physical Quantities Classification of Units Dimensions Rounding off Orderof Magnitude ‘Accuracy and Precision Enrors Representation of Errors Propagation of Errors Exercise-I (Conceptual Questions) Exercise-II (Previous Years Questions) Exercise-III (Analytical Questions) x s Exercise-IV (Assertion & Reason) Appendix (I Prefixes, General Guidelines in SI system, Dimensional formulae of Physical quantities, ‘Some Important Conversion factors, Sets of quantities having same dimensions) Numerical Constants (Fundamental & other useful constants) 2 ~ N ‘Scope and excitement, Nature of physical laws, Physics, technology and society. Need for measurement : Units of measurement , Systems of units, SI units, fundamental and derived units Length, mass and time measurements, precision of measuring instruments, Errors in measurement Accuracy Significant figures. Dimensions of physical quantities, dimensional analysis and its applications.PHYSICAL WORLD, UNITS AND DIMENSIONS & ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS 1. PHYSICAL WORLD ‘+ The Word science originates from the Latin verb scientia meaning “to know” + The Sanskrit word ‘Vinan’ and Arabic word ‘im’ convey similar meaning namely ‘knowledge’ 1.1. Scientific Method ‘A systematic attempt to understand natural phenomena in as much detail and depth as possible and use the knowledge so gained to predict, modify and control phenomena. ‘The scientific method involves several inter connected steps :~ () Systematic observations (i) Controlled experiments (ii) Qualitative and quantitative reasoning (iv) Mathematical modelling (w Prediction and (i) Verification or falsification of theories ‘Physics comes from a Greek word “Fusis” meaning nature. 1.2. Unification To explain diverse physical phenomena in terms of a few concepts and laws. The effort to see the physical world as manifestation of some universal laws in different domains and conditions called unification. Example :- The attempts to unify fundamental forces in nature Progress in unification of different forces/ domains in nature ‘Name of the physicist Year Achievement in unification [Unified celestial and terrestrial mechanics: showed that Isaac Newton 1687 _|the same laws of motion and the law of gravitation apply to both the domains. [Hans Christian Oersted | 1820 Showed that electric and magnetic phenomena are Michael Faraday 1830 _ inseparable aspects of a unified domain : electromagnetism Unified electricity, magnetism and optics: showed that light isan] James Clerk Maxwell 1873 | cctomnagnetic wave [Sheldon Glashow, |Showed that the ‘weal nuclear force and the electromagnetic |Abdus Salam, 1979 force could be viewed as different aspects of a single Steven Weinberg electro-weak force [Carlo Rubia, 1984 _ |Vetifed experimentally the predictions ofthe theory of [Simon Vander Meet electro-weak force 1.3. Reductionism A related effort isto derive the properties of bigger, mote complex, system from properties and interaction of its constituent simpler partis called reductionism. 1.4 Scope and Excitement of Physics ( Macroscopic : Macroscopic domain includes phenomena at the laboratory, terrestrial and astronomical scales. These phenomena are studied in “classical Physics” which includes mechanics, thermodynamics, optics and electrodynamics. The microscopic domain includes atomic, molecular and nuclear phenomena, These phenomena are governed by “Quantum Physics”. Range of length > 10-%m to 10%n Range of mass ~> 10° kg to 10 kg Range of time -> 10s to 108s Terrestrial phenomena lie somewhere in middle of the above range. il) MicroscopicPre-Medical summarized in a single sentence or equation. Einstein put it well when he remarked that “The most incomprehensible thing about the universe is that it is comprehensible” “No number of experiments can prove me right, a single experiment can prove me wrong” ‘SOME PHYSICISTS FROM DIFFERENT COUNTRIES OF THE WORLD AND THEIR MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS The basic laws are simple and universal. It is a source of wonder that such vast realms of experience can be interactions Name Major contribution/discovery Country of Origin ‘Archimedes Principle of buoyancy, Greece Galileo Galil Law of inertia Ttaly Chiistian Huygens _| Wave theory of light Holland Isaac Newton Universal law of gravitation, Laws of UK motion, Reflecting telescope Michael Faraday Laws of electromagnetic induction UK James Clerk Maxwell | Electromagnetic theory, Lightan UK electromagnetic wave Heinrich Rudolf Hertz | Generation of electromagnetic waves Germany IC. Bose Uitra short radio waves India W.K. Roentgen X-rays (Germany J.J. Thomson Electron UK. Maric Sklodowska Curie] Discovery of radium and polonium, Studies | Poland Jon natural radioactivity ‘Albert Einstein Explanation of photoelectric effect Germany Theory of relativity Victor Francis Hess | Cosmic radiation ‘Austria RA. Milikan Measurement of electronic charge USA. Emest Rutherford Nuclear model of atom New Zealand Niels Bohr Quantum model of hydrogen atom Denmark CV. Raman Inelastic scattering of light by molecules _| India Louis Vietor de Broglie_| Wave nature of matter France MN, Saha Thermal ionisation india SIN. Bose ‘Quantum statistics india Wolfgang Paull Exclusion principle ‘Austria Enrico Fermi Controlled nuclear fission Ttaly ‘Wamer Heisenberg | Quantum mechanics, Uncertainty principle _| Germany Paul Dirac Relativistic theory of electron: UK [Quantum statistics Edwin Hubble Expanding universe USA Emest Orlando Cyclotron USA Lawrence James Chadwick Neutron UK Hideki Yukawa Theory of nuclear forces Japan Homi Jehangir Bhabha | Cascade process of cosmic radiation Tndia Lev Davidovich Landau] Theory of condensed matter: Liquid helium | Russia S. Chandrasekhar Chandrasekhar limit, structure and india levolution_of stars ‘John Bardeen ‘Transistors: Theory of super conductivity | U.S.A. CH. Townes Maser, Laser USA. ‘Abdus Salam Unification of weak and electromagnetic | Pakistan Fz ancoen sane a\tancer rir ODE. 01\ENO\EZ-INICAL WORDIOL-THEOIRE 3TM a \wcomra\oxc wi tatoennWOOe NENCIUE ATCA WORD\DL-HEORY AS scot Wane AARC ODEO ENG\SA AMIENS WORD THORENS 15 LINK BETWEEN TECHNOLOGY AND PHYSICS Technology Scientific principle(s) [Steam engine Laws of thermodynamics [Nuclear reactor [Controlled nuclear fission Radio and Television |Generation, propagation and detection of electromagnetic waves [Computers Digital logic Lasers Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation] Production of ultra high magnetic fields |Superconductivity Rocket propulsion [Newton's laws of motion Electric generator Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction Hiydroelectric power [Conversion of gravitational potential energy into electrical energy [Aeroplane [Bernoullis principle in fluid dynamics Particle accelerators [Motion of charged particles in electromagnetic fields [Sonar Reflection of ultrasonic waves (Optical fibres [Total intemal reflection of light [Non-teflecting coatings [Thin film optical interference Electron microscope Wave nature of electrons Photocell Photoelectric effect Fusion test reactor (Tokamak) [Magnetic confinement of plasma (Giant Metrewave Radio Detection of cosmic radio waves {Telescope (GMRT) Bose-Einstein condensate [Trapping and cooling of atoms by laser beams jand magnetic fields Fundamental forces in Nature Few fundamental forces in nature are :~ Gravitational Force Gravitational force is weakest force in nature Itis the force of mutual attraction between any two objects by virtue of their masses It is a universal force. It plays a key role in the large scale phenomena of universe such as formation and evolution of stars, galaxies and galactic clusters + The gravitational force is appreciable only when at least one of the two bodies has a large mass. «They are always attractive in nature. Electromagnetic Force + Electromagnetic force is the force between charge particles. When charges are at rest, the force is given by coulomb’s law. ‘When charges are in motion, they produce magnetic field giving rise to a force on a moving charge. Electric and magnetic effects are in general inseparable; hence the name electromagnetic force. Like the gravitational force, electromagnetic force act over large distances and does not need any intervening medium. * _ Itis quite strong compared to gravity. + For example electric force between two protons is 10% times the gravitational force between them, for a certain distance. + They are attractive as well as repulsive in nature, ‘Strong Nuclear Force + The strong nuclear force binds protons and neutrons in a nucleus. It is evident that without some attractive force, a nucleus will be unstable due to electric repulsion between protons. ‘The strong nuclear force is the strongest of all fundamental forces. «tis charge independent. ‘* _ Itis equal for protons and neutrons.Pre-Medical + It’srange is extremly small of the order nuclear dimensions (10° m) + Itisresponsible for the stability of nuclei. + Recent developments have however indicated that protons and neutrons are composed of stil more elementry constituents called quarks. Weak nuclear force + The weak nuclear force appears only in certain nuclear processe B-decay of a nucleus. + In B-decay the nucleus emits an electron and an uncharged particle called anti-neutrino.. + The weak nuclear force is not as weak as the gravitational force but much weaker than strong nuclear force. + The range of weak nuclear fore is exceedingly small of the order 10"! m Fundamental force of nature ‘Name Relative Range Operates among _| Mediating strength particle (Gravitational force 10° infinite [All objects in the universe [Graviton |Work nuclear force |} |Very short, Sub- |Some elementary particles, [BOSON Inuclear lparticularly electron and size (~107"° m) [antineutrino [Electromagnetic 102 Infinite |Charged particles |Photon |Strong nuclear force |1 [Short nuclear size |Nucleons, heavier |Gluon -10-"° m) lelementary particles 1.6 Nature of Physical Laws Law of Physics is a statement in word form or in equation form that summarises the result of experiments and observation for a certain range of physical phenomena. * Alaw can not be proved. * Anew development in Physics may extend the range of validity of a law. + They exists in simple form. 1.7 Conservation laws ‘Some physical quantities that remain conserved (constant), are called conserved quantities. The law governing the conservation quantity in a process is called conservation law. ‘Some basic conservation laws are as follows + Law of conservation of energy : Total energy of a system remains conserved. + Lawof conservation of charge : Total charge of an isolated system remains conserved ‘+ Law of conservation of linear momentum : In absence of external force, Linear momentum of a system remains conserved + Law of conservation of angular momentum : In absence of external Torque, Angular momentum of a system remains conserved. 2. UNITS AND DIMENSIONS. 2.1 Physical Quantities Allthe quantities which are used to describe the laws of physics are known as physical quantities. Classification : Physical quantities can be classified on the following basis : 1. Based on their directional properties 1. Scalars : The physical quantities which have only magnitude but no direction are called scalar quantities. e.g. mass, density, volume, time, ete. IL Vectors : The physical quantities which have both magnitude and direction and obey laws of vector algebra are called vector quantities. e.g. displacement, force, velocity, etc. 2. Based on their dependency L_ Fundamental or base quantities : The quantities which do not depend upon other quantities for their complete definition are known as fundamental or base quantities. e.g. length, mass, time, etc. IL Derived quantities : The quantities which can be expressed in terms of the fundamental quantities are known as derived quantities. e.g. Speed (=distance/time), volume, accelaration, force, pressure, etc. FA seoeoz onc wn tancet ner coe o1\ENGNOa RAPA. WORD\O! THEORY FS{cot BOAG ANTARGESM NODE ONNENEGE PCL WOREND-HEOHY IS Physics GOLDEN KEY POINTS © Physical quantities can also be classified as dimensional or dimensionless and constant or variable. © Some physical quantities can not be completely specified even by specifying their magnitude, unit and direction. These quantities are called tensors. e.g. Moment of Inertia. Illustrations Illustration 1. Classify the quantities displacement, mass, force, time, speed, velocity, accelaration, pressure and work under the following categories (a) base and scalar (b) base and vector (c) derived and scalar (d) derived and vector ‘Solution. (@) mass, time (0) displacement (c) speed, pressure, work (d) force, velocity, acceleration 2.2 Units of Physical Quantities The chosen reference standard of measurement in multiples of which, a physical quantity is expressed is called the unit of that quantity System of Units : @ _ FPS orBritish Engineering system - In this system length, mass and time are taken as fundamental uantities and their base units are foot (t), pound (b) and second (6) respectively (i) CGS or Gaussian system : In this system the fundamental quantities are length, mass and time and their respective units are centimetre (cm), gram (g) and secon (5). (iil) MKS system : In this system also the fundamental quantities are length, mass and time and their fundamental units are metre (rr), kilogram (kg) and second (3) respectively (iv) _ International system (SI) of units : This system is modification of the MKS system and so itis also known as Rationalised MKS system, Besides the three base units of MKS system four fundamental and two supplementary units are also included in this system. ‘SI BASE QUANTITIES AND THEIR UNITS S. No. Physical quantity Unit _| Symbol 1 Length metre m 2_| Mass kilogram] kg 3 Time second s 4 | Temperature kelvin K 5 Electric current ampere A © | Luminous intensity candela} od 7 Amount of substance mole mol While defining a base unit or standard for a physical quantity the following characteristics must be considered () Well defined (i) Invariabilty (constancy) (ii) Accessiblity (easy availability) (iy)_-Reproducibilty () Convenience in use a7Pre-Medical 2.3. Classification of Units ARENT The units of physical quantities can be classified as follows (@) Fundamental or base units : The units of fundamental quantities are called base units. In SI there are seven base units. (ii) Derived units : The units of derived quantities or the units that can be expressed in terms of the base units are called derived units. mit of distance _ metre _ unit of time second ‘Some derived units are named in honour of great scientists. eg, unit of force - newton (N), unit of frequency - hertz (H), ete eg, unit of speed= m/s (ii) Supplementary units : in Intemational System (SI of units two supplementary unitsare also defined viz radian (rad) for plane angle and steradian (st) for solid angle «radian : 1 radian is the angle subtended atthe centre of a circle by an arc equal in length to the radius of the circle. «© steradian : 1 steradian isthe solid angle subtended at the centre of a sphere, by that surface of the sphere which is equal in area to the square of the radius of the sphere. (iv) Practical units : Due to the fixed sizes of SI units, some practical units are also defined for both fundamental and derived quantities. e.g. light year (Wy) is a practical unit of distance (a fundamental quantity) and horse power (hp) isa practical unit of power (a derived quantity). Practical units may or may not belong to a particular system of units but can be expressed in any system of units eg. 1 mile = 1.6km = 1.6 x 10°m= 1.6 x 10° cm. (%) Improper units : These are the units which are not ofthe same nature as that of the physical quantities for which they are used. e.g. kg - wt is an improper unit of weight. Here kg is a unit of mass but itis used to ‘measure the weight (force) UNITS OF SOME PHYSICAL QUANTITIES IN DIFFERENT SYSTEMS Type of | Physical oe MKS FPS Physical | Quantity | (Originated in | (Originated in | (Originate Quantity France) France) Britain) Length em m ft Fundamental [Mass @ ig 1 Time s s 5 Force dine newion (N) poundal Derived | Wetkor erg joule (J) ft poundal Energy Power ergs wait (W) t- poundals Conversion factors To convert a physical quantity from one set of units to the other, the required multiplication factor is called conversion factor. ‘Magnitude of a physical quantity = numeric value (n) x unit (u) While converting from one set of units to other, the magnitude of the quantity must remain same. Therefore 1 nu, = nu, or nu=constant or noc — u Thatis the numeric value of a physical quantity is inversely proportional to the unit eg. Im= 100cm= 3.28ft= 39.4inch (sb (CGS) (FPS) IMD: xyecoroz sons an\tAnceT ner MODE. ENCLORPHISICAL WORD THEORY NS Im {enc ansanermr wonton ea MCA WORD MRSIV 2 coroz osc stascener WoOeOENO\OR RATECAL WORD\O-THEOR AS Physics Illustrations Illustration 2. ‘The acceleration due to gravity is 9.8 m/s*. Give its value in ft/s* Solution As Im = 3.2 ft 9.8 m/s? = 9.8 x 3.28 ft/s? = 32.14 ft/s? ~ 32 ft/s? BEGINNER'S BOX-1 1, The value of Gravitational constant G in MKS system is 6.67 x 10" N-m?/kg? . What will be its value in CGS system? 2. Match the type of unit (column A) with its corresponding example (column B) 2.4 Dimensions : Dimensions of a physical quantity are the powers (or exponents) to which the base quar are raised to express that quantity. Dimensional formula : The dimensional formula of any physical quanti is that expression which represents how and ‘which of the base quantities are included in that quantity. Itis written by enclosing the symbols for base quantities with appropriate powers in square brackets ie. [] e.g. Dimensional formula of mass is [M'L? T°] and that of speed (= distance/time) is (M°L'T-!] Dimensional equation : The equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional, formula is called a dimensional equation, e.g. _[v) = [M°L'T-!] For example [F] = [MLT~1is a dimensional equation, [MLT“4is the dimensional formula of the foxrce and the dimensions of force are 1 in mass, 1 in length and ~2 in time 2.5 Applications of dimensional analysis : ( Toconvert a physical quantity from one system of units to the other : This is based on the fact that magnitude of a physical quantity remains same whatever sistem is used for ‘measurement i.e. magnitude = numeric value (n) x unit (u) = constant or n,u, = n,U, (ay) (MY (LY (7, "ad ba) ) ay) So if a quantity is represented by [M°LIT] then | M: Here ‘1, = numerical value in | system M, = unit of mass in I system Ly= unit of length in Ilsystem unit of time in [system T= unit of time i, I system Illustrations Mlustration 3. Convert 1 newton (SI unit of force) nto dyne (CGS unit of force) Solution The dimensional equation of force is (F] = [M'L! T#] Therefore ifn, u,, and n,, u, corresponds to SI & CGS units respectively, then MT[LT[R]_, [ks ms]? ="lwe| [tlt] <1 [ellen] =| —2%2000%100%1= 10°. 1 newton = 108 dyne 49 n,Pre-Medical a ALLEN] () Tocheck the dimensional correctness of a given physical relation : If in a given relation, the terms on both the sides have the same dimensions, then the relation is dimensionally comect. This is known as the principle of homogeneity of dimensions. Illustrations Illustration 4. IL ‘Check the accuracy of the relation T anf for a simple pendulum using dimensional analysis. Solution ‘The dimensions of LHS = the dimension of T= [MP L°T}] dimensions of length _\"* ) (-- 2misa dimensionless constant) ene e (ae ‘of acceleration - [esl (rp = 1] =| MOLT] Since the dimensions are same on both the sides, the relation is correct. (ii) To derive relationship between different physical quantities : Using the same principle of homogeneity of dimensions new relations among physical quantities can be derived if the dependent quantities are known. Illustrations Mlustration 5. It's known that the time of revolution T of a satellite around the earth depends on the universal gravitational constant G, the mass of the earth M, and the radius ofthe circular orbit R. Obiain an expression for T using dimensional analysis. Solution We have IT] [GP IMP IRF = [MP (LP ETP = (My (L]® [T}% x [MP xIL}> = [MJP [Lle® [1] Comparing the exponents For [1]: 1 For [M]: 0=b-a 3 bean} For{l]: 0=c+30 > c=-3a= 3 Putting the values we get T oc GYM? RV=> T a The actual expression is T = 2r, cM 2.6 Dimensions of Some Mathematical Functions Dimensions of differential coefficients and integrals In General [22]-[] and {ydxl =[sx]Illustrations Illustration 6. Find dimensional formula ax w = (a) mot (aa) fodt (iv) fadt where x-> displacement, t-+ time, v -> velocity and a acceleration E)-eurs) to |ma =[m x) [ME met MI (MLT?) a (a [ Jodt}=fvt]=[Ltt] -[ML:7°] «yy [ feat]-[atl-[L1?]-[M°L'T*] Dimensions of trigonometric, exponential, logarithmic functions etc. Alltrigonometric, exponential and logarithmic functions and their arguments are dimensionless, Note : Trigonometrc function lke sind and its argument 0 are dimensionless. Illustrations Mlustration 7. FE If a= zsinBt, find dimensions of o. and p. Here v = velocity, F = force and t = time, Solution Here sin Bt and pt must be dimensionless So [6t]=1=[5]= [t]=(71s tal 2.7 Limitations of this method + InMechanics the formula for a physical quantity depending on more than three physical quantities cannot be derived. It can only be checked. + This method can be used only if the dependency is of multiplication type. The formulae containing exponential, ‘trigonometrical and logarithmic functions cannot be derived using this method. Formulae containing more than one term which are added or subtracted like s = ut + }at® also cannot be derived. * The relation derived from this method gives no information about the dimensionless constants, * If dimensions are given, physical quantity may not be unique as many physical quantities have the same dimensions. * It gives no information whether a physical quantity isa scalar or a vector. BEGINNER'S BOX-2 1. Match the following Dimensional variable x (i) Dimensionless variable ) Force {i Dimensional constant (© Angle (i) Dimensionless constant (@) Gravitational constant 2, Find the dimensions of the following quantities (2) Temperature (b) Kinetic eneray (0 Pressure (@) Angular speed 3. Find the dimensions of Planck’ constant (h). 4. Centripetal force (Fon a body of mass (m) moving with uniform speed (vin a circle of radius (r) depencls upon 1m, vand r, Derive a formula forthe centripetal force using theory of dimensions. E 5tPre-Medical Eanes, 3. ERRORS IIN MEASUREMENTS 3.1 Significant Figures or Digits Significant figures (SF) in a measurement are the figures or digits that are known with certainty plus one that is uncerain (i.e. Last digit) ‘Significant figures in a measured value ofa physical quantity tll the number of digits in which we have confidence. Larger the number of significant figures obtained in a measurement, greater is its accuracy and vice versa. Rules to find out the number of significant figures TRule —: _Allthe non-zero digits are significant e.g. 1984 has 4 SF. TRule : _Allthe zeros between two non-zero digits are significant. e.g. 10806 has 5 SF. Rule: Allthezerosto the left of first non-zero digit are not significant. e.g.00108 has 3 SF. IVRule : _ Ifthenumberisless than 1, zeros on the right ofthe decimal point but tothe left ofthe first non- zero digit are not significant. e.g. 0.002308 has 4 SF. VRule : — Thetralling zeros (zeros to the right of the last non-zero digit)in a number with a decimal point are significant. e.g. 01.080 has 4 SF. ViRule : The trailing zeros in a number without a decimal point are not significant e.g. 010100 has 3 ‘SF. But if the number comes from some actual measurement then the trailing zeros become significant. e.g. m = 100 kg has 3 SF. VilRule : — When the number is expressed in exponential form, the exponential term does not affect the number of SF. For example in x = 12.3 = 1.23 x 10! = 0.123 x 10° = 0.0123 x 10° = 123 x10 ~} each term has 3 SF only. Rules for arithmetical operations with significant figures TRule —: In addition or subtraction the number of decimal places in the result should be equal to the ‘number of decimal places of that term in the operation which contain lesser number of decimal places. e.g. 12.587 - 12.5 = 0.087 = 0.1 (-: second term contain lesser i.e. one decimal place) Rule: _ In multiplication ordivision, the number of SF in the product or quotient is same as the smallest number of SF in any of the factors. e.g. 2.4 x3.65 = 8.8 © Toavoid confusion regarding the trailing zeros of the numbers without the decimal point the best way is to report every measurement in scientific notation (in the power of 10). In this notation every number is expressed in the forma x 10°, where ais the base number between 1 and 10 and bis any positive or negative exponent of 10. The base number (a) s written in decimal form with the decimal after the first digit. While counting the number of SF only base number is considered (Rule VI). © The change in the unit of measurement of a quantity does not affect the number of SF. For example in 2.308 cm = 23.08 mm = 0.02308 m = 23080 pm each term has 4 SF. — Illustrations Mlustration 8. Write down the number of significant figures in the following. (@) 165 (0) 2.05 (©) 34.000 m (@) 0.005 (©) 0.02340 Nm (26900 (@) 26900 kg Solution (@) 165 3SF (following rule I) (b) 2.05, 3 SF (following rules I & Il) (c) 34.000 m 5 SF (following rules I & V) {d) 0.005 1 SF (following rules I & IV) {e) 0.02340 N m* 4 SF (following rules I, IV & V) (f) 26900 3 SF (see rule VI) (g) 26900 kg 5 SF (see rule VI) 52 r