II.
Changes in the processing process
1. Heating (Cooking, steaming, frying, baking)
1.1. Effects on nutrients
1. Vitamin C and B vitamins:
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) and B vitamins (such as thiamine and folate) are
the most temperature-sensitive nutrients.
Vitamin C: Loss rates can reach 50–70% when food is boiled or heated for
a long time.
Causes of loss include:
Thermal Breakdown: The bond in the vitamin C molecule is broken.
Oxygen exposure: Causes oxidation of vitamin C, especially when boiled
without a lid.
Adverse pH environment: Strong acids or alkalis can speed up the
destruction of vitamin C.
Vitamin B (như thiamine):
Loses 30–50% when cooking due to water dissolution and decomposition
at high temperatures.
2. Carotenoids:
Carotenoids (β-carotene, lycopene) are more stable when heated than
water-soluble vitamins.
When cooked (e.g., carrots, tomatoes), carotenoids are released more
easily due to the breakdown of plant cell membranes.
Heating can increase the absorption of carotenoids in the body. For
example, Lycopene in tomatoes enhances absorption during cooking.
3. Polyphenols:
Polyphenols are potent antioxidant compounds, but some polyphenols are
destroyed or lose their activity when heated.
Thermal oxidation: Some polyphenolic compounds are oxidized or
chemically modified.
Thermal reactions create new compounds: Some polyphenols can be
converted into forms with stronger antioxidant capacity (e.g., melanoidin in
the Maillard reaction).
For example, cocoa beans and green tea can reduce the amount of catechins
during prolonged heating.
1.2. Influence on color during heating
1. Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll is the blue pigment present in the leaves and green parts of
plants, responsible for photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll destruction can occur when food is exposed to high
temperatures or in an acidic environment:
High temperatures: When foods such as vegetables are cooked at high
temperatures, the bonds in the chlorophyll molecule are broken, resulting
in the conversion of the chlorophyll pigment into pheophytin, which
produces an olive-green or gray-green color.
Acidic environment: Chlorophyll pigment tends to turn pale or gray when
cooked in an acidic environment (for example, cooking vegetables in
vinegared water or lemon juice).
Improve green retention: To preserve the bright green color of vegetables,
blanching or cooking in a lightly alkaline environment such as baking soda
can help maintain a more beautiful color.
2. Anthocyanins
Anthocyanins are a group of flavonoids that cause red, purple, and blue
colors in fruits and vegetables (e.g., grapes, raspberries, purple cabbage).
Effect of pH:
Acidic environment: When anthocyanins are exposed to a low pH (acidic)
medium, they are usually red or purple (e.g., raspberries, cherries).
Alkaline environment: In an environment with a high pH (alkaline),
anthocyanins turn green or green (for example, when cooking purple
cabbage in alkaline water).
Effects of temperature: High temperatures can reduce the stability of
anthocyanins, causing the color of food to lose or change
Bottom Line: the color of food depends on pigments such as chlorophyll
and anthocyanins, and they can be altered during processing, especially
under the influence of temperature and pH. Adjusting factors such as
temperature and pH environment can help preserve the natural color of
food or create other color effects
1.3. Influence on structure during heating
1. Pectin is broken down
Pectin is a polysaccharide found in plant cell walls, especially in fruits and
vegetables such as apples, oranges, carrots, and bell peppers.
Function: Pectin helps maintain the structure of food, creating the
crispiness or consistency of products.
Effect of heating:
When foods containing pectin are heated, pectin is broken down
(cleavage) under the influence of high temperatures and acids.
This softens the structure of the food, making it easier for them to be
crushed or softened, creating a softer texture.
For example, in making soups or jams, pectin will help give the liquid consistency
and consistency, but when it breaks down, the dish will become less thick and
easier to mix.
2. Gelatinized starch
Starch is a major polysaccharide found in root vegetables such as
potatoes, sweet potatoes, corn, and rice.
Function: Starch is the main source of energy in food and plays an
important role in food structure.
Starch consists of starch particles that contain amylose and amylopectin.
Effect of heating:
When starch comes into contact with hot water (usually at a temperature of
about 60–70°C), the starch particles gelatinize, i.e. these particles absorb
water, swell, and lose their original crystal structure.
This process makes the starch softer, smoother in texture, and easier to
digest.
For example, when cooking potatoes, gelatinized starch causes the potatoes to
become soft and smooth when crushed (as in mashed potatoes).
Starchy gelatinization helps dishes have a chewy or thick texture, such as
in soups, sauces, or porridges.
2. Freezing
2.1. Effects on nutrients
Vitamin C:
Vitamin C is a vitamin that is easily destroyed by oxygen and temperature.
During the freezing process, vitamin C can gradually decrease, especially
if the food is not stored properly or for a long time. However, the freezing
process helps protect these vitamins from loss as quickly as when heated.
However, after a long period of storage in the freezer, vitamin C will
continue to decrease due to the effects of oxidation and environmental
changes throughout the freezing process.
Minerals and Fiber:
Minerals (such as potassium, magnesium) and fiber are less affected by
the freezing process. These components are usually stable and do not
degrade or deteriorate much when refrigerated.
Freezing helps retain the majority of the minerals and fiber in the food,
making it a very effective method of preservation for maintaining long-term
nutritional quality.
2.2. Influence on structure
Ice crystal formation:
When food is frozen, the water in the food cell turns into ice crystals. The
formation of these ice crystals can cause cell wall rupture and destroy the
cellular structure of food.
This causes the cells to dehydrate as the food thaws, causing the food to
become soft, mushy, and may lose its original crispiness or firmness.
Some foods such as vegetables, fruits, or meat when frozen and thawed
can have a significant change in texture, causing them to become moist or
no longer retain their original shape.
3. Drying
3.1 Nutrients
Reduce the content of heat-sensitive vitamins:
The drying process, especially hot drying, results in a decrease in the
content of heat-sensitive vitamins such as vitamin C and folate.
These vitamins are easily broken down when exposed to high
temperatures during the drying process, resulting in a significant loss in the
nutritional composition of the food.
Concentrate substances such as sugar and fiber:
When the water in the food is removed during the drying process, other
components such as sugar, fiber, and minerals become more
concentrated.
The drying process helps to retain the nutritional components that are not
broken down or lost due to high temperatures, creating foods with high
nutritional value in smaller portions.
3.2 Taste
Enhance the flavor:
As the water in the food decreases, the concentration of soluble
substances (such as sugar and flavor compounds) increases, which
enhances the flavor of the food.
So, dried food items often have a richer flavor due to the concentration of
these compounds, such as dried fruits, dried meats, or grain products.
4. Canning
4.1 Effect on nutrients
Vitamin C:
Vitamin C is very sensitive to high temperatures, and sterilization in
canning often uses high temperatures (around 85–100°C) to kill bacteria
and extend shelf life.
This sterilization process results in a strong loss of vitamin C, which can be
up to 50-80% depending on the time and temperature of the sterilization.
Vitamin C is a water-soluble vitamin and is easily destroyed when exposed
to heat, oxygen, and light. As a result, canned foods such as vegetables,
fruits, or juices often have much lower levels of vitamin C than fresh foods.
Minerals:
Minerals (such as potassium, magnesium) are more stable when food is
canned. These minerals are not easily lost during sterilization because
they are not destroyed by heat like vitamins.
However, some minerals can be lost through the soaking solution (water or
salt solution, sugar) during the canning process. When food is soaked in
this solution, some of the minerals can dissolve in water, especially in
foods such as vegetables or fruits.
Polyphenols:
Polyphenols, antioxidant compounds found in many fruits and vegetables,
are also more stable when canned. However, they can still be partially lost
during the sterilization process, especially polyphenols that are easily
decomposed under the influence of heat.
However, some polyphenols can be better protected when immersed in a
storage solution, which reduces losses compared to direct heating.
5. Fermentation
5.1 Effects on nutrients
Lactic acid and B vitamins:
Fermentation is the process of metabolizing food by beneficial bacteria,
yeasts, or microorganisms. During this process, these microorganisms
produce lactic acid and B vitamins (such as B1, B2, B6, B12) as part of the
metabolism.
Lactic acid is produced when lactic bacteria ferment sugars in foods, which
enhances the acidity of foods and preserves them longer.
B vitamins can increase during fermentation, especially due to the activity
of microorganisms, which can synthesize B vitamins from previtamins
present in food. This increases the nutritional value of fermented foods,
e.g. in sauerkraut, yogurt or tempeh.
5.2 Taste and structure
Sour taste:
One of the outstanding characteristics of fermented foods is their
characteristic sour taste. This flavor arises mainly due to the accumulation
of lactic acid during fermentation, which produces a special metabolism
from the compounds present in the original food (such as sugars and
organic acids).
In addition to lactic acid, fermented products may also have other
compounds such as acetic acid (in vinegar), or other flavoring compounds
produced throughout the fermentation process.
Softer structure:
Fermentation can change the structure of foods, making them softer and
easier to digest.
The enzymes secreted by microorganisms during fermentation help break
down hard-to-digest compounds, like proteins and carbohydrates, making
the food softer and easier to digest.
For example, in yogurt, the fermentation process helps to soften the structure of
the milk and makes the final product have a smooth, soft texture.
Bottom Line: fermentation not only helps improve the nutritional value of
food by enhancing lactic acid and B vitamins, but also creates a
characteristic sour taste and makes food softer and easier to digest.
6. Blanching
6.1 Effects on nutrients
Inhibition of degrading enzymes:
The blanching process is a short-term method of heating food (usually
vegetables or fruits) in boiling water or steam, and then quickly cooling it
with cold water.
The main purpose of blanching is to inhibit the activity of degrading
enzymes, such as polyphenol oxidase. These enzymes can cause the
breakdown of nutrients and change the color of food (such as enzymatic
browning in apples, potatoes, or avocados).
Blanching helps prevent these oxidation reactions and preserves the bright
color of food when stored, especially in storage methods such as freezing
or canning.
6.2 Structural Influence
Slight softening of the structure:
The blanching process gently softens the structure of the food. When
vegetables or fruits are soaked in boiling water, the structural components
in the cells (such as pectin and cellulose) are slightly broken down, helping
to soften the food without losing its crispiness completely.
This makes it easy to prepare food for further processing methods, like
freezing or drying.
During the freezing process, blanching helps to minimize nutrient loss and
preserve the original structure of the food when thawed.
Bottom Line: blanching is an important processing method to prevent
enzymatic browning, preserve the bright color of food, and lightly soften
the structure that helps prepare for further processing methods such as
freezing and drying.
III. Comparison of the Effects of Cooking Methods
Changes in Color and
Method Nutritional Effects
Texture
Loss of many water-
Softens food, color may
soluble vitamins (C, B
become dull due to
Boiling vitamins) due to
prolonged heat
prolonged exposure to
exposure
hot water.
Retains nutrients better
Moderately soft texture,
than boiling, with less
Steaming better color retention,
loss of water-soluble
more visually appealing.
vitamins.
Loss of heat-sensitive
vitamins like C, B1; Crispy texture, golden
Frying increases energy or brown color, but may
content due to oil lose some nutrients.
absorption.
Texture may change
Preserves nutrients well
after thawing due to ice
Freezing if done correctly; some
crystal formation during
loss of vitamins like C.
freezing.
Loss of heat-sensitive
vitamins (C, folate); Crispy texture, intense
Drying increases fiber and flavor due to reduced
soluble compounds like water content.
sugars.
Fermentation Increases polyphenols, Softer texture, distinct
organic acids (like lactic sour taste, makes food
acid), and B vitamins. easier to digest.
References
1. Fellows, P.J. *Food Processing Technology: Principles and Practice*.
2. FAO. *Food Composition Database*. [FAO](http://www.fao.org).
3. USDA. *FoodData Central*. [USDA Database](https://fdc.nal.usda.gov).
4. Hui, Y.H. *Handbook of Food Science, Technology, and Engineering*.
5. *Postharvest Biology and Technology* Journal.
6. Nguồn: Fellows, P.J. (2016). Food Processing Technology: Principles and
Practice (4th Edition). Woodhead Publishing.
