GENETICALLY MODIFIED

ORGANISMS:SCIENCE,
TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY

Submitted By:
Bonifacio, Jowee Ann
Dajoya, Yzzle Aura Miles
Reyes, Jessele
Villa, April

Submitted To:
Prof. Jimp Israel S. Cabuhat
LESSON 3: GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS: SCIENCE, HEALTH,
AND POLITICS

LESSON OBJECTIVES
 At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to: identify issues on
genetically modified organisms (GMOs):
 discuss different implications and impact of GMOs; and
 create a research paper on the impact of GMOs in the Philippine context.

INTRODUCTION
In 2001. Rosalie Ellasus, a former overseas Filipino worker in Singapore
turned farmer, attended the Integrated Pest Management -Farmers Field
School and was introduced to Bt Corn, a genetically modified corn that is
resistant to the destructive Asian corn borer. Ms. Ellasus volunteered for
demo-testing in her field. Bt Corn yielded 7.2 tons per acre as compared to a
regular yield of 4.2 tons per hectare. No insecticide spraying was needed.
This is one of the success stories of genetically modified organisms (GMOs)
(Ongkiko, 2016).

Genetic engineering has been with the human society since selective
breeding was introduced to humankind and when animals were Jomesticated.
Yet, the process of genetic alteration is all but natural.

It was in 1951 that the term genetic engineering was coined by Jack
Williamsen, author of the science fiction novel Dragon's Island (Stableford
2004). This was years before actual research findings on the DNA's role in
heredity and its structure, the double-helix of Watson and Crick, were
published. Through continuous search for development, genetic engineering
no longer stayed in science fiction novel. It became a reality in science
laboratories. The general process of genetic engineering is the deliberate
manipulation of the organism's genes, where it may involve transfer of genes
from other organism.

An antibiotic-resistant E. coli bacteria was created in 1973. To date, there

are ongoing researches on GMOs such as using genetically modified male
mosquitoes as pest control over female mosquito carriers of Zika virus.

However, despite the many possibilities of creating solutions for problems

and opening doors for innovations, genetic engineering faces much
opposition. Opponents raise ethical, social, and environmental issues related
to genetic engineering and its GMOs.

This lesson will present the existence of genetic engineering, specifically

GMOs in the different areas of life, the impact to humankind, and the
controversies that surround them
Genetically Modified Organism
Genetically modified organism (GMO) is the term used for an organism
created through genetic engineering. The World Health Organization (WHO,
2014) defines GMO as an "organism, either plant, animal, or microorganism,
in which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not
occur naturally by mating or natural recombination." Below is a diagram of
how bacterial gene is introduced through genetic engineering to plant cells
and tissues to develop and breed a genetically modified plant.

FIGURE 8. Genetic Engineering Process on a plant

The development of GMOS was perceived to help in the advancement of

technology for the benefit of humans in different industries like agriculture and
medicine.

GMOs in Food and Agricultural Industries

The Center for Ecogenetics and Environmental Health (CEEH. 2013)
identified the following roles of GMOs in the food and agricultural industries:

1. Pest resistance - genetically modified plants to resist certain pests.

An example is Bt Corn. The DNA (genome) of the Bt Corn has been

modified with the gene of Bacillus thuringiensis, a soil bacterium that
produces proteins which is toxic to corn borers (worms).
2. Virus resistance - genetically modified plants to resist certain viruses.

An example is GM papaya or rainbow papaya. The papaya ringspot virus

(PRSV) is known to be detrimental to papaya plants. The protein of PRSV
was introduced to the papaya plant through plant tissue which turned out to
be resistant to the virus itself. The effect was like the vaccines humans have
against measles or influenza virus.

3. Herbicide tolerance - genetically modified plants to tolerate herbicide.

An example is Roundup Ready soybean. Glyphosate, an herbicide for

weeds, was introduced to soybeans making it tolerant to the herbicide itself.
Farmers then can spray the herbicide killing the weeds but not the soybeans.
4.Fortification - genetically modified plants fortified with certain
minerals.

An example is Golden Rice. Beta-carotene, a precursor of vitamin A, was

introduced through biosynthesis genes to the rice, making the rice grains
fortified with vitamin A.

5.Cosmetic preservation - genetically modified plants resist natural

discoloration.

An example is Arctic Apple. The apple variety was genetically modified to

suppress the browning of apple due to superficial damage.

6. Increase growth rate - a genetically modified organism that has higher

yield in growth than normal species.

An example is AquAdvantage salmon. A gene from an ocean pout, an eel-

like fish was introduced to Pacific Chinook salmon, making the salmon grow
faster than its normal rate.

GMOs in Non-Food Crops and Microorganisms

 Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in non-food crops and. some
microorganisms involve the following:

1. Flower production - GMOS in flower production are seen in modified color

and extended vase life of flowers.

Examples are Blue Roses. The so-called "blue" roses, which are, in reality,
lilac or purple, contained cyanidin 3,5-diglucoside, together with large
amounts of flavonols. The introduction of the flavonoid 31, 51-hydroxylase
gene into pelargonidin- or cyanidin- producing rose cultivars diverts the
anthocyanin biosynthetic pathway toward the production of delphinidin
glucosides and the flower color to blue (Elomaa & Holton, 1994).

2. Paper production - modified characteristics of trees for higher yield of

paper production.

Examples are poplar trees. Lignin is a complex polymer in trees that is

removed from wood to make paper through kraft process, through inserting
genes that code for ferulic acid in young poplar trees, the lignin structure is
modified, making lignin easier to breakdown (Veniza, 2014).

3. Pharmaceutical productions -pharmaceutical products modified plants to

produce

Examples are periwinkle plants. Bacterial genes were added to the

periwinkle plant to enhance the production of vinblastine, an alkaloid usually
added to drugs for cancer treatments like Hodgkin's lymphoma (Runguphan,
2010).

4. Bioremediation - use of modified plants that can assist in the

bioremediation of polluted sites.

An example is shrub tobacco. Nicotiana glauca, or shrub tobacco genetically

modified with phytochelatin TaPCSI1, is used for bioremediation. It shows
high level accumulation of zinc, lead, cadmium, nickel, and boron and
produces high biomass.

5. Enzyme and drug production - use of modified microorganisms that can

produce enzymes for food processing and medicines.

One example of this is CGTase. Cyclomaltodextrin glycosyltransferase

(CGTase), an enzyme used for food flavor enhancer, is produced in higher
quantity by bacterium Bacillus which was genetically modified with the gene of
a thermophilic anaerobe, Thermoanaerobacter, carrying CGTase (Pedersen &
Jorgensen, 1995).

Another example is artemesin. Artemesinic acid is a compound used for anti-

malarial drug extracted from sweet wordwood plant. Through genetic
engineering, it can be synthetically produced by yeast and bacteria with sweet
wordwood plant gene (Zimmer, 2006).
6. GMOS in the medical field - genetic engineering is playing a significant
role from diagnosis to treatment of human-dreaded diseases. It helps in the
production of drugs, gene therapy, and laboratory researches.

One classic example is Humulin, the genetically engineered insulin used by

Type 1 diabetes patients who are insulin- dependent. In the past, insulin is
extracted from the pancreases of pigs and cows that have caused allergic
reactions to some diabetics using it. In 1978, rescarchers from the City of
Hope National Medical Center and Genentech
Biotechnology Company were able to produce human: insulin. The gene for
insulin was inserted to bacterial DNA that was able to produce almost exactly
the same human insulin. This was a breakthrough in the mass production of
human insulin. In 1996, modified human insulin was approved, called the
Humalog.

Benefits of GMOs
Studies show some of the potential benefits of GMOs:
 Higher efficiency in farming - with the use of pesticide-resistant/herbicide-
tolerant GMO crops, there will be less use for herbicides/pesticides, and
lower cost for labor and cultivation.
 Increase in harvest - GMO crops resistant to pests and diseases means
increase in potential growth and harvest.
 Control in fertility - controlling the purity of the hybrid seeds (GMO seeds)
ensures higher yields.
 Increase in food processing - altered characteristics of GMO crops help
ease food processing.
 Improvement of desirable characteristics - GMOs offer longer shelf life,
enhanced color and taste, enhanced production or reduction of enzymes,
and other modified characteristics of plants, animals, and microorganisms.
 Nutritional and pharmaceutical enhancement — GMO crops like maize
fortified with lysine and Golden Rice fortified with vitamin A and iron.
There are now cdible vaccines for viral and diarrheal diseases.
 Reduce the use of fertilizer and pesticides

There are over 400 million acres of GMO farmlands all over the world. The
top five countries that operate GMO farmlands are the United States, Brazil,
Argentina, India, and Canada. Some of the GMO agricultural crops that have
been approved for public consumption and are already in the market include:
alfalfa, corn, papaya, soya bean, sugar beets, and squash. Most of these
GMO crops were made to be resistant to pests. Some examples of common
food with GMOs are Kellogg's Corn Flakes, Quaker Chewy Granola Bars,
Ultra Slim Fast, Quaker Yellow Corn Meal, and Alpo Dry Pet Food.

In the animal industries, there are ongoing researches like studies on Pacific
salmon that grows twice faster than the native salmon and chicken resistant to
H5N1 bird flu viruses. However, these GMO animals are all in research
laboratory and not yet approved for public consumption.

Potential Risks of GMOs

Despite the promising claims of GMOs, the opponents of GMOs claim

otherwise. For example, there are studies that show a link in the adaption of
pesticide-resistant GMO crops to the significant growth of super weeds that
became pesticide-resistant, too. This caused additional problem to more than
12 million acres of farms in the United States.

Opponents of GMOs have the following major concerns:

Since genetic engineering is still a young branch of science, there are inadequate
studies on the effects of GMOs to humans and the environment.
Genetic engineering promotes mutation in organisms which the long term effect is
still unknown.
Human consumption of GMOs might have the following effects:
 More allergic reactions - GMO food may trigger more allergic reactions,
more so create new ones, as side effect of the gene alteration.
 Gene mutation - GMO food may develop abnormalities and mutation,
more than the desired product of the gene alteration.
 Antibiotic resistance - GMO food contains antibiotic-resistant genes; this
may cause disease-causing bacteria likely to be more antibiotic-resistant
too, increasing the possibility of widespread of the disease.
 Nutritional value - GMO food may have change in their nutritional value.
Potential Environmental Risks Caused By GMOs
Karki (2006) summarized the perceived potential environmental risks caused
by GMOs. The identified major risks are the following:

1. Risk in gene flow — there is a potential risk of the modified gene to be

transferred from the GMO crop to its wild relative or organism in the soil
and human intestine (when ingested). For example, a decaying GMO
plant could possibly transfer the modified genes to the bacteria and fungi
in the soil. Bacteria and fungi are capable of using a genetic material from
their surroundings. There are no studies yet on the effects of the
absorbed modified gene to the other organisms.

2. Emergence of new forms of resistance and secondary pests and weed

problems - GMO crops resistant to certain pesticides may trigger new
form of pest resistance while GMO herbicide-tolerant crops may lead to
the over use of the herbicides which may trigger new form of weed
resistance.

3. Recombination of Virus and Bacteria to Produce New Pathogens - the

modified gene can be transferred and integrated in the viral or bacterial
genes which may lead to viral or bacterial gene modification or mutation.
This living modified virus and bacteria may then cause new disease that
may affect other organisms including human beings.

Other direct and indirect environmental risks caused by GMOs (Molfino &
Zucco, 2008):

1. Direct environmental risks are:

 introduction of the GMOs in the natural environment may cause disruption
of the natural communities through competition or interference;
 the possibility of unexpected behavior of the GMOs in the environment if it
escapes its intended use and may post threats or become pest;
 may cause harmful effects to ecosystem processes if GMOs interfere
with the natural biochemical cycles; and
 the persistence of GMO genes after its harvest which may cause
negative impacts to the consumer of GMO products.

2. Indirect environmental risks are:

 alteration of agricultural practices like managing negative impacts of
GMOs to the environment such as evolution of insects, pests, and weeds
that became resistant to GMO crops;
 may have impacts to biodiversity caused by the alteration in agricultural
practices; and
 may have varied environmental impacts due to GMOs interaction and
release in the natural environment.
Potential Human Health Risks caused by GMOs

A major concern in the use and consumption of GMOs is its effect on

human beings, primarily on human health. Some potential human health risks
are identified (Akhter, 2001), such as:

 consumption of GMOs may have adverse effects since it is not naturally

or organically produced;
 consumption of GMOs may alter the balance of existing microorganisms
in the human digestive system;
 production of toxins may be detrimental to human health; and
 production of allergens may have adverse effects on humans.

Worldwide, there are many groups that campaign against GMO food
consumption. They encourage people to boycott GMO products and to be
vigilant in checking if the food they buy has GMO ingredients.
In the Philippines, the Supreme Court has ruled against the use of Bt
eggplant, another genetically modified crop (Ongkiko, 2016).

Other potential risks that raise major concern are:

 Human Genome Project (HGP), - Mapping of human genes to provide
framework for research and studies in the field of medicine. It was feared
that the ability to produce human genetic information would create biases
and give much power to people holding the information and to the
disadvantage of those who do not have the genetic information.
 Mutation of genetically engineered microorganisms — Genetically
modified bacteria and viruses may mutate to become more resistant or
virulent that may cause more dreadful diseases for human beings.
 Cloning - The asexual reproduction of an organism using parent cell
through genetic engineering. In February 24, 1997, the first mammal,
Dolly, a sheep from Scotland, was born through cloning. With its
celebrated success came the fear of human cloning. It emerged the
ethical issue of man "playing God."

Scientists and medical practitioners would definitely continue to search for

ways to preserve lives. Genetic engincering is perceived to be one of the keys
to this venture. Gene therapy and gene alteration are promising ways to
improve human health conditions.

On the other hand, great fears loom in the process of this quest. There are
many things to be considered before a certain medical process using genetic
engineering be accepted.

These concerns were affirmed by the reports, of the World Health

Organization. WHO reported three major issues on GMOs that are in
international public debates. These are the potential risks of allergic reactions,
gene transfer/flow, and outcrossing (WHO, 2014).
 The primary issue on GMOs presented in public debate is its unnatural
production or what is termed to be a violation of nature. The creation of new
organisms, like GMOs, posts moral issues on defiance to natural laws.
Another concern is the potential risks to the environment and human health,
to which so much is unknown yet.

Biosafety on GMOs

There are initiatives for the protection of the general human population
regarding the issues and concerns about GMOs. International organizations
developed principles and treaties that somehow ensure biosafety on GMOs.
Some of these initiatives are as follows:

 The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex). The Food and Agricultural

Organization (FAO) together with the World Health Organization (WHO)
created The Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex). Codex is an
intergovernmental body that develops the Codex Alimentarius, know us
the International Food Code. Codex is responsible for the development of
standards, codes of practices, guidelines, and recommendations on food
safety. With the pressing issues and concerns on GMOs, in 2003, Codex
has developed principles for the human health risk analysis of genetically
modified (GM) food products. The principles include pre-market
assessments of GM food products and its evaluation of direct and indirect
effects. However, the Codex principles has no binding effect on national
legislation but through the sanitary and phytosanitary measures of the
World Trade Organization, national legislators are encouraged to
complement their national standards with the Codex Principles (WHO,
2014).
 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. Established in 2003, Cartagena Protocol
is an international environmental treaty that regulaies the transboundary
movements of Living Modified Organisms (LMOs). The Cartagena
Protocol requires exporters to seek consent from the importers before its
first shipment of LMOs (WHO, 2014).
 International Trade Agreement on labeling of GM food and food products.
The agreement requires exporters of GM food and food products to label
their products and give rights to importing parties to reject or accept the
GM products. The premise of this policy is that consumers have the right
to know and the freedom to choose GM or non-GM products (Whitman,
2000).

The World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) claims that all GM products
that are available in the international market have passed safety assessment
by national anthorities. The safety assessments basically look at the
environmental and health risk factors and food safety usually follows the
Codex Food Code.
GMOs in Philippine Context
Introduction of GMOs in our country created issues and controversies similar
to other countries with GMOs. There are, of course, proponents and
opponents of these issues.

The GMO concern started in the 1990s with the creation of the National
Committee on Biosafety of the Philippines (NCBP) through Executive Order
No. 430 of 1990. The NCBP developed the guidelines on the planned release
of genetically manipulated organisms (GMOs) and potentially harmful exotic
species in 1998. In 2002, the Department of Agriculture released
Administrative Order No. 8, the guideline for the importation and release into
the environment of GM plants and plant products. On that same year, the
entry of GMO importation started (Baumuller, 2003). The Philippines was
marked to be the first country in Asia to approved commercial cultivation of
GMOs when GM corn planting was approved in 2002 (Serapio & Dela Cruz,
2016).

From December 2002 to present, there are 70 GMO applications approved

by the Department of Agriculture for the release to the environment, 62 GMOs
of which are approved for food feed and processing and the remaining 8 were
approved for propagation (Aruelo, 2016).

In 2004, the Philippines was classified by International Service for acquisition

of agri-biotech applications as one of the fourteen biotech-mega countries
which grow 50,000 hectares or more of GMO crops annually (James, 2004).
In that same year, Senator Juan Flavier authored a bill on the mandatory
labeling of food and food products with GMOs.
The Senate did not pass the bill.

In 2006, the Philippines became part of the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety.

In the same year, Executive Order No. 514 was issued to address the
biosafety requirements of the Cartagena Protocol and the establishment of
the National Biosafety Framework (NBF).

In 2010, the Organic Agriculture Act was issued, encouraging organic

agriculture than GMO-related agriculture. Prior to this act, there are several
provinces like Negros Occidental and Negros Oriental which agreed to
support organic agriculture. There was the establishment of the Negros
Organic Island through a memorandum of agreement (MOA) between the two
provinces in 2005. With this MOA, the two provinces were able to ban the
entry of GMOs and living GMOs to their provinces through provincial
ordinance. Similar to this case, Davao City passed the Organic Agriculture
Ordinance in 2010. This city ordinance helps the prevention of field testing of
GM Bt eggplant in the UP Mindanao Campus (Aruelo, 2016).

In 2012, Representative Teddy Casino, together with other congressmen,

filed a bill pushing for the mandatory labeling of GM food and food products.
To date, there is no Philippine biosafety law, only biosafety regulations formed
under NBF.

A study on the biosafety regulations of the Philippines concluded that the

existing regulation is weak, which can be fixed through legislation such as a
republic act (Richmond, 2006).

In December 2015, the Supreme Court ordered to put an end to the field
testing of GMO Bt eggplant and declared Administrative Order No. 8, series of
2002 of the Department of Agriculture as null and void. This means that any
actions or procedures related to GMO importations and propagation is
temporarily put to stop until a new administrative order is issued in
accordance with the law.

In March 7, 2016, five government agencies namely, the Department of

Science and Technology, Department of Agriculture, Department of
Environment and Natural Resources, Department of Health, and Department
of the Interior and Local Government, passed a Joint Department Circular No.
1, series of 2016 on rules and regulations for the research and development,
handling and use, transboundary movement, release in the environment, and
management of the genetically modified plant and plant products derived from
the use of modern biotechnology. This joint department circular paves way to
issuance of new permits for planting and importing GM crops in the country.

SUMMARY

Genetic engineering is an emerging field of science. Its quests are to

preserve and prolong life. In more than four decades since the first genetically
modified bacteria was produced, thousands of genetically modified organisms
have been created and propagated. Some are approved by experts and
government authorities for human use and consumption while others are kept
in institutional research laboratories subject for more experiments.

There are advantages and disadvantages in using genetic engineering in

both fields of medicine and food and agriculture, there are controversies that
are still debatable up to the present. The major concern of the opponents is
the long-term effect of GMOs to humans while the proponents' flagship is the
success stories of the GMO recipients.

There is still a long way to go for GMOs to prove itself, as humans seek
answers to life's predicaments or as humans play like God.
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