INR 3003 Mid-term Study Guide

Chapter 2: Historical Context of International Relations Key

Terms
1. Peace of Westphalia (1648) - Established the principle of state sovereignty and marked
the beginning of the modern state system.
2. Sovereignty - The principle that states have supreme authority within their territorial
boundaries.
3. Nation-State - A political unit where the boundaries of a nation (a cultural/ethnic group)
coincide with those of a state.
4. Colonialism - The practice of acquiring and controlling colonies, which was prevalent
during European expansion.
5. Imperialism - A policy of extending a state's power and influence through diplomacy or
military force.
6. Balance of Power - A system in which no single state or coalition of states dominates,
and power is distributed to prevent any one state from becoming too powerful.
7. Concert of Europe (1815) - A post-Napoleonic agreement to maintain the balance of
power and avoid large-scale wars.
8. World War I (1914-1918) - A major global conflict that reshaped international relations
and led to the collapse of several empires.
9. Treaty of Versailles (1919) - Treaty that ended WWI, imposed heavy reparations on
Germany, and led to geopolitical changes in Europe.
10. World War II (1939-1945) - Another global conflict that significantly altered the balance
of power, leading to the Cold War.
11. Cold War (1947-1991) - The ideological and geopolitical struggle between the United
States (and its allies) and the Soviet Union (and its allies), characterized by proxy wars
and nuclear deterrence.

12.Bipolarity - A system of international relations in which two states or coalitions dominate

global politics (e.g., US vs. USSR during the Cold War).
13.Caliphate- a religious territory headed by Caliph, the spiritual leader of Islam
14. Capitalism – the economic system which the ownership of the means of
production is in private hands, the system operates according to market
forces where capital and labor move freely
15. Containment – a foreign policy design to prevent the expansion of an
adversary by blocking opportunities to expand through foreign aid
programs ( u.s policy toward the soviet ubion during cold war era)
16. Détente – the easing of tense relations, the relaxation and reappraisal of
threat assessments by political rivals ( u.s and soviet union after cold war)
17. Domino Effect – the loss of influence over one state to an adversary will
necessarily lead to a subsequent loss of control over neighboring states just
like dominos falling.
18. Hegemon – a dominant state that has preponderance of power, often
establishes and inforces rules in the international system
19. League of Nations – the international organization formed at the conclusion
of world war 1, its purpose is to prevent another war based on collective
security
20. Legitimacy – the moral and legal right to rule which is based by law, custom,
heredity, or consent of the governed.
21. Nationalism – national consciousness in which people identify with common
history, language, customs
22. North Atlantic Treaty Organization – military and political alliance between
western European states and the US, purpose of defending aggression by
the Soviet Union and its Allies. After post cold war era the alliance
expanded to include Easter European states.
23. Populism – belief that the champions are the most common person peoples
concerns with those of the elite
24. Socialism – an economic and social system that relies on intensive
government intervention or public ownership in the means of production in
order to distribute wealth among the population equally ( in Marxist Theory
“ the stage between capitalism and communism” )
25. Summits – talks and meetings amongst the highest-level government
officials from different countries.
26. Superpowers – highest power state as distinguished from other great
powers, term came from Cold War
27. Third- Reich- the German state that coincides with the rule of Hitler
28. War on Terrorism- a declaration by society of its intent to use its material
and nonmaterial resources to defeat those using terror. Often non states
targeting noncomabtants to install fear in the population.
29. Warsaw Pact – military alliance formed by the states of the Soviet bloc in
response to the rearmament of West Germany and its inclusion in NATO.

Chapter 2 Summary:
Pre-Westphalian System (Before 1648):

 Political units were more local, characterized by city-states, empires, and feudal systems.
There was no clear concept of a sovereign state as we know it today.
 Religious institutions, particularly the Catholic Church, played a dominant role in
governance and law.

The Peace of Westphalia (1648):

 This marked the birth of the modern state system, based on the principle of sovereignty,
where states were seen as the ultimate authority within their territories.
 This agreement ended the Thirty Years' War and established a framework for the nation-
state, setting the stage for modern diplomacy and the decline of religious influence in
state affairs.

The Westphalian System and Its Evolution:

Mingst explains the rise of the nation-state after the Peace of Westphalia and how this new
system shaped international relations over the centuries.

 18th and 19th Centuries:

o Emergence of powerful nation-states, colonial empires, and the expansion of
European influence globally.
o The balance of power became a guiding principle of diplomacy, with nations
attempting to prevent any one state from becoming too powerful.
 Post-Napoleonic Era (1815-1914):
o The Congress of Vienna in 1815 established a new diplomatic order, based on
collective security, which aimed to preserve stability in Europe.
o Industrialization and nationalism also emerged as forces shaping state behavior.

20th Century to the Cold War:

The 20th century saw rapid changes in the international system, driven by two world wars, the
collapse of empires, and the rise of new ideologies.

 World War I and Its Aftermath:

o World War I (1914-1918) led to the collapse of empires (Ottoman, Austro-
Hungarian, Russian) and the Treaty of Versailles, which sought to redraw national
borders in Europe.
o The League of Nations was established to promote peace, but it lacked the
authority and enforcement mechanisms to prevent further conflict.
 World War II and the Cold War:
o World War II (1939-1945) dramatically reshaped global power, leading to the
decline of European colonialism and the rise of the United States and Soviet
Union as superpowers.
 o The Cold War (1947-1991) was characterized by ideological conflict between the
capitalist West, led by the U.S., and the communist East, led by the Soviet Union.
This period was marked by proxy wars, nuclear arms races, and the formation of
rival alliances such as NATO and the Warsaw Pact.

Post-Cold War International System:

After the Cold War ended with the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, a unipolar world
emerged, with the United States as the dominant global power. Mingst discusses the challenges
and opportunities in this new era:

 Globalization:
o Economic interdependence increased, with multinational corporations and
international institutions playing a significant role in shaping the global economy.
o The rise of non-state actors, such as international organizations (e.g., the United
Nations), non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and terrorist groups,
influenced state policies and international relations.
 Emerging Powers:
o New powers, particularly China and India, began asserting themselves on the
global stage, challenging U.S. dominance.
o Regional powers, such as Brazil and South Africa, also started playing more
significant roles in international affairs.
 New Threats:
o Issues like climate change, terrorism, and pandemics introduced new challenges
that traditional state-centric systems struggle to manage.
o The rise of transnational issues highlighted the need for global cooperation and
multilateral governance.

Theories and Perspectives:

Throughout the chapter, Mingst introduces key theoretical perspectives on the international
system:

 Realism: Emphasizes the anarchic nature of the international system and the role of
power and security in state behavior.
 Liberalism: Focuses on the potential for cooperation among states, institutions, and
international law.
 Constructivism: Highlights the importance of ideas, norms, and identities in shaping
state interests and interactions.
Chapter 3: Contending Perspectives: How to Think about
International Relations Theoretically
Key Concepts & Terms:

Realism:

1. Anarchy - The absence of a central authority in the international system.

2. Self-help - The principle that states must rely on their own resources for survival in an
anarchic world.
3. Power - The ability of one state to influence another; includes military, economic, and
soft power.
4. Security Dilemma - A situation in which actions taken by a state to ensure its own
security cause insecurity in other states.
5. Balance of Power - The idea that states will form alliances to counterbalance the power
of a threatening state or coalition.
6. Hegemony - A situation in which one state has a preponderance of power and can
dominate the international system.
7. Cooperation - The idea that states can work together to achieve common goals,
especially through international institutions.
8. Collective Security - A system in which states agree to respond collectively to threats
to peace.
9. Complex Interdependence - A situation in which states are mutually reliant on one
another for goods, services, or security.
10. International Institutions - Organizations and rules that help govern relations among
states (e.g., the UN, WTO, IMF).
11. . Norms - Shared expectations about appropriate behavior for actors with a given
identity.
12. Identity - The sense of belonging to a particular group, such as a nation, that
shapes state interests and behavior.
13. Socialization - The process by which states (or individuals) adopt the norms
and practices of the international system.
14. Dependency Theory - a critical approach to understanding the dynamics between
developed (core) and developing (peripheral) nations. (The theory argues that the global
economic system is structured in a way that benefits developed countries while
perpetuating underdevelopment in poorer nations.)
15. Discourse – refers to the ways in which ideas and norms are communicated, discussed,
and framed within international relations. Language and Communication: How states,
institutions, and individuals communicate and construct meaning about global issues.
Framing International Norms: What is considered normal or acceptable behavior in
international politics can be shaped by discourse. Shaping Reality: Discourse shapes
how political actors perceive the world, their identities, and their interests.
16. External Balancing – is explored as a strategy that states employ to enhance their
security and maintain equilibrium in the international system. External balancing is
rooted in Realist theories of international relations, which emphasize the anarchic nature
of the international system and the pursuit of power and security by states. Realists argue
that in an anarchic environment, states cannot rely solely on their own capabilities and
must seek external support to ensure their survival and interests.
 17. Internal Balancing – to a strategy that states use to increase their own power and
security in response to external threats, without relying on alliances or external partners.
Internal balancing primarily involves enhancing a state's military capabilities, economic
strength, or political institutions to ensure self-sufficiency in defense and global
influence.
18. Rational Actors – The rational actor model assumes that states (or other international
actors) behave logically and make decisions aimed at maximizing their interests. This
means they weigh the costs and benefits of various options before acting, choosing the
path that best serves their national or organizational goals.
19. Relative Gains- refer to the idea that states are concerned not just with their own
absolute benefits from cooperation, but with how much they gain in comparison to
others. In this framework, a state's actions in the international arena are driven by
concerns over the power and advantages that other states might accrue relative to their
own position.
20. Theoretical Perspectives – refer to the frameworks and lenses through which
scholars and practitioners analyze international relations. These perspectives help to
explain the behavior of states and other actors in the international system.

Chapter 3 Summary:

1. Realism
Realism is one of the oldest and most influential theories in IR, rooted in the idea that the
international system is anarchic (lacks a central governing authority) and driven by power
politics. Key tenets include:

 States as primary actors: States are the most important players in the international system, and
they act in their self-interest to ensure their survival.
 Anarchy and competition: Since there is no overarching authority to enforce rules, states must
rely on self-help and maximize their power to ensure security.
 Power and balance of power: Power, particularly military power, is crucial for survival. States
balance against threats, either by building up their power or forming alliances to counter others.
 Human nature: Realism often attributes conflict to the selfish nature of humans.

Key figures: Thucydides, Machiavelli, Hobbes, Morgenthau, Kenneth Waltz (Neorealism)

2. Liberalism

Liberalism offers a more optimistic view of international relations, focusing on cooperation and
the possibility of peace. Key points include:

 Multiple actors: In addition to states, international organizations, non-governmental

organizations (NGOs), and multinational corporations play important roles.
  Interdependence and institutions: States and non-state actors can cooperate through
international institutions and regimes to address common challenges (e.g., the United Nations,
World Trade Organization).
 Democratic peace theory: Liberalism suggests that democracies are less likely to go to war with
one another, emphasizing the role of domestic politics.
 Economic interdependence: Trade and economic ties reduce the likelihood of conflict, as states
have a vested interest in maintaining peaceful relations for economic prosperity.

Key figures: Immanuel Kant, Woodrow Wilson, Robert Keohane

3. Constructivism

Constructivism focuses on the social dimensions of international relations, highlighting how

ideas, norms, and identities shape state behavior. Key points include:

 Socially constructed reality: International relations are shaped by social interactions and shared
understandings, not just material power.
 Importance of norms and identities: State actions are influenced by identities, norms, and
culture, rather than just self-interest or material considerations.
 Change through ideas: Since ideas and norms can evolve, so can the nature of international
relations, opening the door to change in state behavior and global norms (e.g., human rights,
environmental protection).

Key figures: Alexander Wendt, Martha Finnemore

4. Radical Theories (Marxism and Dependency Theory)

Radical theories, particularly Marxism and dependency theory, challenge the traditional state-
centric view and focus on the economic structures that drive global inequality. Key points
include:

 Economic class struggle: Marxism focuses on the struggle between the bourgeoisie (capital-
owning class) and the proletariat (working class), arguing that capitalist states exploit others for
economic gain.
 Global inequality: Dependency theory argues that developed, wealthy states (the "core") exploit
developing, poorer states (the "periphery") by controlling global trade, finance, and labor.
 Focus on economic power: Radical theories emphasize the importance of economic factors,
class, and global capitalism in shaping international relations.

Key figures: Karl Marx, Vladimir Lenin, Immanuel Wallerstein (World Systems Theory)

Key Takeaways

 Realism emphasizes the anarchic nature of the international system and the importance
of state power.
  Liberalism focuses on cooperation, international institutions, and the potential for peace
through democracy and trade.
 Constructivism argues that international politics are shaped by ideas, norms, and
identities, rather than just material interests.
 Radical theories like Marxism and dependency theory critique the capitalist system and
emphasize global economic inequality.
 Feminism brings attention to the gendered nature of international relations and the
importance of including women's perspectives in global politics.

Chapter 4: The International System

Key Concepts & Terms:

1. International System - The set of relationships and patterns of interactions between

states and other global actors.
2. Polarity - Refers to the number of major powers in the international system (unipolarity,
bipolarity, multipolarity).
3. Multipolarity - A system in which several states or great powers are roughly equal in
power.
4. Unipolarity - A system dominated by a single power or hegemon.
5. Globalization - The process of increasing interconnectedness between states,
economies, and cultures.
6. International Order - The set of rules, norms, and institutions that govern international
relations.
7. Great Powers - States with the most influence in the international system due to their
military, economic, and political strength.
8. Superpower - A dominant state with the ability to project its power globally (e.g., the US
after the Cold War).
9. Regional Powers - States that have significant influence within a specific geographic
area.
10. Bipolar – refers to a system where two dominant powers or blocs hold the majority of
global influence, military capabilities, and economic resources.
11. Mirror Image- refers to a psychological phenomenon in international relations where
states perceive each other in similar ways, often leading to misinterpretations and
misunderstandings. Essentially, states project their own beliefs, values, and behaviors
onto other states, assuming that their counterparts think and act similarly.
12. Multilateralism – a practice in international relations where multiple countries work
together on a given issue or to achieve common goals. Multilateralism is often formalized
through international institutions, treaties, and organizations that facilitate cooperation,
negotiation, and collective decision-making.
13. Power Potential – refers to a state's ability to exert influence or achieve its objectives in
the global arena based on its resources and capabilities. It encompasses various elements:
military capability, economic strength, political stability, geographic factors, soft powers.
14. Smart Power – refers to a strategic blend of soft power and hard power in foreign policy.
15. Soft Power – Coined by Joseph Nye, soft power relies on persuasion and attraction
rather than coercion. It encompasses cultural influence, diplomacy, and the ability to
shape preferences through values and ideals.
 16. Hard Power- This involves using coercive tactics, such as military intervention or
economic sanctions, to influence other nations or achieve specific outcomes. Hard power
is based on the ability to use force or economic resources to compel action.

Chapter 4 Summary:
 The International System:

 The international system is characterized by anarchy, meaning there is no overarching

authority to govern the interactions between states.
 States are the primary actors in the international system, but other entities, such as
international organizations, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and multinational
corporations, also play significant roles.

 Power:

 Power is a central concept in international relations and can be defined in various ways,
including military power, economic power, and soft power (influence through culture and
values).
 The balance of power theory suggests that stability in the international system can be
maintained when power is distributed relatively equally among states.

 State Behavior:

 States act primarily in their national interests, which can include security, economic
prosperity, and ideological goals.
 The concepts of realism and liberalism provide different perspectives on state behavior:
o Realism emphasizes the competitive and conflictual nature of international
relations, focusing on the pursuit of power.
o Liberalism highlights cooperation among states and the importance of
international institutions and norms in facilitating peaceful relations.

 International Organizations:

 International organizations, such as the United Nations (UN), play a critical role in the
international system by providing forums for negotiation, fostering cooperation, and
establishing norms and rules.
 These organizations can influence state behavior, particularly in areas like security, trade,
and human rights.

 Globalization:

 Globalization refers to the increasing interconnectedness of states and societies,

impacting economic, political, and cultural relations.
 While globalization can promote cooperation and integration, it also poses challenges
such as inequality, environmental issues, and cultural homogenization.
 Transnational Issues:

 Many contemporary issues, such as terrorism, climate change, and pandemics, transcend
national borders and require coordinated international responses.
 These transnational challenges often involve multiple actors, including states,
international organizations, and non-state actors.

Chapter 5: The State

1. State Power - The capacity of a state to influence other actors and outcomes within the
international system.
2. National Interest - The goals and objectives that are in a state's best interest, usually
involving security and economic well-being.
3. Power Capabilities - The specific resources (military, economic, technological, etc.) that
contribute to a state’s ability to influence outcomes.
4. Soft Power - The ability to attract and co-opt others without force, through cultural or
ideological appeal.
5. Hard Power - The use of military or economic coercion to influence the behavior of other
states.
6. Diplomacy - The practice of conducting negotiations between states to resolve conflicts
and manage relations.
7. Economic Sanctions - The use of economic measures (such as trade restrictions or
asset freezes) to influence a state's behavior.
8. Coercive Diplomacy - The use of threats or limited force to persuade an opponent to
change its behavior.
9. Deterrence - The strategy of preventing hostile actions by threatening retaliation.
10. Compellence - The use of force or the threat of force to make another state do
something or undo an action.
11. Bargaining - The process of negotiating to resolve disputes, often involving concessions
from both parties.
12. Bureaucratic Politics – refers to the decision-making process within government
agencies and institutions where various actors, including bureaucrats and politicians,
compete for influence and resources. This concept emphasizes that policy outcomes are
often the result of negotiations and compromises among different government agencies
rather than the decisions of a single leader or group.
13. Ethnonational Movements – political movements that seek to promote the interests and
identity of a particular ethnic group or nation. These movements often arise when a
specific ethnic group perceives that its identity, culture, language, or rights are threatened
or marginalized by a dominant group or state.
14. Fragile States – is typically defined as a country that is characterized by weak
institutions, a lack of effective governance, and an inability to provide basic public
services to its citizens.
15. Organizational politics – refers to the dynamics, decision-making processes, and
interactions within and between organizations (such as governments, non-governmental
organizations, and international institutions) that influence political behavior and
outcomes.
16. Pluralist Model – emphasizes the existence of multiple actors and interests in the
international system, rather than a single, dominant state or actor.
 17. Public Deplomacy – refers to the way governments communicate and engage with
foreign publics to influence their perceptions and attitudes. It involves efforts to promote
national interests through dialogue, cultural exchanges, and information dissemination
rather than traditional diplomatic means like negotiation or military action.
18. Sanctions – are punitive measures imposed by one or more countries against a target
country, group, or individual to influence behavior, enforce international laws, or achieve
political objectives.
19. Smart Sanctions – The goal of smart sanctions is to minimize the negative impact on
the general population while still exerting pressure on those responsible for undesirable
actions, such as human rights violations, terrorism, or the proliferation of weapons.
20. Track-two Diplomacy – refers to unofficial, informal interactions and dialogues between
individuals or groups from different countries or organizations aimed at resolving
conflicts, building relationships, or fostering mutual understanding.
21. Transnational Movements – refer to organized efforts by groups or individuals that
cross national borders to advocate for specific causes, share resources, or mobilize for
collective action. These movements often address global issues such as human rights,
environmental concerns, social justice, labor rights, and political activism.

Chapter 5 summary:
International Organizations (IOs):

 Defined as entities established by states to promote cooperation and address global

issues.
 Can be classified into two main categories:
o Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs): Composed of member states, such as
the United Nations (UN) and the World Trade Organization (WTO).
o Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs): Non-profit entities that operate
independently of government, like Amnesty International or the Red Cross.

Functions of International Organizations:

 Facilitation of Cooperation: IOs provide a platform for states to collaborate on various

issues, including trade, security, and environmental concerns.
 Conflict Resolution: They play a crucial role in mediating disputes and fostering
peaceful relations among states.
 Implementation of International Agreements: IOs help in the enforcement and
monitoring of treaties and international laws.
 Standard Setting: Organizations establish norms and standards that guide state behavior
and international relations.

Challenges Facing International Organizations:

 Addresses issues like state sovereignty, the influence of powerful states, funding
constraints, and the effectiveness of IOs in addressing global challenges such as climate
change and terrorism.
  Discusses the debate surrounding reforming institutions like the UN Security Council to
better reflect contemporary global power dynamics.

Chapter 7: International Cooperation

1. International Cooperation - When states work together to achieve common objectives,
often through formal institutions.
2. Public Goods - Goods that are non-excludable and non-rivalrous, meaning their use by
one actor does not reduce their availability to others (e.g., clean air, international
security).
3. Collective Goods Problem - The challenge of providing public goods in an international
system where states prioritize their own interests.
4. Reciprocity - The principle that states will cooperate if others do the same and that
violations of cooperation will be punished.
5. International Regimes - Sets of principles, norms, rules, and decision-making
procedures that govern state behavior in specific issue areas (e.g., trade, environment).
6. Prisoners Dilemma –
7. Extradition –
8. International Law –
9. Horizontal Enforcement –
10. Vertical Enforcement –

Chapter 7 Summary:
Roles and Functions of IGOs:

 Facilitating Cooperation: IGOs provide a platform for states to come together to discuss
issues and cooperate on shared concerns.
 Setting Norms and Standards: They help establish international norms and standards
for behavior among states (e.g., human rights standards).
 Providing Technical Assistance: Organizations like the UN provide technical support
and expertise to help countries achieve development goals.

The Role of NGOs:

 NGOs influence international policy and governance through advocacy, raising

awareness, and providing services, especially in areas where state actors may be less
effective.

 International Cooperation: The need for states to work together to solve common
problems.
 Norms and Standards: The importance of establishing international norms for behavior
among states.
 Peacekeeping: The role of international organizations in maintaining peace and security.
 Global Governance: Understanding how international affairs are managed collectively.
 Impact of NGOs: The significant influence of non-state actors in global issues.