[Link].

N Master 2 : Didactics

Lesson1
LEARNING: FACTORS AND PROCESSES

INPUT
Input may be operationally defined as oral and/or written corpus of the target language (TL) to
which L2 learners are exposed through various sources, and recognized by them as language
input. This definition posits two conditions: availability and accessibility. The first condition is rather
obvious: either input has to be made available to learners or they have to seek it themselves. One
can easily identify three types of input attributable to three different, but not mutually exclusive,
sources from which learners are likely to get/seek input:
Interlanguage input: the still-developing language of the learners and of their peers with all its
linguistically well-formed as well as deviant utterances;
simplified input: the grammatically and lexically simplified language that teachers, textbook writers,
and other competent speakers use in and outside the classroom while addressing language
learners; and
non-simplified input: the language of competent speakers without any characteristic features of
simplification, that is, the language generally used in the media (TV, radio, and newspapers), and
also the language used by competent speakers to speak and write to one another.
Each of these three sources of input can manifest itself in various forms: spoken and written,
formal and informal, and so on. Learners are exposed to input from these sources at different
points in their learning experience and in varying degrees.
The second condition—accessibility—is less obvious than the first but is equally important: input
has to be recognized by learners as language input, and accepted by them as something with
which they can cope. In other words, input should be linguistically and cognitively accessible to
them. The language input that is available, but not accessible, is no more than noise.

INTAKE
Unlike input, the concept of intake is not easy to pin down. The literature on second language
acquisition (SLA) presents several conflicting definitions and explanations for the term intake. Two
strands of thought emerge: one that treats intake primarily as product, and the other that treats it
primarily as process.
The product view identifies intake as a subset of input before the input is processed by
learners. In other words, intake is input, even though it is only a part of it. The process view,
however, identifies intake as what comes after psycholinguistic processing. That is, intake is
already part of the learner’s IL system. According to the product view, intake then is unprocessed
language input; according to the process view, it is processed language input. The product view of
intake appears to be severely flawed. It implies that there is no need to differentiate input from
intake because intake, after all, is no more than a part of input and is independent of language-
learning processes. Furthermore, without such a distinction, we will not be able to account for the
fact that “input is not perceived and processed by different learners in an identical manner” (Stern,
1983, p. 393).
Intake, then, is an abstract entity of learner language that has been fully or partially processed
by learners, and fully or partially assimilated into their developing IL system. It is the result of as
yet undetermined interaction between input and intake factors mediated by intake processes. It is
not directly observable, quantifiable, or analyzable; it is a complex cluster of mental
representations. What is available for empirical verification is the product of these mental
representations, generally called output. Intake is treated as a subset of input only to the extent
that it originates from a larger body of input data. Features of learners’ output can be traced, not
only to the input they are exposed to, but to the dynamics of intake processes as well.

Intake factors

The major intake factors can be represented by an acronym, INTAKE:

Individual factors: age and anxiety;
Negotiation factors: interaction and interpretation;
Tactical factors: learning strategies and communication strategies;
Affective factors: attitudes and motivation;
Knowledge factors: language knowledge and metalanguage knowledge;
Environmental factors: social context and educational context.
These factors can be classified into two broad categories: learner internal and learner external
factors.

Tactical Factors
Tactical factors refer to an important aspect of L2 development: the learners’ awareness of, and
their ability to use, appropriate tactics or techniques for effective learning of the L2 and efficient
use of the limited repertoire developed so far. In the L2 literature, such tactics are discussed under
the general rubric of learning strategies and communication strategies.

Learning Strategies. Learning strategies are operations and routines used by the learner to
facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information

Communication Strategies. In addition to learning strategies, L2 learners also use what are called
communication strategies, which are “potentially conscious plans for solving what to an individual
presents itself as a problem in reaching a particular communicative goal” (Faerch & Kasper, 1980,
p. 81). These are compensatory or coping strategies that learners employ in order to make do with
their still-developing linguistic and pragmatic knowledge/ability. One of the earliest taxonomies of
communication strategies is the one proposed by Tarone (1977). It has three broad categories:
paraphrase, involving the use of an elaborate descriptive phrase instead of a core lexical item;
borrowing, involving a word-for-word literal translation from native language; or avoidance,
involving the attempt to avoid using a required expression or just to give up the effort to
communicate.
Affective Factors
The individual learner’s disposition to learn has always been recognized as crucial for L2
development. The term ‘affective factors’ stands for several variables that characterize learner
disposition, the most important of which are attitudes and motivation.
Knowledge Factors
Knowledge factors refer to language knowledge and metalanguage knowledge. All adult L2
learners exposed to formal language education in their L1 inevitably bring with them not only their
L1 knowledge/ability but also their own perceptions and expectations about language, language
learning, and language use. Both language knowledge and metalanguage knowledge play a
crucial role in L2 development.
. Language Knowledge: Language knowledge represents knowledge/ ability in the native
language, in the still developing target language, and in other languages already known. The
influence and use of language knowledge can be a facilitating or a constraining factor in L2
development.
Metalanguage Knowledge: Metalanguage knowledge, also known as metalinguistic awareness,
refers to “one’s ability to consider language not just as a means of expressing ideas or
communicating with others, but also as an object of inquiry” (Gass & Selinker, 2001, p. 302). It
ranges possessing insights into what a language system is and what it is used (and misused) for.
It also leads to a conscious perception and sensitivity in language learning, and language
teaching.

Environmental Factors
Environmental factors refer to the wider milieu in which language learning and teaching take place.
These include the global, national, social, cultural, political, economic, educational, and family
contexts. The impact of these overlapping factors on L2 development is not fully known,
INTAKE PROCESSES
Intake processes are cognitive mechanisms that at once mediate between, and interact with, input
data and intake factors. They consist of mental operations that are specific to language learning as
well as those that are required for general problem-solving activities. As procedures and
operations that are internal to the learner, intake processes remain the most vital and the least
understood link in the input–intake–output chain.
The intake processes that appear to shape L2 development may be grouped under three broad
and overlapping categories: inferencing, structuring, and restructuring. These processes appear to
govern what goes on in the learners’ mind when they attempt to internalize the TL system, that is,
infer the linguistic system of the TL from the available and accessible input data, structure
appropriate mental representations of the TL system, and restructure the developing system in
light of further exposure and experience. In the rest of this section, I briefly outline each of them.
Inferencing
The intake process of inferencing involves making a series of intelligent guesses to derive
tentative hypotheses about various aspects of the TL system. Inferences are normally made by
using all available, at times inconclusive, linguistic and nonlinguistic evidence based on the
learner’s implicit and explicit knowledge base. Implicit knowledge refers to information learners
intuit about the TL, even though they cannot articulate that information in the form of rules or
principles. Explicit knowledge refers to the learners’ knowledge about the TL, their L1, and their
knowledge of the world. Similarly, inferencing can be made using inductive as well as deductive
reasoning. That is, learners can infer how a particular subsystem of language works by moving
inductively from the particular to the general (i.e. from examples to rules), or moving deductively
from the general to the particular.
Furthermore, L2 learners may benefit from the processes of overgeneralization and language
transfer to make inferences about the TL system. Using intralingual cues, they may overgeneralize
certain features of the TL system on the basis of any partial learning that may have already taken
place. Similarly, using interlingual cues, learners may transfer certain phonological, morphological,
syntactic, or even pragmatic features of their first language. Language transfer, as a cognitive
process, has been considered to be essential to the formation of IL (Selinker, 1992).
Inferencing is particularly useful when the learners are able to pay attention to the new features
presented in the input data in order to find the gap between what is already known and what
needs to be learned anew. The process of inferencing can be expected to vary from learner to
learner because it reflects individual cognitive capabilities involving the connections made by
learners themselves and not the connections inherently found in the input data. Inferencing thus
may entail framing new insights or reframing what is already vaguely or partially known.

Structuring
Structuring refers to the complex process that governs the establishment of mental
representations of the TL, and their evolution in the course of IL development. It refers to how the
L2 system is framed in the mind of the learner. It combines elements of analysis and control.
Analysis is connected to language knowledge, and control is connected to language ability. As
learners begin to understand how the L2 system works, and as their mental representations of the
system become more explicit and more structured, they begin to see the relationships between
various linguistic categories and concepts. Control is the process that allows learners “direct their
attention to specific aspects of the environment or a mental representation as problems are solved
in real time” (Bialystok, 2002, p. 153). In other words, the intake process of structuring helps
learners construct, structure and organize the symbolic representational system of the TL by
gradually making explicit the implicit knowledge that shape their IL performance.
Compared to inferencing, structuring gives learners not only a deeper understanding of the
properties and principles of the TL system, but also a greater control over their use for
communicative purposes. It helps them pay selective attention to relevant and appropriate input
data in order to tease out specific language problems. It can also regulate the flow of information
between short-term and long-term memory systems.
The difference between inferenced knowledge/ability and structured knowledge/ability may
contribute to the distinction Chaudron (1983) made between preliminary intake and final intake.
The former relates to “perception and comprehension of forms” and the latter to “the incorporation
of the forms in the learner’s grammar” (pp. 438–439). Although inferenced knowledge/ability and
structured knowledge/ability are partially independent and partially interacting dimensions of intake
processes, they may be seen as constituting two ends of a learning continuum.
Restructuring
Restructuring can be traced to the structuralist approach enunciated by Jean Piaget, who
maintained that cognitive development is characterized by fundamental, qualitative change when a
new internal organization is imposed for interpreting new information. In other words, restructuring
denotes neither an incremental change in the structure already in place nor a slight modification of
it but the addition of a totally new structure to allow for a totally new interpretation.
It results in learners abandoning their initial hunch and opting for a whole new hypothesis. It marks
a strategy shift that coordinates, integrates, and reorganizes task components resulting in more
efficient intake processing. It can operate at phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic, and
pragmatic levels (McLaughlin, 1990).
Although most aspects of inferencing and structuring account for the reasons why intake
processing requires selective attention and an extended time period of practice for the formation of
mental representations of the TL system, restructuring as an intake process accounts for
discontinuities inL2 development. It has been frequently observed that although some learning
occurs continuously and gradually, as is true of the development of automaticity through practice,
some learning occurs in discontinuous fashion, through restructuring (McLeod & McLaughlin,
1986). Restructuring is mostly a sudden, abstract, insight-forming phenomenon happening quickly
and incidentally, taking very little processing time and energy.
To sum up this section, the intake processes of inferencing, structuring, and restructuring
constitute the mental mechanisms governing L2 development. They work in tandem in as yet
undetermined ways to facilitate or constrain the formation of mental representations of the TL
system. They seem to operate at various points on the implicit–explicit continuum, triggering
incidental learning at some times and intentional learning at some other times. In conjunction with
various intake factors, these processes help learners synthesize the developing knowledge into
grammar, and internalize it so as to effectively and efficiently access it in appropriate contexts of
language use.
3. OUTPUT
Output refers to the corpus of utterances that learners actually produce orally or in writing. In
addition to well-formed utterances that may have already been structured and/or restructured, the
learner output will contain deviant utterances that cannot be traced to any of the three major
sources of input because they are the result of an interplay between intake factors and intake
processes. Traditionally, output has been considered not as a mechanism for language learning
but as evidence of what has already been learned. Research, however, indicates a larger role for
output. Introducing the concept of comprehensible output, Merrill Swain (1985) argued that we
need “to incorporate the notion of being pushed towards the delivery of a message that is not only
conveyed, but that is conveyed precisely, coherently, and appropriately” (pp. 248–249). She
further asserted that production “may force the learner to move from semantic processing to
syntactic processing” (p. 249).
In other words, an attempt to produce language will move learners from processing language at
the level of word meaning (which can sometimes be done by guessing from the context or by
focusing on just key words) to processing language at the level of grammatical structures (which
requires a much higher level of cognitive activity).In a later work, Swain (1995) identified three
possible functions of output: the noticing function, the hypothesis-testing function, and the
metalinguistic function. The noticing function relates to the possibility that when learners try to
communicate in their still-developing target language, they may encounter a linguistic problem and
become aware of what they do not know or know only partially. Such an encounter may raise their
awareness, leading to an appropriate action on their part. The hypothesis-testing function of output
relates to the possibility that when learners use their still developing TL, they may be
experimenting with what works and what doesnot work. Moreover, when they participate in
negotiated interaction and receive negative feedback, they are likely to test different hypotheses
about a particular linguistic system. Finally, the metalinguistic function of output relates to the
possibility that learners may be consciously thinking about language and its system, about its
phonological, grammatical, and semantic rules in order to guide them to produce utterances that
are linguistically correct and communicatively appropriate
Source:
Kumaravadivelu, B. [Link] LANGUAGE TEACHING:From Method to
Postmethod. LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES

[Link].N Master 2 : Didactics

LESSON 2: POST-METHOD CONDITION

Language teaching in a postmethod era reflects the heightened awareness that the L2 profession
witnessed during the waning years of the twentieth century:
• An awareness that there is no best method out there ready and waiting to be discovered;
• An awareness that the artificially created dichotomy between theory and practice has been more
harmful than helpful for teachers;
• An awareness that teacher education models that merely transmit a body of interested
knowledge do not produce effective teaching professionals; and
An awareness that teacher beliefs, teacher reasoning, and teacher cognition play a crucial role in
shaping and reshaping the content and character of the practice of everyday teaching.
A state of heightened awareness about the futility of searching for the best method has resulted in
a postmethod condition.

Limitations of the Concept of Method

The disjunction between method as conceptualized by theorists and method as conducted by
teachers is the direct consequence of the inherent limitations of the concept of method itself.
First and foremost, methods are based on idealized concepts geared toward idealized contexts.
Since language learning and teaching needs, wants, and situations are unpredictably numerous,
no idealized method can visualize all the variables in advance in order to provide situation-specific
suggestions that practicing teachers sorely need to tackle the challenges they confront every day
of their professional lives. As a predominantly top-down exercise, the conception and construction
of methods have been largely guided by a one-size-fits-all
It is too inadequate and too limited to satisfactorily explain the complexity of language teaching
operations around the world. Concerned primarily and narrowly with classroom instructional
strategies, it ignores the fact that the success or failure of classroom instruction depends to a large
extent on the unstated and unstable interaction of multiple factors such as teacher cognition,
learner perception, societal needs, cultural contexts, political exigencies, economic imperatives,
and institutional constraints, all of which are inextricably interwoven.
The limitations of the concept of method gradually led to the realization that “the term method is a
label without substance” (Clarke, 1983, p. 109), that it has “diminished rather than enhance our
understanding of language teaching” (Pennycook, 1989, p. 597), and that “language teaching
might be better understood and better executed if the concept of method were not to exist at all”
(Jarvis, 1991, p. 295). This realization has resulted in a widespread dissatisfaction with the
concept of method.
These studies show, collectively and clearly, that
• Teachers who are trained in and even swear by a particular method do not conform to its
theoretical principles and classroom procedures,
• Teachers who claim to follow the same method often use different classroom procedures that are
not consistent with the adopted method,
• Teachers who claim to follow different methods often use same classroom procedures.
Dissatisfaction with established methods inevitably and increasingly led practicing teachers to rely
on their intuitive ability and experiential knowledge. The difficulties faced by teachers in developing
an enlightened eclectic method are apparent. Stern (1992, p. 11) pointed out some of them: “The
weakness of the eclectic position is that it offers no criteria according to which we can determine
which is the best theory, nor does it provide any principles by which to include or exclude features
which form part of existing theories or practices. The choice is left to the individual’s intuitive
judgment and is, therefore, too broad and too vague to be satisfactory as a theory in its own right.”

Postmethod Condition
The postmethod condition signifies three interrelated attributes.
First and foremost, it signifies a search for an alternative to method rather than an alternative
method. While alternative methods are primarily products of top-down processes, alternatives to
method are mainly products of bottom-up processes. In practical terms, this means that, we need
to refigure the relationship between the theorizer and the practitioner of language teaching. If the
conventional concept of method entitles theorizers to construct professional theories of pedagogy,
the postmethod condition empowers practitioners to construct personal theories of practice. If the
concept of method authorizes theorizers to centralize pedagogic decision-making, the postmethod
condition enables practitioners to generate location-specific, classroom-oriented innovative
strategies.
Secondly, the postmethod condition signifies teacher autonomy. The conventional concept of
method “overlooks the fund of experience and tacit knowledge about teaching which the teachers
already have by virtue of their lives as students” (Freeman, 1991, p. 35). The postmethod
condition, however, recognizes the teachers’ potential to know not only how to teach but also how
to act autonomously within the academic and administrative constraints imposed by institutions,
curricula, and textbooks. It also promotes the ability of teachers to know how to develop a critical
approach in order to self-observe, self-analyze, and self-evaluate their own teaching practice with
a view to effecting desired changes.
The third attribute of the postmethod condition is principled pragmatism. Unlike eclecticism which
is constrained by the conventional concept of method, in the sense that one is supposed to put
together practices from different established methods, principled pragmatism is based on the
pragmatics of pedagogy where “the relationship between theory and practice, ideas and their
actualization, can only be realized within the domain of application, that is, through the immediate
activity of teaching” (Widdowson, 1990, p. 30). Principled pragmatism thus focuses on how
classroom learning can be shaped and reshaped by teachers as a result of self-observation, self-
analysis, and self-evaluation. One way in which teachers can follow principled pragmatism is by
developing what Prabhu (1990) calls “a sense of plausibility.” Teachers’ sense of plausibility is
their “subjective understanding of the teaching they do” (Prabhu, 1990, p. 172). This subjective
understanding may arise from their own experience as learners and teachers, and through
professional education and peer consultation. Since teachers’ sense of plausibility is not linked to
the concept of method, an important concern is “not whether it implies a good or bad method, but
more basically, whether it is active, alive, or operational enough to create a sense of involvement
for both the teacher and the student” (Ibid., p. 173).
The three major attributes of the postmethod condition outlined above provide a solid foundation
on which the fundamental parameters of a postmethod pedagogy can be conceived and
constructed.

References
K U M A R AVA D I V E L U, B. 2003. Beyond M e t h o d s :MacrostrategiesforLanguage
Teaching. Yale University Press
Kumaravadivelu, B. [Link] LANGUAGE TEACHING:From Method to
Postmethod. LAWRENCE ERLBAUM ASSOCIATES.

[Link].N Master 2 : Didactics

Lesson3: Postmethod Pedagogy
Postmethod pedagogy allows to go beyond, and overcome the limitations of, method-based
pedagogy. The term pedagogy in a broad sense includes not only issues pertaining to classroom
strategies, instructional materials, curricular objectives, and evaluation measures but also a wide
range of historiopolitical and sociocultural experiences that directly or indirectly influence L2
education. Postmethod pedagogy is a three-dimensional system consisting of pedagogic
parameters of particularity, practicality, and possibility.

The Parameter of Particularity

The parameter of particularity requires that any language pedagogy, to be relevant, must be
sensitive to a particular group of teachers teaching a particular group of learners pursuing a
particular set of goals within a particular institutional context embedded in a particular sociocultural
milieu. The parameter of particularity then is opposed to the notion that there can be an
established method with a generic set of theoretical principles and a generic set of classroom
practices. From a pedagogic point of view, then, particularity is at once a goal and a process. That
is to say, one works for and through particularity at the same time. It is a progressive advancement
of means and ends. It is the ability to be sensitive to the local educational, institutional and social
contexts in which L2 learning and teaching take place. It starts with practicing teachers, either
individually or collectively, observing their teaching acts, evaluating their outcomes, identifying
problems, finding solutions, and trying them out to see once again what works and what doesn’t.
Such a continual cycle of observation, reflection, and action is a prerequisite for the development
of context-sensitive pedagogic theory and practice. Since the particular is so deeply embedded in
the practical, and cannot be achieved or understood without it, the parameter of particularity is
intertwined with the parameter of practicality as well.

The Parameter of Practicality

The parameter of practicality relates to a much larger issue that directly impacts on the practice of
classroom teaching, namely, the relationship between theory and practice. The parameter of
practicality entails a teacher-generated theory of practice. It recognizes that no theory of practice
can be fully useful and usable unless it is generated through practice. A logical corollary is that it is
the practicing teacher who, given adequate tools for exploration, is best suited to produce such a
practical theory. The intellectual exercise of attempting to derive a theory of practice enables
teachers to understand and identify problems, analyze and assess information, consider and
evaluate alternatives, and then choose the best available alternative that is then subjected to
further critical appraisal. In this sense, a theory of practice involves continual reflection and action.

The Parameter of Possibility

The parameter of possibility is derived mainly from the works of critical pedagogists of Freirean
persuasion. Critical pedagogists take the position that any pedagogy is implicated in relations of
power and dominance, and is implemented to create and sustain social inequalities. They call for
recognition of learners’ and teachers’ subject-positions, that is, their class, race, gender, and
ethnicity, and for sensitivity toward their impact on education. In the process of sensitizing itself to
the prevailing sociopolitical reality, the parameter of possibility is also concerned with individual
identity. More than any other educational enterprise, language education provides its participants
with challenges and opportunities for a continual quest for subjectivity and self-identity for, as
Weeden (1987, p. 21) points out, “Language is the place where actual and possible forms of social
organization and their likely social and political consequences are defined and contested. Yet itis
also the place where our sense of ourselves, our subjectivity, is constructed.” This is even more
applicable to L2 education, which brings languages and cultures in contact
To sum up this section, The parameter of particularity seeks to facilitate the advancement of a
context-sensitive, location-specific pedagogy that is based on a true understanding of local
linguistic, sociocultural, and political particularities.
The parameter of practicality seeks to enable and encourage teachers to theorize from their
practice and to practice what they theorize. The parameter of possibility seeks to tap the
sociopolitical consciousness that participants bring with them to the classroom so that itcan also
function as a catalyst for a continual quest for identity formation and social transformation.
The result of such a relationship will vary from context to context depending on what the
participants bring to bear on it.

Macrostrategies and Microstrategies

The macrostrategic framework for language teaching consists of macrostrategies and

microstrategies. Macrostrategies are defined as guiding principles derived from historical,
theoretical, empirical, and experiential insights related to L2 learning and teaching. A
macrostrategy is thus a general plan, a broad guideline based on which teachers will be able to
generate their own situation-specific, need-based microstrategies or classroom techniques. In
other words, macrostrategies are made operational in the classroom through microstrategies. The
suggested macrostrategies and the situated microstrategies can assist L2 teachers as they begin
to construct their own theory of practice. These are ten macrostrategies with brief descriptions:

• Maximize learning opportunities: This macrostrategy envisages teaching as a process of creating

and utilizing learning opportunities, a process in which teachers strike a balance between their
role as managers of teaching acts and their role as mediators of learning acts;
• Minimize perceptual mismatches: This macrostrategy emphasizes the recognition of potential
perceptual mismatches between intentions and interpretations of the learner, the teacher, and the
teacher educator;
• Facilitate negotiated interaction: This macrostrategy refers to meaningful learner-learner, learner-
teacher classroom interaction in which learners are entitled and encouraged to initiate topic and
talk, not just react and respond;
• Promote learner autonomy: This macrostrategy involves helping learners learn how to learn,
equipping them with the means necessary to self-direct and self-monitor their own learning;
• Foster language awareness: This macrostrategy refers to any attempt to draw learners’ attention
to the formal and functional properties of their L2 in order to increase the degree of explicitness
required to promote L2 learning;
• Activate intuitive heuristics: This macrostrategy highlights the importance of providing rich textual
data so that learners can infer and internalize underlying rules governing grammatical usage and
communicative use;
• Contextualize linguistic input: This macrostrategy highlights how language usage and use are
shaped by linguistic, extralinguistic, situational, and extrasituational contexts;
• Integrate language skills: This macrostrategy refers to the need to holistically integrate language
skills traditionally separated and sequenced as listening, speaking, reading, and writing;
• Ensure social relevance: This macrostrategy refers to the need for teachers to be sensitive to the
societal, political, economic, and educational environment in which L2 learning and teaching take
place; and
• Raise cultural consciousness: This macrostrategy emphasizes the need to treat learners as
cultural informants so that they are encouraged to engage in a process of classroom participation
that puts a premium on their power/knowledge.
This framework transforms classroom practitioners into strategic thinkers, strategic teachers, and
strategic explorers who channel their time and effort in order to
• reflect on the specific needs, wants, situations, and processes of learning and teaching;
• stretch their knowledge, skill, and attitude to stay informed and involved;
• design and use appropriate microstrategies to maximize learning potential in the classroom; and
• monitor and evaluate their ability to react to myriad situations in meaningful ways.
In short, the framework seeks to provide a possible mechanism for classroom teachers to begin to
theorize from their practice and practicewhat they theorize.
Microstrategiesare classroom procedures that are designed to realize the objectives of a particular
macrostrategy. Each macrostrategy can have any number of, and any type of, microstrategies,
depending on the local learning and teaching situation; the possibilities are endless. However,
microstrategies are conditioned and constrained by the national, regional, or local language policy
and planning, curricular objectives, institutional resources, and a host of other factors that shape
the learning and teaching enterprise in a given context. Most of all, they have to be designed
keeping in mind the learners’ needs, wants, and lacks, as well as their current level of language
knowledge/ability.

References
K U M A R AVA D I V E L U, B. 2003. Beyond M e t h o d s: Macrostrategies for
Language Teaching. Yale University Press
[Link].N Master 2 : Didactics
Lesson 4: Teacher Awareness
According to Richards, Ho &Giblin (1996), teaching is a cognitive as well as a behavioural activity
which is concerned with knowledge, awareness, beliefs and skills. For Cowan (2006, p. 100),
teaching is the purposeful creation of situations from which motivated learners should not escape
without learning or developing. Teaching is a continuous process of thought and action; it is the
tool of fostering learning in an interactive atmosphere; it is also the art of involving learners in their
learning inside and outside the classroom.
Teachers’ Beliefs
Richards (2000) argues for two dimensions of teacher knowledge that influence teachers’
understanding and practice of teaching. The first relates to subject matter and curriculum issues
and the way of presenting the content of the lesson in an effective way. The second kind of
knowledge relates to teachers’ implicit theories of teaching including their personal and subjective
philosophy and their understanding of what constitutes good teaching. He considers teachers’
belief system as the primary source of teachers’ classroom practices since it includes: attitudes,
values, expectations, theories and assumptions about teaching and learning that develop through
time. In addition, Freeman & Richards (1996) show that teachers’ previous learning, knowledge
and beliefs about teaching serve as a powerful determinant of teachers’ perceptions and practices;
they are often resistant to change.
Teachers’ beliefs are important for understanding and improving educational process. They
closely guide language teachers to adopt their teaching strategies for coping with their daily
language teaching challenges, influence their general well-being, and in turn, shape language
learners’ learning environment, their motivation and their language achievement and ability (Xu,
2012, p. 1397).

Williams and Burden (1997) further clarify,

In every teaching act teachers define themselves as persons and teachers, and their views of
teaching mirror their view of themselves and their teaching behaviour reflect their essence as
persons.
Teaching is an expression of values and attitudes, not just information or knowledge.
Teachers must recognize that they themselves are constantly involved in a lifelong process of
learning and change.
Reflective Teaching
“Reflection has the power to help the teacher connect experience and theoretical knowledge in
order to use the area of expertise more effectively” (Knezevic& Scholl, 1996, p. 79). It is of double
meaning: (Bartlett (1997)
relationship between an individual’s thought and action, and
the relationship between teaching actions and the purposes of education in society.
“Reflection enables teachers to experience and enjoy a new level of self-articulated
professionalism” (Farrell, 2003, p. 14).
Farrell (2003) distinguishes between routine action and reflective action. The first- routine action-
refers to unconscious practice that is carried out as an unanalyzed chunk, teachers may not be
aware of a particular behaviour which has been previously internalized. The second- reflective
teaching- can benefit ESL/EFL teachers in getting rid of the routine behavior allowing them to act
in a more intentional way and develop awareness of their own teaching practice.
The reflective Teaching Cycle

Bartlett (1997) who suggests five phases - which are not linear- involved in the cycle of reflection:
mapping, informing, contesting, appraising and acting.
First, mapping is represented by the following question: “What do I do as a teacher?” “It involves
the observation and the collection of information about one’s own teaching. It can be through
audio/visual means or journal/diary writing. He clarifies, “we begin not only to observe but we take
the first step in reflecting on and about our practice” (ibid, p. 209). Second, informing refers to
“what is the meaning of my teaching?” “What did I intend?” It deals with the consideration of the
first record in order to make meaning of it. Informing may occur after a teaching sequence or a
lesson; besides, it can be accomplished individually or in discussion with others. This offers the
possibility of extending one’s insight about oneself as a teacher and a member of a larger
community. This supports the idea of teaching as interaction since teaching cannot be separated
from one’s students, culture, expectations about life and how one wants to participate in the
society. The outcome of this phase of informing is the distinction between teaching as a routine
and teaching as reflection which searches for the best possible solution based on informed choice.
Third, contesting deals with “how did I come to be this way?“ ” How was it possible for my present
view of teaching to have emerged?” This phase considers the ideas and the reasons that uncover
one’s teaching assumptions. The phases of mapping and informing consider one’s theories about
teaching, while the contesting phase confronts the reasons for one’s teaching actions;
“Contestation involves a search for inconsistencies and contradictions in what we do and how we
think”(ibid, p. 212).
Fourth, appraisal deals with “how might I teach differently?” or “what would be the consequences
to learning if I changed…?” This phase leads to a search for alternative paths of action, in which a
link is established between the thinking dimension of reflection and the search for teaching ways
with one’s new understanding. Acting, the last phase in the cycle deals with “what and how shall I
now teach?” There is continuity between the preceding phases and the phase of putting in action
new ideas about one’s teaching. This cycle, as Bartlett advances, offers a regular approach to the
process of making committed choice as the basis of effective teaching. This cycle helps the
teacher to move from the unconscious incompetence to the conscious competence. Scales (2008)
points out that successful teaching requires teachers to constantly challenge and develop their
practice by regular reflection and review. Then, reflection is an ongoing process of critical
consideration of one’s teaching theories and actions.
Reflection Types
Boud (2001, p.10-15), in the following model, notifies that the conventional view that reflection
occurs only after an event pictures teachers as passive respondents to events; then, he
distinguishes three occasions of reflection: before, during and after an event . He adds that the
reflective journal has a significant role to play at each of these occasions. First, reflection in
anticipation of events emphasizes the planning for future events with three main aspects: 1) a
focus on the learner, 2) a focus on all aspects of the context and 3) a focus on learning skills and
strategies. Second, reflection in the midst of action denotes one’s engagement in the learning
experience which includes:
Noticing: attention directed towards both the external world of events and the internal world of
thoughts and feelings; “Noticing affects the extent to which we become actively involved in the
process, whether or not this fact is observable by others” (p: 13).
Intervening: refers to the action taken to change a situation, they might not be observable. He
clarifies that the focus on thoughts and feelings rather the external activities is a form of
intervention.
Reflection –in –action: encompasses reflection on noticing and intervening to interpret events. It
represents the move from the unconscious to the conscious analysis of the events.
Reflection after events: He emphasizes that this is not simply a process of thinking, but also
involves feelings, emotions and decision making. It includes a return to the experience, attending
feelings and reevaluation of that experience.
Third, reevaluation of the experience includes relating new information with the already known
ones, seeking relationships and then making the resulting knowledge one’s own; “Reevaluation is
about finding shape, pattern, and meaning in what has been produced” ( p. 15). He comments that
pair and group activities represent occasions for learners to transform perspectives and challenge
old patterns of learning; “It is only through give and take with others and by confronting the
challenges they pose that critical reflection can be promoted” (passim). Finally, he pinpoints that
reevaluation marks the end of one cycle and the beginning of another one.

[Link].N Master 2 : Didactics

Lesson 5: Syllabus Design

Definition of Syllabus
According to Corder (1993, p. 296), a finished syllabus is the overall plan for the learning process.
It must specify what components, or learning items, must be available, or learned by a certain
time; what is the most efficient sequence in which they are learned; what items can be learned
‘simultaneously’, what items are available from stock, i.e. already known; and the whole process is
determined by the considerations of how long it takes to produce or learn, a component or item.
The task of organizing syllabus is sometimes called grading; this implies a progression
Generally, a syllabus is defined as “a course of study offered by a learning institution in a specific
period of time” (Debin and Olshtain, 1986). Other authorities have considered a syllabus to be a
collection of topics on the same subject matter that are required to meet the course objectives.
Farrant (1980: 173)defined a syllabus as “a series of statements of what is to be learned”. Then, a
syllabus will be defined as a course outline comprising a collection of topics on the same subject
matter and a series of statements of what is to be learned within a given time frame.
One of the essential components of any language teaching program is syllabus or curriculum,
which specifies the what or the content of language learning and teaching. The two terms are
often used interchangeably although they may indicate a hierarchical relationship where
curriculum refers broadly to all aspects of language policy, language planning, teaching methods,
and evaluation measures, whereas syllabus relates narrowly to the specification of content and the
sequencing of what is to be taught.

Syllabus Characteristics
A well-designed language teaching syllabus seeks mainly (a) to clarify the aims and objectives of
learning and teaching, and (b) to indicate the classroom procedures the teacher may wish to
follow. More specifically, any syllabus, according to Breen (2001, p. 151), should ideally provide
the following:
A clear framework of knowledge and capabilities selected to be appropriate to overall aims;
continuity and a sense of direction in classroom work for teacher and students;
a record for other teachers of what has been covered in the course;
a basis for evaluating students’ progress;
a basis for evaluating the appropriateness of the course in relation to overall aims and student
needs, identified both before and during the course;
content appropriate to the broader language curriculum, the particular class of learners, and the
educational situation and wider society in which the course is located.

The assumption behind this ideal list of syllabus objectives is that they will enable teaching to
become more organized and more effective. In that sense, a syllabus is more a teaching organizer
than a learning indicator, although a well-conceived and well-constructed syllabus is supposed to
relate as closely as possible to learning processes.

Syllabus Importance
A syllabus is a very important document to a practising teacher because it is the basis for the
content delivered to the learner. Here are some reasons why it is important to have a syllabus:
• From the syllabus, the teacher can determine what topics are to be taught at each level: class,
grade or form.
• The syllabus outlines terminal objectives. It gives the teacher the basis for evaluation, since
these objectives specify the expected achievements at the end of the course.
• The syllabus lists concepts to be developed; it tells the teacher what pupils should learn.
• The syllabus outlines the learning experiences and provides notes on the subject to be learned.
These help the teacher determine the depth of the content and the expected skills to be
developed. The teacher can easily prepare materials needed to deliver lessons.
• The syllabus provides strategies and means of evaluating the learners’ understanding of the
subject. In some instances, the syllabus may suggest the skills to be evaluated and the weighting
of each skill (for example, practical skills 40% and knowledge 60%).

Elements of a Syllabus
Syllabuses are designed centrally by panels of specialists and teachers with experience in the
subject. A number of consultations are done before the final document is produced. The common
elements found in most types of the syllabus are
described below.
• Course Objectives outline the learning that pupils should be able to demonstrate at the end of
the course. Generally, these objectives concern themselves with the skills, knowledge and
attitudes that are to be developed. They are subject-specific, unlike those in the curriculum.
• Course Content. In each subject area, there are certain topics that should be included at each
level. These topics
are listed so that the teacher knows which subject matter to teach and the level at which to teach
it.
• Methods of Evaluation. This indicates the means and strategies of evaluation, the skills to be
evaluated and the number of test papers, including the nature of the
papers. While formats are given in syllabuses, they normally differ from subject to subject. When a
school receives the syllabus, the document is interpreted and divided into topics to be taught each
term. The grouping of these topics depends on:
Complexity of concept within each topic. Topics with simple concepts are taught before more
complex ones.
• Relatedness of topics. Topics that are related should come together but be sequentially ordered.
• Seasons of the year. Certain topics are best taught during wet or dry seasons. The weather will
determine the term in which certain topics are taught. For example, it is most effective to teach
about floods during the rainy season and about photosynthesis in biology when the leaves are
green.

Syllabus Classifications
Nearly a quarter century ago, Wilkins (1976) proposed two broad classifications of syllabus:
synthetic syllabus and analytic syllabus. The underlying assumption behind the synthetic syllabus
is that a language system can be (a) analyzed into its smaller units of grammatical structures,
lexical items, or functional categories; (b) classified in some manageable and useful way; and (c)
presented to the learner one by one for their understanding and assimilation. The learners then
are expected to synthesize all the separate elements in order to get the totality of the language.
Because the synthesis is done by the learner, the syllabus is dubbed synthetic. The language-
centered as well as learner-centered methods follow the synthetic syllabus. Language-centered
pedagogists devised suitable classroom procedures for teachers to present, and help learners
synthesize, discrete items of grammar and vocabulary while learner-centered pedagogists did the
same, adding notional and functional categories to the linguistic items. In the analytic syllabus, the
language input is presented to the learner, not piece by piece, but in fairly large chunks. These
chunks will not have any specific linguistic focus; instead, they will bring the learner’s attention to
the form of stories, games, problems, tasks, and so forth. It is the responsibility of the learner to
analyze the connected texts into its smaller constituent elements, hence the term, analytic.
Learning-centered methods adhere to the analytic approach to syllabus construction.

Different types of approaches to foreign language syllabus design

The choice of a syllabus is a major decision in language teaching. Several distinct types of
language teaching syllabi have been proposed, and these different types may be implemented in
various teaching situations. Krahnke (1987: 10) has proposed six types of syllabi as follows:
a) A structural syllabus is a kind of syllabus in which the content of language teaching is a
collection of the forms and structures, usually grammatical elements such as verbs, nouns, past
tense and so on.
b) A notional/functional syllabus is the one in which the content of the language is a collection of
the functions that are to be performed when language is used, or of the notions that language is
used to express.
For example, informing, agreeing, apologizing, requesting, promising and so on
c) A situational syllabus is one in which the content of language teaching is a collection of real or
imaginary situations in which language occurs or is used For example. Seeing the dentist, asking
directions in a new town, buying a book in a bookshop.
d) A skill-based syllabus is one in which the content of the language teaching is a collection of
specific abilities that may play a part in using language.
e) A content–based syllabus is not really a language teaching syllabus at all. In content-based
language teaching, the primary purpose of the instruction is to teach some content or information
using the language that the students are also learning. The students are simultaneously language
students and students of whatever content is being taught. The subject matter is primary, and
language learning occurs incidentally to the content learning. An example of content-based
language teaching is a science class taught in the language the students need or want to learn.
f) A task-based syllabus is one in which the content of the teaching is a series of complex and
purposeful tasks that the students want or need to perform with the language they are learning.
Task-based approaches syllabi, which create a favourable condition and facilitate language
development

Teachers as course developers and their roles in syllabus design

‘what is the role of the classroom teacher in syllabus design?’ Nunan (1993) refers to Bell (1983)
who claims that teachers are consumers of other people’s syllabuses and their role is to
implement the plans of applied linguists, government agencies. While some teachers have a
relatively free hand in designing their own syllabuses on which their teaching programs are based,
most are, as Bell (1983) suggests, consumers of other syllabus designers. In line with this, Nunan
(1993:8) agrees with Bell and argues that few teachers are in the position of being able to design
their own syllabuses. Again Nunan (1987) reports that some teachers believe that syllabus
development should be carried out by people with specific expertise. Indeed the syllabus should
be negotiated by teachers and their students on the basis of the learners’ needs analysis
(Brindley,1984).
[Link].N Master 2 : Didactics
LESSON 6 : Curriculum Development

Definition
It is an overall plan for a course or programme, the total programme of formal studies offered by a
school or institution, as in the secondary school curriculum. Curriculum refers to the selection and
structure of the content and learning processes of a language course or program. Also, language
curriculum development will be defined as any systematic effort to create or improve the selection
and structure of the content and learning processes to fit the needs of the people in a particular
language course or program.
Such a programme usually states;
the educational purpose of the programme, in terms of aims or goals and
the content of the programme and the sequence in which it will be taught, (also known as the
syllabus)
the teaching procedures and learning activities that will be employed(i.e. methodology)
the means used to assess student learning (i.e. assessment and testing)
the means used to assess whether the programme has achieved its goals (i.e. evaluation)
Syllabus Vs Curriculum
Syllabus design is related to curriculum development. Candl in (1984) suggests that curricula are
concerned with making general statements about language learning, learning purpose and
experience, evaluation, and the role relationships of teachers and learners. According to Candlin,
they will also contain banks of learning items and suggestions about how these might be used in
class. Syllabuses, on the other hand, are more localized and are based on accounts and records
of what actually happens at the classroom level as teachers and learners apply a given curriculum
to their own situation. These accounts can be used to make subsequent modifications to the
curriculum, so that the developmental process is ongoing and cyclical. Nunan (1993:8) also
agrees with Candlin and proposes that: ‘Curriculum’ is concerned with planning, implementation,
evaluation, management, and administration of education programs. ‘Syllabus’, on the other hand,
focuses more narrowly on the selection and grading of content (Nunan, 1993:8).
Curriculum Development
Curriculum development is an ongoing process and not just a product. Curriculum lies at the heart
of educational enhancement policies, geared to quality improvement. Curriculum should support
teachers in developing their schools, increasing access to all students and raising the quality of
the learning-teaching process.
Curriculum development processes require expertise and continuous production of new
knowledge of these processes. As such, it requires that well-resourced and well-equipped
research structures be in place
Component Purpose
Programs of Study Rationale Goals and Objectives Content (e.g., affective, cognitive and
procedural skills knowledge–factual and conceptual) Describes: • the why of what students are
learning • which aims and goals students are learning • the what that students are learning.
AssessmentDescribes how student learning is being assessed whether for, as or of learning,
including: • attainment levels and descriptors of indicators for each of the levels • assessment
programs at provincial and jurisdiction levels.
Learning and Teaching ResourcesDescribes what students are learning with, also includes
supports for pedagogy, including: • assessments for, as or of student learning at a classroom or
grouping (i.e., non-graded) level • learning activities based on learning experiences.

Curriculum development must involve at least the following seven steps:

1. Finding and marshalling resources;
2. Setting up structures to help teachers do their teaching;
3. Providing political structures and leadership that will help the teachers to work together and pool
their abilities;
4. Dispensing the available resources equitably;
5. Buffering the teachers from external negative forces so that they can get on with curriculum
development projects;
6. Representing the curriculum to the outside world;
7. Starting the whole process over again with Step 1.
The process usually begins with the analysis phase and moves to the design phase, then to the
development phase and then through to implementation;
however, central to this process is the evaluation phase that occurs at multiple points, as is
demonstrated by the arrows. It is this iterative process that permits curriculum to become a quality
product. The process for future curriculum development will likely retain these five general stages;
however, the details will need to change to meet the needs of Alberta students and the rapidly
changing society in which they find themselves.

[Link].N Master 2 : Didactics

LESSON 7: Technology Use in the Classroom

The point isn’t to show that you can dazzle people

with lots of digital wizardry. It’s to show
that you can use technology in thoughtful,
well-planned ways to promote more effective
learning.
—JOSEPH SHEDD

“Technology” is the word of the day in many classrooms. Those preparing to become teachers are
told repeatedly that they must incorporate technology into their classes, both to hold their students’
attention in an era when most of them are used to getting information from TV and computer
screens and to train their students to become citizens of a high-tech world.

Benefits of media and technology

Whether technology is to be used effectively in EFL depends greatly on the way teachers take
maximum advantage of the power of its tools: Internet, video, software. Long before computers
have entered the class room, media have been used to spice up: lectures slide projectors,
overhead projectors, book projectors, TVs in the classroom.
Many science classes also featured live experiments like chemistry experiments or labs.
The impact of media on learning has been studied since a long time. Already in 1912, the
American psychologist Edward L. Thorndike recommended pictures as a labor-saving device for
instruction. Teachers use technology to
• shake up old paradigms
• rethink the subject
• illustrate real life applications
• explain things better
• tackle real life problems
• add a discovery component
• add color to the subject
• break the monotonicity of a lecture
• use audio-visual channels
• share teaching tools with other teachers
• better organize a lecture
• have students become more involved
• mine other interests of students

Risks of media and technology

There are general problems to be aware of:
danger to recycle old material again and again
use of outdated technology
use of emerging technology which is not ripe and error prone
overuse and monotonicity (power point)
risk of hardware failure
use of undigested material
didactic difficulties (small fonts, time loss)
teachers unable to handle the complexity
teaching style does not match the teacher
aesthetically pleasing but irrelevant
lose focus on learning goals
expectations of less mental effort
teacher is not comfortable with technology
cable forgotten; projector compatibility not tested.
application crashes, machine needs to reboot
projector needs adjustments, picture not sharp

The most important factor for a successful lecture remains the teacher. The interaction with the
students and the clarity of the expositions can be far more important than any ideological
parameters. A wide variety of teaching styles can work and can coexist in the same course: some
used technology, others do not use it at all, some teachers are more formal, others prefer to be
more informal.
• What works for one teacher might not work for another teacher.
• Using technology is like telling jokes: some can deliver, others better do not.
• It is helpful to be aware of the variety of tools which are available.
• Benefits and risks can be close together.
• Using technology can improve a lecture but also increases the risks of a failed lecture.
• A marginal but valuable increase of the lecture quality comes with the risk to lose the entire
lecture.

Lesson 7: Using technology in the classroom

Technology in language teaching
According to Duddeney & Hockly (2007), technology in education is not new and since 1960 and
1970, tape recorders, language laboratories and video have been use. Computer-based materials
for language teaching as Computer Assisted Language Learning (CALL) appeared in the early
1980s. Then, access to Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has become more
widespread and CALL has moved beyond the use of computer programs to embrace the use of
the internet and web-based tools. The term TELL (Technology Enhanced Language Learning)
appeared in the 1990s in response to the growing possibilities offered by internet and
communications technology.
The use of ICTs by language teachers is becoming increasingly important for the following
reasons ( Duddeney & Hockly, 2007, pp. 7-8):
Internet access: either in private homes or at the Internet cafés
Young learners are growing up with technology and it is a natural and integrated part of their lives.
For these learners the use of technology is a way to bring the outside world into the classroom.
Some of these learners will become teachers themselves.
English as an International language is being used in technologically mediated contexts.
Technology especially the Internet presents new opportunities for authentic tasks and materials as
well as access to a wealth of ready-made ELT materials.
The internet offers excellent opportunities for collaboration and communication between learners
who are geographically dispersed.
Technology is offered with published materials such as course books and resource books for
teachers.
Learners increasingly expect language schools to integrate technology into teaching.
Technology offers new ways for practicing language and assessing performance.
Technology is becoming increasingly mobile. It can be used not only in the classroom, lecture hall,
computer room or self-access center, it can also be used at home, on the way to school and in
Internet Cafés.
Using a range of ICT tools can give learners exposure to and practice in all of the four main
language skills- speaking, listening, writing and reading.

E-Learning
For Duddeney & Hockly (2007, pp 136-137), E-Learning refers to learning using the technology
such as Internet, CD-ROMs and portable devices like mobile phones or MP3 players. Several
terms were attributed to e-learning as follows:
Distance Learning: It was originally applied to traditional paper-based distance courses delivered
by e-mail. Nowadays, it includes learning via technology such as the Internet, CD-ROMs, and
mobile technologies. The terms e-learning and distance learning are often used as umbrella
names for the terms bellow.
Open Learning: This is one aspect of distance learning and simply refers to how much
independence the learner has. The more open a distance course is, the more autonomy the
learner has in deciding what course content to cover, how to do so and when.
Online Learning: This is learning that takes place via the internet
Blended Learning: This is a mixture of online and face to face course delivery. (At the classroom
with the teacher and at home via the Internet).
Key technologies in education
Scrivener (2011, p 334) proposes a short list of some key technology in education:
Interactive whiteboards ( IWBs)
The internet
Research tools: research engines, corpora, etc
Powerpoint and other presentation software
Free and cheap software
Tablet computers and netbooks
IPods, music, and post cast players
Shared learning and social media: wiki, blogs, Twitter, facebook.
Virtual Learning Environments ( VLEs), as Moodle
Virtual worlds.
Attitudes to Technology
Many terms have been used in relation to different attitudes to technology as follows (Duddeney &
Hockly, 2007, pp. 8-9):
Technophobe: people afraid of new technology with the increasing presence of Internet and
computers.
Digital natives: referring to someone who grows up using technology, and feel comfortable and
confident with it, typically today’s children.
Digital Immigrants: For examples the parents who came late to the world of technology.
Technogeeks: a term for a technology enthusiast.
They add that the majority fall between the two technophobes and technogeeks. In addition, a
large part of the negative attitudes teachers have towards technology is usually the result of a lack
of confidence, lack of facilities or lack of training, resulting in inability to see the benefit of using
technologies in the classroom. It is also the case of teachers who are not in control of the work
situations.
Advantages of ICTs in Education
Ng (2015) advances that the reasons provided by educational institutions and policy makers for
the incorporation of digital technologies in students’ learning fall largely into three categories:
Supporting learning for the achievement of successful learning outcomes by:
Increasing students’ motivation and promoting cognitive development.
Contextualising learning through the provision of highly interactive resources that embrace real-life
experiences such as virtual immersion in history or virtual laboratory.
Providing means to facilitate students’ demonstration of what they have learned. For example,
using visuals and sounds to make abstract and invisible concepts more concrete.
Providing means for communication and collaboration, for example, through blogs and wikis for
assigned group tasks or interacting with the wider community to obtain support during learning.
Catering to the pace of students’ individual learning by increasing their self-management and self-
assessment of their learning.
P 6 Enabling continuity of learning outside class times through the use of mobile devices to access
information and resources on the Internet
Developing Twenty-First Century Skills as part of preparing students for the workplace
Developing Digital Citizenship and Lifelong Learning ( pp. 5-6)
Barriers to ICTs use in education
Ng (2015) refers to Pelgrum’s (2001) and Shear et al.’s (2011) barriers for incorporating ICTs in
Education, they are grouped as follows:
Resources related to insufficient number of computers and copies of software; infrastructure such
as insufficient simultaneous access to the World Wide Web, (WWW); poor quality software and
WWW information
Teachers’ lack of knowledge/skills
Insufficient teacher time
Insufficient training opportunities and poor quality of training
Lack of administrative and technical support
Lack of interest by teachers
Lack of computers for students; lack of computers for teachers; Internet not reliable;
outdated technology; lack of technology-supported resources
Insuffi cient time to prepare
Insuffi cient access to professional development that offered coherent support for the skills they
need. This includes helping teachers to learn how to integrate innovative practices into their
teaching that goes beyond the technical aspects of technology to explicit guidance on its
pedagogical purposes and uses
Insufficient technical support
Ronghuai, Spector & Yang (2019, pp. 238- 240) refer to the following challenges in relation to
educational technologies:
Personalizing Education: The one-method-fits-all approach does not match up with a diverse
population and the potential of new technologies;
Assessing Student Learning: There is a need for effective assessments of students and teachers,
not only for accountability and promotion (summative) but also to improve learning and instruction
(formative).
Supporting Social Learning: Supporting meaningful and collaborative learning activities is more
important than ever before, partly due to requirements in the workplace to work collaboratively and
partly due to the affordances of new Web 2.0 technologies.
Diminishing Boundaries: Traditional boundaries between students and teachers, between and
among personal abilities and types of learning, between formal and informal learning, and
between learning and working are changing and becoming blurred in the twenty-first century; this
creates a need to recognize the significance of informal learning and different learner abilities and
interests.
Developing Alternative Teaching Strategies: The teacher is no longer the sole source of expertise
in classroom settings due to the widespread availability of networked resources; this creates a
need to change instructional approaches and train teachers accordingly.
Enhancing the Role of Stakeholders Stakeholders in educational systems need to develop trust
that those systems are adequately preparing students for productive lives in twenty-first-century
society; as a consequence, there is a need to regularly consult with employers, parents,
administrators, teachers, and students to ensure that all stakeholders have confidence that the
educational system is working well.
Addressing Policy Changes
The knowledge society requires flexibility on the part of an informed population; educational
inequities and the digital divide can challenge the stability of a society and need to be addressed,
as with the other challenges.
Homework
Using mapping show the main reason behind ICT incorporation in Education
In a chart, summarize the main benefits and the challenges of ICT use in education.

[Link].N Master 2 : Didactics

Lesson 8: Text-Book Evaluation

Instructional materials may take two forms: Printed ones, such as textbook, workbook, teacher’s
guide, readers, etc.; and non-print ones, such as audiotapes, videotapes and computer-based
materials. They are considered as key components in most TEFL programs, which is essential for
both teachers and learners. Especially, textbooks are the mostly used teaching and learning
materials for both teachers and the learners. They do not only provide a framework for teachers in
achieving the aims and objectives of the course, but also serve as a guide to the teacher when
conducting lessons. The textbook is an important source of input and a great opportunity for EFL
learners to communicate in the target language.
Textbooks are an effective resource for self- directed learning, an effective source for
presentational material, a source of ideas and activities, a reference source for students, a
syllabus where they reflect pre-determined learning objectives, and support for less experienced
teachers who are yet to gain confidence. In addition to that, Hycroft (1998) states that one of the
primary advantage of using textbooks is that they are psychologically essential for students since
their progress and achievement can be measured concretely.
Cunningsworth (1995, p.7) suggests that we should ensure that “careful selection is made, and
that the materials selected closely reflect [the needs of the learners and] the aims, methods and
values of the teaching program”. One other reason for textbook evaluation is that it can be very
useful in teachers’ development and professional growth. Ellis (1997) suggests that textbook
evaluation helps teachers go beyond impressionistic assessments and it helps them to acquire
useful, accurate, systematic and contextual insights into the overall nature of textbook material.
The reasons for materials evaluation activities are also many and varied. One of the major
reasons is the need to adopt new coursebooks. Another reason as Cunningsworth (1995)
emphasized is to identify particular strengths and weaknesses in coursebooks already in use.
Preeminent theorists in the field of ELT textbook design and analysis such as Williams (1983),
Sheldon (1988), Brown (1995), Cunningsworth (1995) all agree that evaluation checklists should
have some criteria pertaining to the physical characteristics of textbooks such as layout,
organizational, and logistical characteristics. Other important criteria that should be incorporated
are those that assess a textbook's methodology, aims, and approaches and the degree to which a
set of materials is not only teachable, but also fits the needs of the individual teacher's approach
as well as the organization's overall curriculum. Finally, textbook evaluations should include
criteria that pertain to representation of cultural and gender components in addition to the extent to
which the linguistic items, subjects, content, and topics match up to personalities, backgrounds,
needs, and interests as well as those of the teacher and/or institution.
There follows a number of considerations to which published checklists give rise. In view of the
remarks made above about the specificity of teaching/learning situations, the starting point for any
evaluation must be an analysis of the context in which materials are to be employed. Matthews
(1985:203f), for example, has already explicitly proposed what one might call a "pre-evaluation
phase", "defining your own teaching situation", and the variables he identifies as critical are:
syllabus, time available, students' age, students' interests, students' background, class size,
students' level. Here it is suggested that a more comprehensive list might be constituted as
follows:
• Learners: age, stage in learning, enabling and disabling factors, interests and motivation,
preferred learning styles.
• Teachers: teaching competence and experience, competence in the language, preferred
teaching styles.
• Aims: of the course and of the learners.
• Syllabus and (if any) prescribed methods: constraints imposed.
• Examinations and~or tests: constraints imposed and "backwash effect".
• Cultural and related factors: acceptability or non-acceptability of values conveyed in materials in
given cultural and social contexts.
Practical factors: time available for teaching, presence or absence of homework, size of classes,
availability of hardware to implement materials, the teaching and learning environment, etc.
Even this longer list might not, of course, be sufficient to cover the variables pertinent to some
situations. For instance, one could envisage the addition of educational factors if it were of
concern that language teaching materials should contribute through their content to general or
moral education.
Cunningsworth(1995) and Ellis (1997) suggested three types of material evaluation. The first type
is the “predictive” or “pre-use”evaluation that is designed to examine the future or potential
performance of a textbook. The second type is “in-use” evaluation that is designed to examine
material that is currently being used. The third type is the “retrospective” or “postuse”evaluation of
a textbook that has been used in any specific institution or situation.
Coursebook analyses and evaluation do not only help teachers to develop themselves, but also
helps them to gain good and useful insights into the nature of the material. Moreover, as
Hutchinson (1987) points out, materials evaluation does not only serves the immediate practical
aim of selecting teaching materials, but also plays a critical role in developing teacher's awareness
in a number of ways, which are teachers being able to analyze their own presuppositions about
the nature of language and learning, forcing teachers to set their prerequisites and helping them to
see materials as an essential part of the whole teaching/ learning situation.

Class-management

Introduction
Effective teaching requires considerable skill in managing tasks and situations that occur in the
classroom each day. The skills associated with effective classroom management are only
acquired with practice, feedback, and a willingness to learn from mistakes. But if learners have
become accustomed to certain patterns of behaviour, classes will run more smoothly.

Definitions of Class-management
Teacher’s role in the classroom is to engage learners in academic activity. To do that,
Fenstermacher&Soltis (2004) explain thatteachers have to determine what they are to be taught
(curriculum guides might help here). Then they must figure out whether the students in their
classroom are able (ready) to learn what is prescribed for them?What motivational devices might
be used to interest the students and keep them engaged? Whatclassroom structure best
contributes to successful learning—small groups, large groups, whole-class instruction, or
independent learning?
For Harmer (2007), class-management include how the classroom space is organized, whether
the students are working on their own or in groups, how teachers organize classroom time, the
way they talk to students, and who talks most in the lesson. Successful classroom management
also involves being able to deal with difficult situations. Kyriacou (2007) adds that classroom
climate- warm, supportive and relaxed- is an important ingredient in effective class-management.
Davies &Pearse (2000) see that class-management is based on getting learners’ attention and
participation, giving and checking instruction, managing learners’ grouping, teacher and learner
roles, and discipline. Harmer (2001) adds the importance of dealing with troublesome situations.

Rules, Routines and Procedures

class-management includes rules, routines and procedures. Rules are fixed instructions about the
way of interaction; whereas, routines and procedures are more flexible than rules. They are
specific ways of doing things that vary little during the course of the day or the year.
There are four criteria that a rule needs to meet to stay on the list (Stronge, Tucker &Hindman,
2004 p. 71):
1. Clearly statedso students know what is expected of them.
2. Reasonableso students can realistically follow it.
3. Enforceable: it will take the time and effort to address any violations. If he is not willing to invest
the effort, then the item may be too trivial or there may be a better solution.
4. General so that the rule addresses several behaviors as opposed to one specific misdeed.
The rule should be written as a positive statement so that students know what the desired
behavior is.
Routines commonly include how to enter and leave the classroom, take attendance, secure
materials, turn in assignments, make a transition during or between instructional activities, get to
safety during drills and actual emergencies, and change from one activity or location to another. In
essence, routines shape the classroom climate (Idem, p. 67). Procedures refer to all the steps
involved in the lesson.

Getting Attention and Participation

According to Davies &Pearse (2000, p. 20), teachers should be able to get their attention fairly
quickly when needed. The teacher needs to train the learners to respond to a range of non-verbal
signals, for example:
Stand with the hand raised until you have total silence and everybody’s attention.
Train learners to raise their hands.
Point at your watch to indicate that you are about to end an activity.
Interest is the best way to attract and hold attention, and to get voluntary participation. Classroom
atmosphere is also very important (Harmer, 2001).The learning experience should fulfill the three
psychological conditions necessary for learning to occur (Kyriacou, 2009, p. 86):
-Attentiveness: the learning experience must elicit and sustain pupils’ attention.
-Receptiveness: the learning experience must elicit and sustain pupils’ motivation and mental
effort.
-Appropriateness: the learning experience must be appropriate for the educational outcomes
desired.
Giving and Checking Instruction
Effective instructions are vital if activities are to go well, especially activities involving changes of
interaction. Teachers should think about what they are going to say, and how they are going to say
it. Instructions should be simple and clear. It is preferable to always use the same type of
instructions and language for the same type of routine activities.
Managing Learners’ grouping
There is various students’ grouping: whole class, pair, group, and individual [Link] classis
where all students are working together with the teacher at the same time as one group. All the
students are locked at the same activity. This grouping reinforces a sense of belonging among the
group members and a feeling of security when the whole class is working under the direct
authority of the teacher.
Pair work (in two) and group work (more than two). There are difficulties associated with pair and
group work such as: confusion, noise, no concentration, error making and losing control. However,
teachers can usually avoid these potential problems by careful preparation and organization, and
by progressively training the learners to participate fully and actively. As result, the advantages of
pair and group work far outweigh the drawbacks. They provide variety ad dynamism, increase in
individual practice, low stress private practice, interaction with peers and develop learner
autonomy.
Individual work refers to the idea of students working on their own. Such individualised learning is
a vital step in the development of learner autonomy and promotes the skills of self-reliance. It can
be a way of restoring peace and tranquillity to a noisy and chaotic situation.. It is beneficial
especially in reading and writing.
Teacher and Learner’s Roles
Both teachers and learners need to play varying roles (Harmer, 2001). Teachers should
consciously be aware that they need to:
Present new information, control accuracy practice, and make sure that as many learners as
possible participate in the class.
Organize and facilitate lockstep fluency and skills’ activities, encouraging voluntary participation
Monitor individual, pair, or group activities, moving among the learners and helping and
encouraging them.
Inform learners about their progress.
These different roles require skill, confidence and sensitivity. At different times the learners need
to:
Attend to information given by the teacher.
Volunteer original ideas and ask relevant questions.
Work with other learners, solving problems co-operatively.
Work independently in class, and taking full responsibility for their own performance and learning.

Discipline
Harmer (2001) sees that good order, co-operation, and respect in the classroom are seldom
accidental. They are usually the result of the way you teach and the way you relate to the learners.
It is wise to begin some courses with a fairly formal strict way and relax little by little as you gain
the cooperation of the group. These are the basic recommendations:
Plan lessons and include varied activities and interaction that keep the learners busy.
Use topics and activities that you think will be interesting and enjoyable for learners.
Motivate the learners on what they do satisfactory or well.
Try to create a sense of community in the group.
Be fair to all the learners, never favouring some over others.
Show that you respect and are interested in all the learners as persons, irrespective of how good
they are at English.
Modifying Problem Behaviour
Despite teacher’s efforts to create successful learning environments, things sometimes get out of
hand and students start to behave in inappropriate ways. Here are some behaviour conducts that
teachers should bear in mind to achieve their goals (Harmer, 2001, p.129-130):
Act Immediately: The longer a type of behaviour is left unchecked, the more difficult it is to deal
with. This can include stop talking, pause and look at the student in question.
Keep Calm: In many students’ eyes, teachers who have to shout to asserts their authority appear
to be losing control. When we are trying to modify sts behaviour, look in their eyes, approach
them, keep looking at them and speak in a measured tone. This will often be enough to defuse the
situation.
Focus on the behaviour not the student: Not to humiliate an uncooperative student.
Talk in private: Disciplining a student in front of his/her classmates will not help that student’s self-
esteem.
Use clearly agreed sanctions: Establish “equity rules’, the need for fairness to all students.
Students need to know what the penalties are for bad behaviour in a gradual scale of action.
Use colleagues and institutions for guidance
References
Davies, P. &Pearse, E. [Link] in English [Link] University Press.
Harmer, J. [Link] Practice of English Language [Link].
Stronge, H. J., Tucker, P. A. &Hindman, J. L. 2004. Handbook for the Quality of Effective
[Link] Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD).
Fenstermacher, G. &Soltis, J. F. [Link] to [Link] College Press
Harmer, J. 200 [Link] to Teach English . Pearson Education Limited
Kyriacou, C. 2007. Essential teaching [Link] Thornes Ltd
Kyriacou, C. 2009. Effective Teaching in Schools: Theory and [Link] Thornes
(Publishers) Ltd.
Further Reading
Bender, Y. 2003. The New Teacher’s Handbook: Practical Strategies & [Link] Press.