INTRODUCTION TO MINING ENGINEERING (MNE 101)

Course outline

• Introduction to Mineral Prospecting methods

• Mine Surveying and GIS

• Development of Mining Technology

• Unit operations in Mining

• Processing and Uses of Minerals

• Mining and its Consequences

• Government roles and regulations in the Oil and Mineral Industries

 1. MINERAL PROSPECTING

Prospecting is the first stage in mining and can be describe as searching for the ore deposit. In
searching for valuable minerals, the traditional prospector relied primarily on the direct
observation of mineralization in outcrops, sediments, and soil. Although direct observation is
still widely practiced, the modern prospector also employs a combination of geologic,
geophysical, and geochemical tools to provide indirect indications for reducing the search
radius. The object of modern techniques is to find anomalies i.e., differences between what is
observed at a particular location and what would normally be expected. Aerial and satellite
imagery provides one means of quickly examining large land areas and of identifying
mineralization that may be indicated by differences in geologic structure or in rock, soil, and
vegetation type.

It can be divided into three:

(a) Geological, (b) Geophysical, and (c) Geochemical

A. Geological prospecting

Geological prospecting is carried out on the basis of a study of the geological structure of the
terrain together with geological mapping. It involves a detailed examination of outcrops and
exposed rocks, and the precise mapping of geologic formations and their structures in the field,
supplemented by chemical analysis and studies with the microscope in the laboratory. It
depends on the
reconnaissance maps that predict the location of useful minerals. Prospectors take into accoun
t the conditions under which deposits of useful minerals are formed or the genesis that is man
ifested by the association of certain minerals with certain elements of the geological structure
of the terrain. The use of these elements in searching for deposits of useful minerals requires
a knowledge of what are called prospecting indicators. These include characteristics of the de
posits’ link with elements of the local stratigraphy, lithology, tectonics, petrography, geoche
mistry, and geomorphology.

B. Geochemical prospecting

Many mineral deposits are not exposed at the earth's surface, they may be concealed by thick
soil cover, or they may lie buried beneath layers of rock. To find these deposits more complex
techniques, based on geochemistry, and geophysics, can be very helpful. Geochemical
prospecting is based on systematic measurement of one or more of the chemical properties of
naturally occurring materials such as rock, soil, glacial debris, stream sediment, water, or
plants. These materials contain abundance or minor concentration of some elements or their
minerals. The chemical property most commonly measured is the content of a key “trace”
element. The purpose is to discover zones in the soils or rocks that contain comparatively high
concentrations of particular elements that will guide the prospector to a hidden deposit. Such
concentrations of indicator elements in rocks or soils constitute a geochemical “anomaly”. The
actual amount of the key element in a sample may be very small and yet constitute an anomaly
if it is high relative to the surrounding area.

The aim of geochemical prospecting is to discover abnormal concentration or pattern in the

distribution of an element in an area. These abnormal patterns are often called geochemical
anomalies. The geochemical patterns of material in an area indicate the possible presence of
ore.

C. Geophysical prospecting

It combines the sciences of physics and geology to locate ore deposits or geological structures
concealed beneath the surface of the earth. In general a hidden ore body or the geologic
structure associated with it must possess one or more physical properties that are different from
those of its surroundings in order to cause a measurable effect or anomaly at the surface for
methods other than seismic prospecting.

In geophysical prospecting, five major geophysical methods, which include; magnetic,

gravitational, electrical, radiometric, and seismic are used to distinguish such rock properties
as density, magnetic susceptibility, magnetization, electrical conductivity, magnetic
permeability, geophysical well logging, and seismic wave velocity. Some of these methods
require complex and costly instruments and highly trained operators. Others, however, are
relatively simple and inexpensive..

i) Gravity method

Every material has a density, which has provided a means of measuring different earth
materials. Gravity prospecting is a measurement of density contrast and what is being measured
is the vertical component of the gravity field (gz). Gravity anomalies are produced as a result
of differences in the densities of underlie rock.

It is mostly used in oil exploration. It is also used as a secondary method to compliment

magnetic and electromagnetic anomalies in outlining a possible exploration target.
ii) Magnetic method

Magnetic prospecting maps variations in the magnetic field of the earth, which are attributable
to changes of structure or magnetic susceptibility in certain near-surface rocks. Sedimentary
rocks generally have a very small susceptibility compared with igneous and metamorphic rocks
which tend to have a much higher magnetic content, such as magnetite, are themselves natural
magnets. Minerals such as ilmenite (iron-titanium oxide), hematite (iron oxide), and pyrrhotite
(iron sulfide), are weakly to moderately magnetic, and their effects can be recorded by sensitive
magnetic instruments. The common unit of measure for the strength of a magnetic field is the
gamma. Instruments such as the magnetometer and the dip needle are used directly to detect
large anomalies over magnetic iron-ore bodies. The magnetometer and dip needle can also be
used to trace concealed rock formations that have magnetic properties differing from those of
adjacent formations. For example, the prospector may know that copper is associated with an
igneous rock such as quartz monzonite. If, as is often true, the quartz monzonite is more
magnetic than the surrounding rocks, the magnetometer can be used to detect it beneath soil,
talus, or other cover. Similarly, the “black sand” of placer deposits commonly contains grains
of magnetite or ilmenite which affect the magnetometer and the dip needle. These instruments,
therefore, may be used indirectly in the search for gold or ''heavy minerals” that are in the
“black sand.”

iii) Electric methods

Electrical methods detect the surface effects produced by electric current flow in the
ground. Because different materials have different atomic constitutions, they also have
different conductivities, polarization and self-potential. There is a much greater variety of
electrical and electromagnetic techniques available than in the other prospecting methods,
where only a single field of force or anomalous property is used.

(a) Electrical resistivity method:

In the electrical resistivity method, current is introduced into the ground. Any subsurface
variation in conductivity alters the current flow through the earth thereby affecting the
distribution of electric potential. The magnitude of the variation in potential depends on the
size, location, shape, and conductivity of the material within the ground. The resulting potential
distribution, mapped by two other probes, is therefore capable of yielding information about
the distribution of this material. The method has been used mainly in prospecting for water
bearing formations, conductive orebodies and a stratigraphic correlation in boreholes.
(b) Induced Polarisation method (IP). We have known from electrical resistivity method that
when current is introduced into the earth through current electrodes that a voltage appears
between two potential probes. It is found, however, that a disconnecting the battery that the
voltage does not in general drop to zero immediately but persists for some time with a
continuously decreasing magnitude.

Conversely, the voltage between potential probes does not attain its maximum value
immediately the current is switched on, but increases steadily towards it for several seconds or
minutes.

It was noted that even a couple of minutes after the cessation of the current, the residual voltage
between the probes is as much as 0.5-1 percent of that existing when the current was flowing.
This phenomena is teamed in geophysical literature as induced polarization or IP.

(c) The Self-Potential Method

The Self potential method involves measurement at the surface of electric potentials developed
in the earth by electrochemical action between minerals and the solutions with which they are
in contact. No external electric fields are applied with this technique. When different portions
of an orebody are in contact with solutions of different compositions, chemical reactions take
place which result in different solution pressures along the respective areas of contact. The
difference in solution pressure gives rise to a potential difference which causes current flow in
the ground.

iv) Electromagnetic prospecting (EM Method)

The EM method consists of probing the subsurface by means of an artificially created

electromagnetic waves in search of conductive zones. In general, the source (electromagnetic
waves) is introduced into the ground by inductive coupling, although in rare cases the source
maybe introduced by direct contact. The technique is used for the following:

(1) Groundwater investigation in the basement complex areas. Also in sedimentary basin

(2) Gravel deposits

(3) Mine detection; pipeline detection

(4) Ore prospecting

v) Seismic method
Like most geophysical methods of exploration, seismic method is also designed to enable us
produce a geologic model of the subsurface. It is defined as the application of seismic
techniques in the scientific study which includes interpretation, description, and identification
of subsurface strata, including their depositional environment, their lateral continuity and their
distinctive vertical sequence. This method of exploration involves the measurement of the time
lapse required for elastic energy generated near the surface to return to the surface after
reflection or refraction by interfaces between in homogeneous formations.

This method is by far the most important geophysical technique in terms of expenditures and
number of geophysicists involved. The predominance of the seismic method over other
geophysical methods is due to various factors, the most important of which are the high
accuracy, high resolution and great penetration of which the method is capable.

The widespread use of seismic methods principally in exploring for petroleum, the location of
exploratory wells rarely being made without seismic information. Seismic methods are also
used in ground water searches and civil engineering, most especially to measure the depth to
bedrock in connection with the construction of large buildings, dams, highways and harbour
surveys. Seismic techniques have found little application in direct exploration for minerals
because they do not produce good definition where interfaces between different rock types are
highly irregular. However, they are useful in locating features such as buried channels in which
heavy minerals maybe accumulated.

vi) Radioactivity methods

The radioactive method is relatively unimportant in comparison with other geophysical

techniques. The method was first used in the late thirties for strati graphic correlation in oil
well logging. Radioactivity prospecting became popular in the period 1945-57, fell off with the
decrease in demand for uranium, and was revived again in the late sixties.

The physical property involved is that some materials are radioactive while others are not, and
what is being determined is the natural and induced radioactivity in rocks.

Naturally occurring radioactive elements such as uranium or thorium break down or decay to
other elements or isotopes by emission of subatomic particles. Gamma rays (similar to X-rays
but of higher frequency), alpha particles (nuclei of helium atoms), and beta particles (electrons)
are the most common particles emitted during this process

vii) Geophysical well logging

This is involves probing the earth with instruments which give continuous readings recorded
at the surfaces as they are lowered into the boreholes.

The various instruments and techniques, specifically designed to suit the different environment
in drill holes, are used in direct exploration, identification of geologic formations and
formations fluids, and correlation between holes.

Geophysical methods which have been applied in well logging include resistivity, self-
potential, induction, induced-polarisation and occasionally other electrical methods, detection
of gamma rays and neurons in radioactivity methods, acoustic logging, and measurement of
magnetic and thermal properties.
 2. MINE SURVEYING

Is the branch of mining science and engineering that employs measurements made in the field,
and also subsequent geometric constructions, as a basis for the study of the structure of a
deposit, the shape and dimensions of mineral bodies in the interior and the location in them of
components that are useful and harmful for the mining operation, the properties of enclosing
rock, the spatial arrangement of mine workings, and the processes of stresses in rock and the
earth’s surface in connection with mining work.

Mine surveying work is done by means of mine surveying instruments. Mine surveying is a
composite science that is closely related to many scientific disciplines: mathematics,
engineering, physics, astronomical geodesy, geology and mineralogy, geological exploration,
the technology of exploitation of deposits, and construction.

Mine surveying originated simultaneously with mining. Problems of measurements in

mineshafts were being solved even in ancient times. In Egypt, as early as the 16th to 14th
centuries B.C., reduced scale representations of mining excavations were constructed on plane
surfaces. Hero of Alexandria (presumably first century A.D.) was the first to describe the
method of underground surveying and orientation. The German scholar G. Agricola (16th
century) gave a brief summary of methods of accomplishing tasks of mine surveying.

Figure 2: Surveying an open pit mine with the Maptek I-Site 8820.
Responsibility of Mine Surveyor

Mine surveying is an inseparable part of all stages of mining operations. During exploration of
mineral deposits, the tasks of the mine surveying service include construction of a reference
grid, surveying the earth’s surface, transferring the plan for the location of exploratory
workings to the actual site, and surveying all exploratory workings, as well as natural and man-
made rock exposure.

Working with geologists, mine surveyors use the surveys to compile the diagrams for mining
documentation; the diagrams reflect the volume of exploratory work that has been done, the
condition of the earth’s surface, the shape and dimensions of bodies of minerals, the quality of
the minerals, and the properties of enclosing rock. Mine surveyors also take part in estimation
of geological reserves.

During the planning of mining enterprises, mine surveyors take part in planning and surveying
work, planning the boundaries of mining enterprises and systems for working the deposit,
locating projected buildings and structures in the area of the mineral deposit, determining safety
measures to protect structures against the harmful influence of mining development, and
compiling timetables for the development of mining work.

During the construction of mining enterprises the mine surveying service constructs a grid of
reference points, transfers the geometric elements of the construction plan to the actual site,
checks on fulfilment of the planned ratio of geometric elements during installation of hoisting
devices and reinforcing of mineshafts, assigns the direction of mine workings, makes execution
surveys, and prepares the mining documentation necessary for exploitation of the deposit.

During the exploitation of deposits the mine surveying service records the mining enterprise’s
production process and compiles the drawings for mine documentation. As the mine workings
progress, the service establishes with greater accuracy the conditions of bedding of the deposit

and the shape of the mineral body, the quality of the mineral, and the properties of the enclosing
rock.
 GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEM (GIS)

Geographic Information Systems is a computer-based tool that analyzes, stores, manipulates

and visualizes geographic information, usually in a map.

Never in the history of mankind have we had more pressing issues in need of a geospatial
perspective. These global issues require pervasive, complex, location-based knowledge that
can only come from a GIS.

Four Simple Ideas of GIS

Geographic Information Systems really comes down to just 4 simple ideas:

Create geographic data

Manage it.

Analyze it and…

Display it on a map.

These are the primordial functions of a GIS.

The required items for the implementation of GIS

You need HARDWARE such as a GIS workstation. Actually, it could be anything from
powerful servers to mobile phones. The CPU is your workhorse and data processing is the
name of the game. In addition, GIS analysts often need dual monitors, boatloads of storage and
crisp graphic processing cards.

Lastly, you need SOFTWARE. Really, the GIS software options out there seem endless. From
ArcGIS, QGIS, GRASS GIS, SuperGIS, SAGA GIS to JUMP GIS… The range of GIS
products to choose from can get a bit “ridiculous” at times. But this list of free GIS sofware
will help.

Drive Decision-Making in Real World Applications

Most people think GIS is only about “making maps”. However, governments, businesses and
people harness the power of GIS because of the insights of spatial analysis.

Before GIS, cartographers mapped out the land using paper maps. Over the years, we have
seen a gradual shift away from paper maps. Instead, users build digital maps with computer-
based spatial data.
In addition, the more you think of it:

Some of the largest problems of our planet are best understood spatially. For example, climate
change, natural disasters and population dynamics are all geographic in nature.

How do you solve problems in a GIS? The answer is through spatial analysis that understands
relationships between spatial and attribute data.
 3. ADVANCEMENTS IN MINING TECHNOLOGY

As one of humanity’s earliest endeavours and certainly one of its first organized industries,
mining has an ancient and venerable history. To understand modern mining practices, it is
useful to trace the evolution of mining technology, which (as pointed out earlier in this chapter)
has paralleled human evolution and the advance of civilization.

Mining in its simplest form began with Paleolithic humans some 450,000 years ago, evidenced
by the flint implements that have been found with the bones of early humans from the Old
Stone Age. Our ancestors extracted pieces from loose masses of flint or from easily accessed
outcrops and, using crude methods of chipping the flint, shaped them into tools and weapons.
By the New Stone Age, humans had progressed to underground mining in systematic openings
2 to 3 ft (0.6 to 0.9m) in height and more than 30 ft (9m) in depth. However, the oldest known
underground mine, a hematite mine at Bomvu Ridge, Swaziland is from the Old Stone Age and
believed to be about 40,000 years old. Early miners employed crude methods of ground control,
ventilation, haulage, hoisting, lighting, and rock breakage. Nonetheless, mines attained depths
of 800 ft (250m) by early Egyptian times. Metallic minerals also attracted the attention of
prehistoric humans. Initially, metals were used in their native form, probably obtained by
washing river gravel in placer deposits. With the advent of the Bronze and Iron Ages, however,
humans discovered smelting and learned to reduce ores into pure metals or alloys, which
greatly improved their ability to use these metals.

The first challenge for early miners was to break the ore and loosen it from the surrounding
rock mass. Often, their crude tools made of bone, wood, and stone were no match for the harder
rock, unless the rock contained crevices or cracks that could be opened by wedging or prying.
As a result, they soon devised a revolutionary technique called fire setting, whereby they first
heated the rock to expand it and then doused it with cold water to contract and break it. This
was one of the first great advances in the science of rock breakage and had a greater impact
than any other discovery until dynamite was invented by Alfred Nobel in 1867. Mining
technology, like that of all industry, languished during the Dark Ages. Notably, a political
development in 1185 improved the standing of mining and the status of miners, when the
bishop of Trent granted a charter to miners in his domain. It gave miners legal as well as social
rights, including the right to stake mineral claims. A milestone in the history of mining, the
edict has had long-term consequences that persist to this day. The greatest impact on the need
for and use of minerals, however, was provided by the Industrial Revolution at the close of the
eighteenth century.

Along with the soaring demand for minerals came spectacular improvements in mining
technology, especially in scientific concepts and mechanization, that have continued to this
day. During the last two centuries, there has been great progress in mining technology in many
different areas. Such progress is often made in an evolutionary rather than a revolutionary
manner. Yet every once in a while, a revolutionary discovery comes along and changes the
process of mining profoundly. During the nineteenth century, the invention of dynamite was
the most important advance. In the twentieth century, the invention of continuous mining
equipment, which extracts the softer minerals like coal without the use of explosives, was
perhaps the most notable of these accomplishments. The first continuous miner was tested in
about 1940, with its usefulness greatly enhanced by the development of tungsten carbide inserts
in 1945 by McKenna Metals Company (now Kennametal). By 1950 the continuous miner had
started to replace other coal mining methods. The era of mechanized mining had begun. It is
not possible to chronicle all of the developments that made mining what it is today. A more
complete chronology of the important events is outlined in Table 1.2. It has been prepared
using the references cited in Section 1.1,as well as those by Stack (1982) and Molloy (1986).
These sources can be used to obtain a more comprehensive list of the crucial events in the
development of mining technology.

In history, rocks were being broken by fire building and water quenching, and ingenious way
of utilizing thermal stresses to overcome the rock´s cohesive strength. Later, explosives were
discovered and were used to blast rock, which led to the greatest technological advancement in
mining of all time. Without knowledge of rock mechanics, he had succeeded in amassing and
focusing energy in amounts sufficient to break rock. Interestingly, early man first displayed the
ability to work rock in ways unrelated to mining. With the addition of the first sharpened, stone-
tipped weapon to his arsenal, he demonstrated the skill to break and shape rock in a controlled
way to suit his purposes. He applied energy, focused and concentrated, to overcome the
strength of rock by chipping, abrading, and so forth. From experience, these early craftsmen
learned-again, without benefit of a understanding of rock mechanics-how to apply stress in
tension or shear so as to capitalize on the weaknesses of the brittle pieces of rock they carved
into ax blades, spear points, and, eventually, arrowheads. Mining today exists with the same
basic objectives that it did in ancient times and employs the same basic elements of the
production cycle, breakage and handling. It was with the introduction of blasting into the cycle
in the seventeenth century, however, that a flood of improvements in production operations
began, culminating in revolutionary new machines and processes of the nineteenth and
twentieth centuries. Mechanization had come to mining, and with it a realization that utilizing
abundant amounts of energy allowed more rock to be broken and transported per unit of time
and labor.
 4. UNIT OPERATIONS OF MINING

Introduction to the fundamental operations and cycles

Throughout the latter three stages of mining, commencing with drilling and excavation during
exploration and continuing through development and exploitation, certain fundamental
operations are performed to free and transport the material being mined. These basic steps are
referred to as the unit operations of mining. If they contribute directly to mineral extraction,
we call them production operations; auxiliary operations support the main mining activity but
are usually not directly part of it unless essential to worker safety for operating efficiency.

UNIT OPERATIONS OF MINING

They are the basic steps employed to produce mineral from deposit. They are of two types

i) Production operations (steps contributing directly to mineral extraction)

ii) Auxiliary operations (steps that support the production cycle)
It defines the basic production cycle. The process of exploitation reduces to two fundamental
operations: winning (breakage) and materials handling, i.e., transporting the ore to the mineral
processing plant. Winning and handling are cyclic i.e. they are repeated over and over again.

In most mines, breakage is accomplished by drilling (rock penetration) and blasting (rock
fragmentation). Materials handling is usually performed in two steps, loading (excavation) and
haulage. If considerable vertical lift is involved, then hoisting may be required as well. Unit
operations are characterized mainly by the equipment that performs them. Mining today is
almost totally mechanized. The equipment used in both is remarkably similar, in principle and
function.

The fundamental processes of freeing the ore fall into two categories. In softer deposits, we can
use equipment to excavate or “dig” the ore. In harder material, we will have to use explosives
to blast the ore free from the orebody, and to blast the ore, we must first drill holes to place the
explosive that will be used. Once the ore has been freed, it must be loaded so that it can be
hauled. Thus, winning (breakage) and materials handling, consist of the following unit
operations:

Harder Materials: drill, blast, load, and haul

Softer Materials: excavate, load, and haul

Figure 1: Cycle of Operations

The compressive strength is an important parameter to separate ores into the “softer-harder”
categories, but other parameters can affect whether or not it is practical to excavate rather than
drill and blast. Examples of softer ores that can be excavated include coal and salt. Examples
of harder ores that require drilling and blasting include limestone, copper, and lead. Some ores,
for example, salt and potash, are exploited both ways.

Every mining method, with the exception of solution mining, employs these unit operations.
The specific equipment chosen to implement each of the unit operations may vary by mining
method, and even within methods, there may be equipment and practices variation. There is
one other category of common operations known as auxiliary operations.

Taken together, the unit operations and auxiliary operations constitute the cycle of operations,
which will be different among the different mining methods.

WINNING (BREAKAGE)

This is the freeing of ore from the ore body or detaching large masses of rock from its parent
deposit.

Equipment for winning the Ore: The type of equipment include Drills, Explosives Loaders, and
Rippers

DRILLS: are used to create a hole of a certain diameter and depth. The goal of drilling is to
create an empty hole, and the purpose of the hole is to accept explosives.

The “drill” is a system of four components.

1. The drill, the power source, which often referred to as the hammer, which transfers energy
to the bit. It converts electrical, pneumatic, or hydraulic energy into percussive and/or rotational
energy. 2) The drill rod, sometimes called the drill steel, stem, or pipe that connect the bit to
the drill rig proper and transmits the energy from the drill to the drill bit. 3) The drill bit that is
designed to achieve penetration and fragment the rock when energy is applied to it. 4)
Circulation fluid, sometimes called drilling fluid, flushes the cuttings from the bottom of the
hole and cools the bit.

Drill types may be classified by

i) the method of rock penetration (drilling action), e.g. rotary or percussion drill.

ii) the location of the power source (hammer), which can be at the top of the drill string, e.g.
top hammer, or at the bit, e.g. down-the-hole

iii) primary method of powering the drill (power source) e.g., diesel engine, electric motor, or
compressed-air; and

iv) the method of mounting the drill rig, (Mount or Carriage track platform truck) e.g., track-
mounted or tire mounted.

Factors that will affect drilling performance can be classified into four groups:

i) Operating Factors: These affect the four components of the drilling system (drill, rod, bit,
and fluid).

ii) Drillhole Factors: These include hole size, length, and inclination; they are dictated by
outside requirements and thus are largely uncontrollable.

iii) Rock or drillability Factors: These consist of properties of the rock, geological conditions
surrounding the rock, and the state of stress acting on the drillhole. They determine the strength
of the rock and limit drill performance.

iv) Service Factors: These variables include labor and supervision, power supply, job site
conditions, weather, and so forth.
Figure 2: Track-mounted down-the-hole drill
While the previous drill employs a down-the-hole hammer to apply energy to the bit, this one
is a top-hammer drill, i.e., the energy source for the bit, at the top of the drill string.

Figure 3: Top-hammer drill

EXPLOSIVE LOADER: The truck below is used in surface mining and can be used in some
underground mines as well. It carries the materials to mix the explosive at the hole, and the
equipment to place the explosive into the hole. In this example, the explosive is being pumped
into the hole.
Figure 4: An example of gravity flow, in which the explosive is fed augured into the hole.

RIPPERS: are dozers that have been equipped with one or more large drag bits. These are
pulled through the ore as the dozer moves forward. Typically, they break up the top 6”–18”,
depending on the mechanical properties of the ore. Rippers are not very common because they
are suited to few deposits.

Figure 5: Ripper with drag bits

LOADING EQUIPMENT

The equipment used for loading will be discussed in this section. They include Loading,
Draglines, Shovels, and Hydraulic Excavators In harder ores; the material is broken free of the
orebody by drilling and blasting. Once it is freed, it usually must be loaded into something so
that it can be hauled out of the mine. In softer ores, if a ripper is used, the broken ore will
require loading. In softer ores, it is often practicable to free them from the orebody by digging
or excavation, without the need to drill and blast. The equipment used in loading harder ores
can also be used for excavating and loading softer ores.

DRAGLINES: they have the ability to excavate huge quantities of material and place that
material at quite a distance from the dragline itself. Draglines are commonly used to remove
the overburden, also known as stripping, in open cast mining and can be used to remove the
ore as well. The size of the dragline is based on the capacity of the drag bucket. A 15 yd dragline
has a bucket capacity of 15 yd3. Typically draglines are in the range of 60 – 150 yd.

Characteristics of draglines.

1) The drag bucket is filled by pulling (dragging) the bucket towards the dragline.

2) The dragline can only dig at a level below the level at which the dragline is sitting.

3) The drag bucket is outfitted with “teeth” to aid excavation, but even so, it is only effective
in softer materials or materials that have been blasted.

Figure 6: Dragline

SHOVELS: have the ability to load large quantities of material, but less than draglines. A
major difference between a shovel and dragline is that a shovel loads material at the same level
as the shovel is sitting up to the height of the shovel’s boom.

Characteristics of shovels: The shovel’s dipper is filled by pushing the dipper into a bank of
material. This action is known as crowding. The dipper is outfitted with “teeth” to aid
excavation, but even so, it is only effective in softer materials or materials that have been
blasted. The size of the shovel is based on the capacity of the dipper. A 12 yd shovel has a
dipper capacity of 12 yd3. Typically, shovels are in the range of 10 – 90 yd. The digging height
of the shovel is determined the size of the boom. Shovels are mounted on large crawler tracks,
to facilitate movement into the bank, known as propelling; as well as to allow the shovel to
move to the working faces or banks. Large shovels are used for overburden removal. They are
commonly used to load ore into trucks.

Figure 7: A shovel in action

HYDRAULIC EXCAVATORS: These excavators had the advantage of being able to

excavate or load below or above the level at which the machine is sitting. They also have the
ability to be rather selective in what they remove. These excavators have gotten much larger
over the years and have buckets of 40 yd3 or more, and a reach of 60’ or more.

Figure 8: A traditional excavator

Figure 9: A modern excavator

The wire ropes on electric shovels have been replaced with hydraulics, and this has led to
hydraulic excavators that look like this, and are often called hydraulic shovels. By replacing
the wire ropes, additional degrees of freedom can be incorporated into the machine, resulting
in better performance.

Figure 10: A hydraulic excavator

WHEELED LOADERS, SCOOPS AND LHDS (Load-Haul-Dump): Wheeled loaders are

mobile and manoeuvrable, and commonly found in surface and underground mining
applications. The bucket typically ranges in size from a few yd3 to 10yd3. The high-lift linkage
allows loading of the largest haul trucks available. These loaders are capable of digging soft
and unconsolidated materials but are most commonly used for loading material that has been
blasted. Chains are often put on the tires to increase the traction available, which allows the
bucket to push more efficiently into piles of broken rock. In everyday use, they are often called
loaders, rather than wheeled loaders.
Figure 11: Wheeled loader

Here we can see a very common use of the wheeled loader.

Figure 12: Wheeled loader in action

Loaders that are used exclusively in underground. The amount of clearance available
underground can be quite restrictive. While some underground mines will have openings that
are approaching 100’ in height, less than 10’ is much more common. The equipment designed
to operate in these confined spaces has to be designed quite differently to fit into these spaces
and still be capable of doing something useful.

Scoops and LHDs: There are some differences between scoops and LHDs, but for the purpose
of this discussion on loaders, scoops are more likely to be used strictly for loading ore into an
underground mine truck in metal mining, and that they are often used for moving supplies
around in underground coal mines. These machines are designed with a low profile to function
in confined spaces. Moreover, they are often articulated, i.e., the machine is split into two parts
and connected with an articulating joint. This allows the machine to turn and maneuver in
tighter spaces. These machines are used in underground metal mining and they push into a pile
of broken ore (load) and then they haul (transport) their load to a dump point. The haul distances
are relatively short – typically less than a 1000’.
Figure 13: A typical Load-Haul-Dump (LDH)

MATERIALS HANDLING

Materials handling is the last unit operation in the production cycle of drill-blast-load-haul for
hard rock or excavate-load-haul for soft rock. It is concerned with how we move (haul) the
mined material out of the mine to the processing plant. All unit operations involved in
excavating or moving bulk minerals during mining are termed materials handling. Bulk
materials in mining are transported by haulage (primarily horizontal movement) and hoisting
(primarily vertical).

In cyclic operations, the two principal operations are loading and haulage, with hoisting an
optional third when essentially vertical transport is accomplished.

In continuous operations, where machines combine the breakage and handling functions,
(cutting, drilling, and blasting are eliminated), extraction and loading are performed in a single
function (excavation).

In combined loading-haulage machines, materials handling is performed in a single operation.

Machines to accomplish these functions are classified on the same basis as excavating
equipment.

The only true hoisting machines are the skip and cage, but as indicated under grade ability all
haulage devices can elevate the material they transport to some extent (hydraulic and pneumatic
conveyors are completely versatile). In surface mines with multiple benches, trucks team with
shovels in most applications. In underground mines, rail, trucks (shuttle cars), LHDs, and belt
conveyors are popular in the overall haulage system. For the most widely used haulage
machine, the truck, as well as other machines, there are four zones: loading, traveling loaded,
dumping, and traveling empty. Materials handling in modern mechanized mining is equipment-
centred.

Before looking at specific haulage options, we should talk about a few overarching concepts.
The first is intermediate haulage. At the working face, i.e., where the ore is being freed from
the deposit, we are going to load the ore into some type of haulage. In a surface mine, it is
likely that we’ll load the ore into a truck, which will haul the ore to the plant, dump it, and then
return to the face for another load. If we are in an underground mine, it is likely that the material
at the face will be loaded into a haulage vehicle and then transported to an intermediate
dumping point. From the intermediate point, a different haulage device will be employed. As
an example, assume we have a mine in which LHDs are used to load out the ore at the draw
point (face) and transport it to a dump. The dump point is at an ore chute in the rock that funnels
the ore to a lower level where it is loaded into rail cars, along with the ore from many other
dump points. A train may pull these cars several miles out of the mine and to a processing
plant. Or, the train may take the ore to a transfer point at the bottom of the shaft, where the ore
will be dumped and transported in large ore skips (buckets) up the shaft to the surface. The
choice of a specific type of materials handling is based on optimizing the overall process.
Smaller and maneuverable equipment is best suited at the face, whereas larger capacity, but
more permanent equipment may be indicated to move the material out of the mine. Let’s
identify the common choices for materials handling, to move material from the face to the
plant.

Figure 14: Materials handling equipment, shown in three groups

The equipment in the first group is typically used for short haulage runs from the face to an
intermediate dump or transfer point. The equipment in the third group is used to move the
material out of the mine and to the plant. The equipment in the second group can fall into
Groups I or III. In some instances, the equipment shown in Group II will be used to move the
material directly from the face to the plant, whereas in others, it will be used to transfer the ore
to an intermediate point. Let’s look at the general characteristics of these materials-handling
modes. We’ve already discussed LHDs, so let’s begin with shuttle cars.

Shuttle Cars and Bridge Conveyors

Shuttle cars are a low-profile intermediate haulage option used predominantly in underground
coal and some industrial minerals mines. Ore is loaded into the shuttle car at the face, and then
it trams a relatively short distance, dumps its load, and returns to repeat the cycle. The capacity
is dependent on the size, but a typical capacity is 6 – 10 tons. The shuttle car normally dumps
into a feeder-breaker, which crushes any large lumps and feeds the load onto a conveyor belt.

Figure 15: A shuttle car

Bridge Conveyors are belt conveyors that are designed to move material directly form the face
to a final point, e.g., a spoil pile in surface mining, or a transfer to a main conveyor in
underground mining. Unlike main-belt conveyors, which are semi-permanent, bridge
conveyors are designed to be easily manoeuvrable, to keep up with the active mining face.

Figure 16: Flexible conveyor train

Mine Trucks, Haul Trucks, and Rail (Trains)

The distinction between haul trucks and mine trucks is subtle but important. Mine trucks are
generally designed for underground use in more confined spaces. They will have an articulating
joint to allow turning in a tighter radius. The capacity will also be less because of clearance
restrictions.

Figure 17: A mine truck

Haul Trucks are designed to transport larger loads than mine trucks, and in some underground
mines where there is sufficient room, you will find haul trucks.

Figure 18: A haul truck

Rail (Trains) Rail haulage was once very common in underground mines, and even in some
surface mines. It has the advantage of being able to transport large loads at a low cost. It is no
longer in used because it has inherent problems that make it unsuitable for today’s high
production mining systems. In modern coal mines, for example, rail haulage will often be used
to transport equipment and supplies, whereas conveyors will be used to transport the coal. Rail
can be used as an intermediate form of haulage, or as the means to transport the ore out of the
mine to the plant. The locomotives and cars used may be of lower profile.
Figure 19: Low profile rail train

Hoists, Hydraulic Transport, and Belt Conveyors

Deep underground mines may be accessible only through a shaft that is sunk from the surface
to the working levels of the mine. Not only will all workers and supplies access the mine
through the shaft, but also all ore will have to come out of the shaft. This is accomplished by
hoisting systems. Three major components of a hoist are the skip, which holds the ore and is
attached to the winder on the surface by wire ropes, the headframe and the hoist winder (winch
and drum). The headframe supports the sheave wheel over which the wire rope is connected to
the skip. As the drums in the surface hoist house wind the rope onto the drum, the skip is pulled
to the surface, where it is dumped.

Figure 20: Hoist system for an underground mine

The winder is shown in the first picture below, the bottom headframe in the second, and the
bottom dump skip in the third.
Figure 21: Hoist winder

Hydraulic Transport often known as a slurry transport system, is used in limited

circumstances. The ore is mixed with a fluid, e.g., water, and pumped from the mine to the
processing plant. It is an energy-intensive system and is best suited to a limited class of ores
such as phosphate, which is already mixed with water in the mining process, or other ores
obtained from hydraulicking or dredging.

Belt Conveyors are the workhorses of modern mines, both surface and underground. The belt
conveyor consists of the belt, which is constructed of multiple ply’s to provide the required
strength and wear resistance; the belt is constructed into a closed loop and stretched between a
head and tail pulley; the belt is supported with idlers between the head and tail, and they
maintain the appropriate trough shape as well as support the weight of the material in the belt.
The head pulley is connected to a motor to power the conveyor. These belts can transport
thousands of tons of ore per hour. Although each belt is of limited length based on mechanical
constraints, they can be combined into long runs by constructing transfer points to allow one
belt to dump onto another.
Figure 22: Belt conveyor

AUXILIARY OPERATIONS

Auxiliary operations consist of all activities supportive of but not contributing directly to the
winning of ore. Most are scheduled prior to of following the production cycle so as to support
but no interfere with production operations. Auxiliary operations support the production cycle
and are essential to it, and like the unit operations, they are repeated over and over again; and
as with the unit operations, the specifics of the auxiliary operations will vary by mining method
and the characteristics of the orebody.

Ground control and power are two auxiliary operations that are essential to every mining
method. Ground control is the art and science of safely designing structures in the earth is
captured in the term. The coursework in engineering mechanics, strength of materials, and rock
mechanics will give you a solid theoretical foundation. Ground control is achieved in part
through the design of the structures. Operationally, after the design, ground control is achieved
in part through the use of various technologies. Ground control is a critical auxiliary operation,
and there are three components: inspection, scaling and installing ground support.

The power sources for mining equipment are compressed air, diesel, and electric. Most mining
equipment today is powered with either diesel or electric. Diesel provides more mobility
because there is no need to be tethered to an electrical cable. On the other hand, the exhaust
from a diesel engine creates challenges when used in a confined space, like an underground
mine, and it requires a high level of regular and sophisticated maintenance. Electric has certain
inherent advantages including the ability to provide a lot of power in a small space and no toxic
emissions at the machine.
In underground mines, these two would be augmented with ventilation as an essential and
major auxiliary operation. In surface mines, reclamation would be an essential and major
auxiliary operation and maintenance can also be considered as essential and major auxiliary
operations. There are other auxiliary operations that are more specific to the method, such as
preparing and placing backfill in mines employing the cut and fill method; or commodity, such
as the explosion prevention activities in mines, regardless of method, that have explosive gas.

Ventilation, as with ground control, is a crucial auxiliary operation. Fresh air is required to
provide oxygen and to carry away carbon dioxide. Large quantities of air are often required to
dilute, render harmless, and carry-away dangerous dusts and gases. Methane is an explosive
gas associated with coal deposits, among others. Sufficient air must be coursed through the
coal mine to keep the methane concentration well below the lower explosive limit.
 5. PROCESSING AND USES OF MINERALS

Fundamentals of Mineral Processing

A mineral is a natural, homogenous inorganic material usually formed by a system of elemental

combination and can thus be expressed with a chemical formula e.g. Arsenopyrite (FeA sS),
cobaltite (CoAsS), Hematite (Fe2O3) etc. Some minerals are sought because of the presence of
an important element in them; for example, aluminum (Al) is the important element for the
exploitation of bauxite (AlO(OH), Al(OH)3. Other minerals are used directly without breaking
them into their elemental components. Such minerals usually fall into the class called Industrial
Minerals. Some examples of industrial minerals are: limestone, clays, sand, gravel, diatomite,
kaolin, bentonite, silica, barite, gypsum, and talc.

Some minerals or ores are also used as aggregates for construction.

Mineral Processing is therefore an act of concentrating mineral values or separation of the

mineral components of an ore by means that do not change or destroy the physical and chemical
identities of the minerals. Before an ore is considered economical for exploitation however, the
percentage of the valuable mineral (component) in it must be ascertained. The percentage of
the valuable mineral in a unit weight or volume of an ore is called the “grade”. The grade of
an ore is determined by “assaying” which is a systematic analysis of representative samples of
an ore.

Ore assaying involves both the qualitative and quantitative determination of all the mineral
aggregates in the ore. It is also known as chemical analysis. Qualitative assaying deals with
the identification and separation of mineral components and the chemical principles involved.
It is performed by techniques such as (I) spot tests (ii) Dry tests, and (iii) solution tests. Solution
tests are the most common, and it involves the use of considerable amount of sample solution
and reagents. The specific colour developed, the precipitate formed and other similar
characteristics are indications of the presence of specific minerals or elements in solution.

Quantitative analysis is concerned with the determination of the amount of an element or

mineral present in the ore. Steps involved in ore assaying consists of the following:

i) Sampling: Collection of representative samples of the ore

ii) Conversion of the sample material to a form suitable for measurement
iii) Measurement
iv) Calculation and interpretation of measurement
 Communition

It is defined as the process of conversion of energy from one form to another in order to achieve
reduction of mine run-off to sizes considered suitable for separation and concentration in a
mineral processing operation. Comminution simply implies – size reduction. It is usually the
first unity operation in mineral processing and it is accomplished by crushing and grinding.

Crushing: This is the first operation during Comminution. The objective is to reduce large as-
mined lumps to fragments the largest size of which is determined by the particular dressing
requirement. Crushing is done in crushers and there are usually two stages of crushing
depending on the type of ore and size of mine run-off. The two stages are namely: Primary
crushing and secondary crushing.

Primary crushing: is done to reduce the large as-mined ore lumps to sizes suitable for
secondary crushing. It is usually employed when the material is hard to medium-hard; and
specially designed crushers called Primary crushers are used.

Secondary Crushing: Follows primary crushing, in a mineral processing operation requiring

it. It further reduces the products of primary crushing using crushers designed for secondary
crushing. Fine crushing may also be required. Sometimes the aim of secondary crushing is to
produce sizes suitable for feed for further reduction in grinding.

Crushers: Crushers are machines used to accomplish initial size reduction in mineral
processing operations. There are different types of crushers. These are:

Primary Crusher: Crushers for primary crushing

Secondary Crushers: For secondary crushing
Grinding: this is the second operation in Comminution aimed at further reduction of mineral
particle sizes beyond those produced by crushing. Thus, grinding (if required) commences
after the last stage of crushing and it deals with the production of fines. Grinding is done in
mills, which are also of various designs and capacity as shown on the table below. Reduction
ratio in grinding is usually very large compared to crushing. Crushing and grinding may be
done wet or dry.
 Particle sizing

Sizing of comminuted materials is done either by screening or by classification. By these

methods, comminuted materials are separated into sizes or size ranges which depend on the
particular operation and the sizing equipment used.

Sizing by Screening: Screening involves the use of surfaces with uniform openings or apertures
which act as multiple go/no-go gauge for the feed materials. Particles whose sizes are smaller
than the screen aperture pass through and thus constitute the “go” fractions while those larger
than the screen aperture are retained as the “no-go” fractions. Screen surfaces are usually made
from woven wires, perforated plates or parallel rod arrangements.

Sizing by Classification: Classification is a method of separating particles on the basis of size

or specific, gravity difference due to different settling rates in a fluid medium. Thus, in particle
sizing, classification may be used when screening becomes uneconomical because unlike
screening, classification can be used in separating particles of all size ranges. Hence classifiers
such as centrifuges and cyclones are usually used.

Mineral processing methods

Mineral separation principles employ differences in some properties (physical and sometimes
chemical) of minerals to achieve selective separation. Such differences are susceptible to
force which must be sufficiently large to enable relative movements of mineral components in
common medium, usually fluidized vessels. Differences in properties that have been effective
in separation processes include physical appearance, density, Size, magnetism, conductivity
(Electrical or thermal) etc. Various techniques have been developed for concentrating valuable
minerals from crude ore. Some of the commonly employed methods are:

i). Sorting techniques: Ore sorting is a mineral concentration technique which involves the
appraisal of individual ore particles in order to select or reject accordingly. Sorting may be
done manually as in “hand sorting” or automatically as in electronic or automated sorting.

Hand Sorting involves the use of human eyes for appraisal of all particles and picking with
hands. This technique is crude and was probably employed by early mine workers before the
modern advances in mineral processing technology.

Electronic or Automated Sorting uses a sensor to detect a specific difference in the physical
properties of the valuable mineral and gangue particles in a stream of ore and then sends a
signal to an automated device (electronic or mechanical) which removes the valuable mineral
from the stream. This implies that it is essential that a distinct difference in a required physical
property exists between the valuable mineral and the gangues otherwise this method is not
applicable.

ii). Gravity concentration techniques are used to separate minerals on the basis of differences
in their densities (specific gravity). These methods have the advantage of low level of pollution
since no chemical reagents are used. The common gravity methods used in modern time
include: Jigging, Pinched sluices, Cone separator, spiral separators, Shaking tables, pneumatic
tables etc.

iii) Classification techniques: This is a gravity and/or mechanical process of separating

minerals into two or more fractions on the basis of size or specific gravity (density) difference.
This difference enables different settling rates to be achieved by individual particles in a fluid
medium. Classification may be done “wet” or “dry” depending on the choice of fluid. In wet
classifications, water is the fluid medium commonly used, while dry classification employs air.
One method of classification is to allow the fed particles to settle neutrally under gravity in
fluid medium which rises at a constant velocity form the base of a classifier. This type of
classification is generally described as gravitational classification. A second method involves
the introduction of another (a radial) force in addition to the gravitational and drag force on the
particles. This type of classification is known as centrifugal classification. The equipment used
for classification are called classifiers and there are different types. Classifications are done in
classifiers

iv) Magnetic separation techniques employs the difference in magnetic properties of different
mineral components of ore to effect separation. The component that has the magnetic property
may the valuable mineral or the gangue. As examples, magnetite (valuable) may be separated
from quartz (gangue) using magnetic method. Magnetite (gangue) may be removed from
Cassiterite (valuable) with magnetic separation. But in most cases magnetic separation is used
to concentrate the valuable.

Different materials are susceptible to varying degree to magnetic force, some are repelled and
others are attracted by magnetic force. Hence, materials can be classified based on their
magnetic susceptibility as: diamagnetic materials, paramagnetic materials, and ferromagnetic
materials.
v) Electrostatic and high tension separation: These are processes which utilize the differences
in electrical conductivities of different minerals to achieve separation. The two processes are
essentially the same. Separation is based on the attraction of unlike electrical charges for each
other (i.e. unlike charges attract, +/-) and the repulsion of like charges (like charges) (- - or +,
+ repel). In electrostatic separation, charged field with little or no current flow is employed.
But in high tension technique, high rate of electrical discharge with electron flow and gas
ionisation is involved. Separation in both cases is done in either or both of “lifting effect” and
“pinning effect”. The attraction of particles carrying one kind of electric charge toward an
electrode having opposite charge is known as lifting effect. In pinning, non-conducting mineral
particle receive a surface charge from an electrode, retains the charge and become pinned to
the surface of the oppositely charge electrode.

vi) Heavy medium separation (HMS) techniques are the examples of all gravity concentration
processes. It is also called dense medium separation (DMS) or sink and float process. It is
usually applied as a pre-concentration process i.e. used to reject gangue prior to grinding Heavy
medium separation is also used in coal preparation to produce a commercially graded end
product.

vii) Flotation, agglomeration and amalgamation: These are related mineral concentration
processes in which separation is based on the selective adhesion of some mineral particles to
air, oil, or to other particles in a pulp with simultaneous adhesion of the remain particles to
water in the same pulp.

In flotation separation is based on the selective adhesion of some particles to air with
simultaneous adhesion of other particles to water.

Amalgamation usually is base on the selective adhesion of gold and silver to mercury with
simultaneous adhesion of the other particles to water.

Agglomeration involves the association of loosely bonded mineral particles and bubble which
are heavier than water but lighter and coarser than particles adhering to water. When mineral
particles agglomerate, a flowing film concentration method such as “tabling” may be use to
separate the non- agglomerates form agglomerate minerals thus agglomeration may not involve
the use of frothers to produce large and sable bubbles. Agglomeration also include a separation
base on selective adhesion of some mineral particles to some quasi-solid (such as grease) with
simultaneous adhesion of other grains in the same pulp to water. Examples include Grease-
deck concentration in which separation is based on selective adhesion of diamond grains to a
 quasi-solid grease with simultaneous adhesion of other grains to water; and bulk oil flotation
in which separation is based on selective adhesion of some mineral grains to some organic
liquids while other grains adhere to water in the same pulp.

viii) We also have thermal concentration techniques and hydrometallurgical processes:

leaching etc.

The table below summarizes all different properties of minerals and processes, that are
explained above in separation

S/N PROPERTY SEPARATION TECHNIQUE EMPLOYED

1 Physical appearance Sorting
(Colour, optical properties)
Density Gravity separation, classification, heavy medium separation
(HMS)
2 Size difference Gravity separation, classification
3 Magnetism Magnetic separation
4 Electrical (conductivity, Electrostatic separation, High tension separation,
charge) Electrolysis, Electrosmosis
5 Thermal Decrepitating, Glacier retardation
6 Adhesion (hydrophobism, Flotation, Agglomeration, Amalgamation
aerophilism)
7 Solubility (aqueous, Leaching
chemical)
 6. USES OF MINERALS

Minerals can be marketed on the open market, enabling the countries that possess them to
obtain valuable currency from countries that do not. This generally results in the minerals-rich
countries being the great civilizations of the world while the ‘have-not’ countries generally
suffer from a lower standard of living. For more on this topic, see Section 1.6. The ability to
use mineral resources as a means of creating wealth opens the possibility that a given country
or countries will attempt to control the entire market in a particular mineral, that is, to create
an economic cartel in that mineral. In 1973, the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries
(OPEC) attempted to control oil prices in a bold manoeuvre to obtain windfall profits from the
oil they produced. Although successful in the short run, the cartel eventually lost effectiveness
because of increased oil production elsewhere and difficulty in controlling their own member
countries. For a few years, OPEC was successful at regulating petroleum prices in an awesome
display of the value of possessing and producing some of the world’s most valuable minerals.
Other cartels have likewise been attempted. However, the greater freedom in international trade
now makes such an attempt less likely to succeed.
 7. MINING AND ITS CONSEQUENCES (IMPACTS)

Mining impacts can be grouped into three:

1. Environmental, land use impact and health hazard

2. Economic impact
3. Social - political – physiological impacts