RESEARCH

PROJECT
Post Independence India
POST INDEPENDENCE INDIA
RESEARCH PROJECT
SUBMITTED TO ;
DR . BHIMRAO AMBEDKAR
UNIVERSITY AGRA

FOR THE PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF MASTER

OF ARTS IN MODERN HISTORY
UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF
PROFESSOR . NISHA RATHORE
BY . TEJASVINI SINGH,MA HISTORY , IV
SEMESTER
ROLL NO.23000103300872
INTRODUCTION …..
Integration of Princely state
 a) Integration of nation- a.1) Integration of state and territory
 b) Integration of people into the nation-
 1) SPC (States People's Congress) or Praja Mandal was an organization set up by
people of Princely states for their grievances, Democratic reforms, and for
integration with India [* INC in British India and SPCs in Rest of India i.e. 565
Princely states]
 2) Initially main active centres were Hyderabad, Gujarat, and Mysore.
 3) Relationship with INC/ People of the Princely states
 3.1) 1920, Nagpur Session- INC opened membership for people of states (* 565
Princely States) but they were not allowed any political activity in the name of
INC
 3.1.1) Due to the absence of colonial rule in the domestic sphere as the ruler was
Indian until 1929, the Goal of INC was Swaraj within British Raj, and in 565
princely states, there was a Raj of Indian rulers and not of British in the
Domestic Sphere. Therefore, the demand for democracy was to be from the
Indian ruler therefore no anti-British agenda was available
 3.1.2) States people were not trained in mass politics as no rich history of India
like British India.
 3.1.3) INC has no presence in 565 Princely states therefore in the case of
repression by an Indian ruler, INC won't be able to protect people.
 3.2) In 1927, AISPC (All India state peoples congress) was set up as an All India
organization of people of states,
 3.3) In 1929, INC Lahore's session with Nehru as the president stated that the
People of states can't be excluded from the Indian national movement but INC
continued with the 1920 stand.
 3.4) 1937-39- 28 months of INC rule in provinces under the GoI Act 1935 that
brought Provincial Autonomy, ended dyarchy and brought fully responsible
government in provinces. Therefore, the prestige of INC increased among the
people of the states. Also, state people were motivated to set up Praja
Mandals/SPCs, where they did not exist and membership of existing SPCs
increased.
 If INC could extract democracy from the mighty British then why could they not
from the Indian ruler?
 3.5) 1938, Haripura session, with Netaji Bose as president- 1920 stand
maintained but INC declared that Poorna Swaraj is the goal for the whole of
India and 565 Princely states are an integral part of India. [* Poorna Swaraj goal
for British India- 1929; Poorna Swaraj goal for British India+ 565 princely states/
Whole of India- 1938].
  3.6) 1939, Tripuri session with Netaji Bose as president- Finally change in INC
policy as INC declared that people of states will be part of future movements of
INC.
 3.7) In the Ludhiana session of AISPC (in 1939) Nehru was appointed as
president [* Will lead to better organizational linkages between INC and AISPC].
 3.8) QIM, 1942-45 was the first movement where people of states participated
and demanded
 3.8.1) British to Quit India immediately
 3.8.2) Democracy from an Indian Ruler
 3.8.3) Integration of states with the rest of India.
 Therefore, they raised the slogan of United India, bringing states into INM and
laying the foundation of the territorial integrity of India. People of state later
played an important role in the integration of those princely states where Indian
rulers refused to sign the Instrument of Accession. Examples- Hyderabad,
Junagarh, Travancore, etc.
B. TERRITORIAL INTEGRATION OF INDIA

Status at the time of 3rd June
Plan/Mountbatten Plan of 1947

Goa, Daman
& Diu, and
Dadara &
Britis 565 Pondicherry,
Nagar
h Princely Chandranagar
Haveli
India States with French.
(With
Portuguese)

 Pondicherry- First Indo-china War 1946-54 led to the realization in France that
decolonization can't be delayed anymore as the people of Laos, Vietnam, and
Cambodia won independence by defeating the French army supported by the
US. Therefore, French possessions in India were handed over to India via
negotiations in 1954.
 Goa- There was a movement for independence in Goa against the Portuguese
but India did not intervene until 1961 when the people of Goa demanded help.
In Operation Vijay, the Portuguese surrendered without a fight. 12th
Constitutional Amendment Act 1962- Goa became a part of India.
Integration of 565 Princely states-
 Instrument of Accession
 Instrument of accession (IoA) had a legal basis in section 6 of the GoI Act 1935.
 Also, Section 6(6) stated only the signature of the ruler was valid for the IoA to
be valid.
 Also, the Indian Independence Act of 1947, Stated that for GoI 1935 to be
applied until the Constituent Assembly frames the Constitution of India
 IoA gave defence, Foreign affairs, and communications to the union
government i.e. Princely states exceeded in 3 subjects while the rest subjects
remained with the Ruler of Princely states.
 Merger Agreement (MA)
 [* IoA= Sugar crystals in the water, Merger agreement means- When sugar
crystals melt in water, it becomes part of India, It is political loss of identity ]
 The merger agreement was signed alongside or after signing IoA and led to
accession in all subjects. Therefore princely states became equal in all aspects
to an Indian province.
 As per the cabinet mission plan 1946, Paramountcy was not to be transferred to
any GoI of Independent India unless IoA signed and the same position in the
Indian Independence Act 1947. Also, Paramountcy came to an end on the 15th
of August.
 Their net legal status was that it was legally possible for each princely state to
be a fully independent country.
 However, the Mountbatten Plan, 3rd June plan 1947 promised that India be as
large as possible. Therefore, unofficially, no right of independence to any
Princely states
 13th June 1947
 States department was set up. It had two branches, one for India and the other
for Pakistan
 Sardar Patel was a minister and V P Menon was secretary for the Indian branch
of the states department. The role of the states department was to manage
issues related to partition and relations and negotiations with 565 princely
states.
STRATEGY OF PATEL
 He brought Mountbatten on board who gave a speech in Narendra Mandal 1920
to convince Princes to sign IoA with India.
 Princes agreed and most of them signed within 3 weeks of 13th June as-
 a) Mountbatten was viewed as a friend since he came from the royal family and
paramountcy was a personal relationship between British Monarch and an
Indian prince.
 b) Mountbatten argued that IoA was only for acceding in 3 subjects which at
present were also not with princes. Also, Britain won't be able to help after the
lapse of paramountcy.
 Also persuasion by Britain
 He gave the option to princes to accede only in 3 subjects and promised
autonomy in other subjects. Otherwise, India won't be able to control people
after the 15th of August. Therefore, gave an implied threat of anarchy if
persuasion did not work.
 Problems
 Bhopal, Travancore, Manipur, and Jodhpur (* BhoTMaJo) along with
Hyderabad, Junagarh, and J&K (* HJJ) did not sign IoA immediately.
 Bhopal, Travancore, Manipur, and Jodhpur signed before 15th August.
 Hyderabad, Junagarh, and J&K signed after 15th August.
  Pakistan was luring princes with a blank cheque of Autonomy and other
privileges especially of border states so they sign IoA with Pakistan.
BHOPAL
 The majority of the population was Hindu that wanted to be part of secular
India while Ruler Habibullah was Muslim and resisted signing IoA.
 Pressure by Patel and communists led to the signing of IoA.
TRAVANCORE
 Ruker was Maharaja Thirunal but the real power centre was Diwan C P
Ramaswamy Aiyyar, who argued that Travancore would follow the American
model of voluntary union and therefore won't sign IoA.
 Since October 1946, under CPI there was a movement called Punnapra Vayalar
movement with the method of Armed struggle and participation of workers and
peasants. They were protesting for their class rights and for uniting with India.
 Now they gave the slogan- "Go Into the Arabian Sea with your American Model"
and started protests. They were violently repressed.
 June 1947- Negotiations by Patel failed and Travancore declared independence.
 July 1947- Attack on the life of Aiyyar therefore fled away and Travancore signed
IoA.
MANIPUR
 After long negotiations finally on 11th August 1947 Maharaja Bodhchandra
signed IoA on assurance of Autonomy in subjects other than 3 subjects of IoA.
 First elections in Independent India in Manipur in June 1948 after public
pressure for democracy led to a constitutional monarchy with a popular
legislative assembly.
 Problems
 Maharaja signed the merger agreement but without consulting the popular
Legislative assembly
 SPC was in favour of signing the merger agreement but other parties were not.
This contributed to the separatist movement later.
JODHPUR
 It was important as a shared border with Pakistan.
 The pressure applied by Patel on the young King led to the signing of IoA.
 Therefore Bhopal, Travancore, Manipur, and Jodhpur signed IoA before 15th
August 1947.
HYDERABAD
 Geography- It was on the Indian mainland and it was the largest princely state.
 The majority population was Hindu which wanted integration with secular India
while ruler Nizam, Mir Osman Ali was Muslim.
 The real ruler was Kasim Rizvi, an advisor to Nizam who along with MIM (Majlis-
E-Ittehadul Muslimeen), a political party opposed signing IoA
 Kasim Rizvi was an anti-Hindu radical, desperate for independence, and gave a
threat to the security of Hindus.
 The rule of Nizam was unjust and unpopular and Muslims who were 25% of the
population dominated the administration.
 On 12th June 1947, Hyderabad declared independence.
  Patel offered local autonomy and Nizam was promised special status for
Hyderabad and 20,000 personnel troops but he rejected it.
 But now people's movement began under communists and the SPC of
Hyderabad with participation from peasants, workers, women, and students
from Telangana.
 In response unleashed violence by Razakars, his private army.
 Now negotiations led to the signing of a standstill agreement between GoI and
Hyderabad (November 1947).
 However, Violence by Razakars continued, and finally in Operation Polo/
Caterpillar, in September 1948, Indian Army entered Hyderabad.
 Kasim Rizvi was imprisoned until 1957 and then sent to Pakistan.
 MIM (Majlis-E-Ittehadul Muslimeen) was banned. Also, Nizam was made
governor and Hyderabad merged with India.
JAMMU & KASHMIR
 Important players
 Maharaja Hari Singh wanted independent status.
 Shiek Abdulla was anti-monarchy, Pro-democracy, Anti-Pakistan, and Pro-
socialism, and had good relations with Nehru.
 India and Pakistan- Both wanted J&K.
 Muslims were in majority and they were poor ryots and faced economic
oppression by Zamindars who were a minority Hindus.
 Therefore supported Land reforms and other socialists' demands of Sheik
Abdulla.
 Sheik Abdulla started "Kashmir Choro Aandolan" against the monarchy.
 Hari Singh offered a standstill agreement to India and Pakistan.
 Pakistan signed but India did not and this made Pakistan anxious.
 Hari Singh wanted a Standstill agreement for the uninterrupted movement of
people and goods in and out of J&K.
 Anxious Pakistan now tried to force J&K into signing IoA by applying an
economic blockade. Then in October 1947, Pashtuns invaded Kashmir. Hari
Singh requested Military help from India. But India gave conditions of signing
IoA and making Sheik Abdulla head of administration.
 Both demands were accepted and now the Indian army entered J&K but before
the Pakistan army could be pushed out completely, Mountbatten convinced
Nehru to take the issue to the UN.
 Therefore, in July 1949, a ceasefire was signed between India and Pakistan
under a UNSC resolution. Therefore ceasefire line in 1949 and PoK came into
existence.
 A UN mission was set up to monitor the ceasefire.
 Then a UNSC resolution in 1951 decided in favour of a plebiscite but with
condition that Pakistan withdraws with PoK. Till now, no plebiscite since
Pakistan never withdrew.
 In 1951, the Constituent Assembly of J&K met and drafted the constitution of
J&K by 1956.
 In 1954, the Constituent Assembly of J&K ratified IoA with India. [* Therefore
people accepted joining India].
  However, from 1948 onwards, US and Britain sided with Pakistan in UNSC as
Pakistan joined the capitalist bloc during the cold war while India followed a
policy of Non-Alignment (NAM). Therefore, India is against any third-party
intervention in bilateral disputes.

JUNAGARH
 The Nawab of Junagarh was
Mohabbat Khan, It had no border
with Pakistan, also it had a small
state on Saurashtra Coast. The
majority population was Hindu which
wanted integration with secular
India.
 It was surrounded by Indian territory.
 Problems- Announced accession to
Pakistan and Shah Nawaj Bhutto of
Muslim League (1906) joined the
government of the state.
 Solution
 A people's movement began that
forced Nawab to flee, therefore
Patel's strategy of the threat of
Anarchy was in operation.
 Now Shah Nawaj Bhutto requested
military help from Pakistan but
Jinnah refused as his main focus was
J&K and Junagarh was just a
bargaining chip.
 Indian troops entered Junagarh and a
plebiscite in 1948 led to Merger with
India.
PARTITION AND ITS AFTERMATH


Partition and
its Aftermath
 Rehabilitation
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Strategy- Immediate-
Short-term/Long-term.
 Responsibility for Communal
Violence during Partition
 1) 3rd June plan 1947- Here British
decided to exit India, one year in
advance i.e. by 15th August 1947
instead of 30th June 1948 as stated in
Atlee's statement of February 1947.
This led to poor preparation for
partition on part of the government
and people.
 Example- Punjab governor Jenkins-
"Peaceful partition will take years and
not 72 days".
 Commander in Chief Lockhart (15th
August- December 1947)- "Punjab
Tragedy won't have happened if the
partition had been delayed by one
year".
 Mountbatten did not want
responsibility for communal violence
and therefore escalated British exit.
 2) Delay in announcing boundary
commission award-
 Under the Mountbatten Plan and
Indian Independence Act 1947, two
commissions were set up under
 Radcliffe, a British Jurist, for
boundary demarcation to be done
before or after 15th August 1947. The
award was ready before 15th August
but announced on 17th August so the
British don't have responsibility for
violence during migration
 3) Radcliffe did not have any past
experience in boundary demarcation
nor he had much prior knowledge of
India. Also, the commission had no
boundary experts and the award was
to be prepared with a deadline of six
weeks.
 Therefore people did not know on
15th August if they are on the right
side of the border which led to last-
minute chaos.
 Violence
 Important cities like Calcutta and
Amritsar got divided into communal
zones. Women were raped and at
times killed by family members to
save the family's honour. Overall
roughly 10 lakh people were killed
and 80 lakhs in total migrated.
 Rehabilitation
 Two classes of migrants to India- The
rich who preplanned and came
before 15th August and the second
one was the poor who had hope of
honourable living in Pakistan but
then came due to communal violence
(Upto September- October 1947)
 Indian Response
 A department of rehabilitation was
set up with a special cadre of officers.
Many refugee camps were set up as
an immediate measure.
 Example- Kurukshetra camp received
migration from Pakistan Punjab
 Kolvada camp in Bombay received
migrants from Sindh.
 In total 200 camps for Migrants from
Pakistan and Punjab and 5 camps for
 migrants from Sindh in Mumbai/
Bombay.
 As a short-term measure, Temporary
plots of 4 Acres were given to every
family along with loans to Buy seeds
and equipment so they could start
cultivation.
 Permanent Rehabilitation
 It was a rehabilitation operation. A
rehabilitation secretariat was set up
in Jalandhar [* Secretariat- Will report
to Rehabilitation department]. Its job
was to collect, verify and execute land
claims. 7000 officials were working
here at any time.
 Challenges


Land left
behind

2.7 million hectare

o By 1.9 million hectares
Hindus o By
and Sikhs Muslims
in in Indian
Pakistan Punjab
Punjab
 Fertility was greater in Pakistan
Punjab as it was better irrigated. Also,
Indian western Punjab was better
irrigated than Indian eastern Punjab
therefore the dual challenge of lesser
land available for distribution and
lower fertility
 Applications were invited for
permanent plots and the basis of
allocation was to be land left behind
in Pakistan.
 Verification of land claims was done
via assemblies of people, so ex-
neighbours could verify claims by a
family. Further to resolve the problem
of overclaiming, false claims were
punished by decreasing land to be
allotted ideally and even a brief spell
 of jail. The claimed inflation was
25%.
CONTRIBUTION OF SARDAR TARLOK SINGH, ICS
 He gave concepts of Standard Acre
and Graded Cut.
 One Standard Acre = Land that could
produce 10-11 mounds of rice (1
mound= 40 KG).
 This solved the problem of inequity as
people now got more land in Indian
eastern Punjab which had lower
fertility than Indian Western Punjab.
For example- One Acre is equal to one
standard Acre in the west and 4 Acres
are equal to one standard Acre in
Indian eastern Punjab.
 Graded cuts meant more percentage
cuts in the land allotted when more
land was claimed. Example- 25% cut
for claims between 1- 10 Acres. 30%
cut for 10-30 Acres and even 95% cut
for claims greater than 500 Acres.
 By November 1949, Tarlok Singh
made 2.5 lakh allotments. Also,
review applications led to 80000 acres
changing hands again.
 By 1951 task was completed in the
West, however, cultural loss to Sikhs
could not be compensated and they
lost important Gurudwaras in
Pakistan Punjab.
 Rehabilitation in the East-
 There was a long-term inflow of
refugees for years due to periodic
communal riots in East Pakistan (*
EP)
 The poor economy of East Pakistan
 After 1971, Inflow continued due to
the poor economy of Bangladesh.
Migration caused socio-cultural and
political problems in India in form of
Ethnic and Linguistic tensions and
even insurgency. Example- ULFA 1979
in Assam. [* Wanted independent
Assam].
  There was the problem of language
for migrants as Bengali immigrants
had to be settled even outside Bengal
as very less property was left behind
by those who migrated to East
Pakistan. [* Connect with modern
history- Permanent Settlement in
Bengal, therefore masses were
tenants ryots and less number of
Muslim ryots].
REORGANIZATION OF STATES
 During the Home rule league
movement, Tilak demanded the
creation of regions based on
language.
 In 1917, Congress also accepted
formally the linguistic reorganization
of states. In the 1920 Nagpur INC
Session, Provincial Congress
Committees were set up on linguistic
lines.
 Dhar Commission by Constituent
Assembly in 1948 rejected demand
due to concerns of national unity as a
partition on religious lines recently,
thus, did not want the rise of
communalism on basis of language.
 In 1948 JVP Committee setup
(Jawahar Lal Nehru, Vallabhbhai
Patel, Pittabhi Sitaramayya) favoured
a linguistic basis for reorganization
but argued that now was not the right
time due to concerns for national
unity.
 REFER TO THE HANDOUT
TRIBAL CONSOLIDATION
 Revise the reasons for tribal revolts
from Modern Indian History.
 Broadly they always enjoy autonomy
and preserve their unique identity but
under the British era their life was
turned upside down due to-
 a) Autonomy hurt by application of
British criminal and civil law
 b) British land revenue systems led to
an influx of and domination by
 outsiders i.e. Zamindars of plains,
Revenue farmers, Merchants, and
Moneylenders
 c) There was the loss of land to these
outsiders and also due to railroad
projects and mining projects in form
of land acquisition for these projects.
Further, there was the loss of home
and loss of access to forest produce
due to British forest laws that
classified forests into Reserved,
Protected, and Open to all.
 d) Forced labour on railroad projects
etc
 e) Hunting was banned and so was
Jhum cultivation as the British
wanted settled peasant communities
for ease of land revenue collection
and for greater land revenue
collection.
 f) From 1813, Christian missionaries'
activities threatened Tribal identity.
CHALLENGES FOR TRIBAL CONSOLIDATION
 Post-independence biggest
challenge was tribal consolidation
 A. Policy of isolation-
 Proposed by British
anthropologist Verrier Elwin.
 He argued that tribals are special
people who must be kept in
separation from the rest of society to
preserve and conserve their unique
culture and ethnic identity.
 He suggested the creation of National
Parks where tribal people could live
safely without being victims of
overhasty and unregulated
development/ modernization.
 [* Liberals- give best ideas of the age
to Indians- The problem was that the
best idea was synonymous with
British ideas, therefore best language
became English, the best education
became Western education, best
religion became Christianity.
 Therefore, it became a loss of
identity]
 However, this policy was viewed as a
proposal to create a museum or a zoo
and therefore rejected.
 B. Policy of assimilation
 This was proposed by G S Ghurye
(Father of Indian sociology).
 He said that tribals are simply
"Backward Hindus" who need to be
brought into the mainstream but in
that process, their unique identity
may be lost.
 C. Policy of integration
 It is also called as "Tribal Panchsheel,
1952". It was given by J L Nehru (*
Middle Path).
 This policy argued that tribal areas
and tribals (* Connect with
Constitution of India and Scheduled
tribes and other traditional forest
dwellers (recognition of rights) Act
2006) must progress but in their own
way (* Link orientalism- Rule India the
India way).
 Principles of Tribal Panchsheel,
1952
 a) Tribals should be allowed to
develop according to their own
genius (* i.e. as per their capability
and skills. for Example- maybe
traditional medicine as against pure
allopathy & maybe bamboo bridges
were feasible ).
 b) Tribal rights in land and forest
should be respected (* Scheduled
tribes and other traditional forest
dwellers (recognition of rights) Act
2006 or FRA 2006 and also link 5th
schedule powers of Governors @
land)
 c) Tribals should be trained to
undertake administration and
development tasks without too many
outsiders being inducted. (* I.e lower
bureaucracy should be tribals, maybe
 doctors should be tribals, Teachers
should be tribals).
 d) Tribal development should be
undertaken without disturbing tribal
social and cultural institutions. (*
Example- Eklavya model residential
schools where tribal culture is
promoted + delegating
implementation authority to Self-help
groups led by the tribal leader).
 e) Index of tribal development should
be the quality of life and not the
money spent. (* Longer road,
uneconomic but prevents digging a
tunnel through a hill worshipped by
tribals); (* Money spent as indicated
by utilization certificates submitted
by DM is an important metric today to
judge the quandevelopment).
CONSTITUTIONAL PROVISIONS
 Article 366- Definitions
 [* Article 366 (25) defines STs as tribes
or tribal communities as defined in
Article 342]
 Article 342- Scheduled Tribes
 STs are those tribes or tribal
communities that are in notifications
issued by President, and parliament
may include or exclude any tribe from
this notification.
 Article 244- Administration of
scheduled areas and tribal areas
 Article 244(1) says that the 5th
schedule will govern the
administration of scheduled areas
and STs
 Article 244(2) says that the 6th
schedule will govern the
administration of Tribal areas in
Tripura, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and
Assam
 5th schedule
 It talks about the tribal advisory
council that is to advise the State
government on the welfare of STs.
Also, the governor may make
 regulations for the good government
of scheduled areas and may prohibit
or restrict the transfer of tribal land,
and may regulate the business of
moneylenders
 6th schedule
 It talks about autonomous districts
and autonomous regions within
districts. It also mentions
autonomous district councils and
autonomous regional councils and
their powers to make laws.
 It also defines tribal areas.
 Other articles
 Article 243 D- Reservation of seats for
SC and STs in panchayats
 Article 243 T -Reservation of seats for
SC and STs in Municipalities
 Article 330- Reservation of seats for
SC and STs in the House of People
 Article 332- Reservation of seats for
SC and STs in State legislative
assemblies
 Article 46- It is a DPSP- Promotion of
educational and economic interests
of SCs and STs and other weaker
sections
 Article 48 A- Protection and
improvement of environment and
safeguarding forest and wildlife. [*
Forest means home of tribals].
 Article 29- Protection of interest of
minorities
 Article 30- Rights of Minorities to
Establish and administer educational
institutions
 Article 335- claims of SC/ST to
services and posts shall be taken into
consideration consistently with the
maintenance of efficiency in
administration. [* Example- ISRO
chief choice should have no basis in
any caste or religion]
 Article 31 A- Saving of laws @
acquisition of estates etc in the public
interest
SCHEMES RELATED TO TRIBALS
 Important role of TRIFED (Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development
Federation of India Limited) in the Ministry of Tribal Affairs
 a) Eklavya model residential schools 1997-98- Modern education with
residential facilities along with a focus on preserving tribal culture.
 b) MSP for MFP (Minimum support price for Minor forest produce)-
 b.1) MSP for minor forest produce like Tendu patta, Bamboo, Sal products like
Sal leaves and seeds, wild honey, lac, tamarind, etc.
 b.2) Important because, MFP has high social and economic value for tribals as it
not only provides food, medicine, and other consumption items but also cash
income.
 b.3) Sustainable harvesting of MFPs and sustainable demand for MFPs is
ensured by the scheme
 b.4) Under this scheme, procurement and marketing operations are conducted
(* Marketing implies connecting MFP with bias- Industrial or Retail)
 c) PM Van Dhan Yojana- The goal is to generate livelihood by utilizing forest
wealth. It promotes MSP for the MFP scheme by additionally focusing on value
addition to MFP with the help of self Help Groups of tribals before the final sale.


 d) Bharat Rural Livelihood Foundation, 2013
 d.1) Its goal is to generate rural livelihood with a special focus on women and
tribals
 d.2) It uses the human resource capacity of NGOs for skill development and
other development projects by doing capacity building of this Human resource.
 d.3) BRLF integrates government, Private sector, and Civil society, therefore is
an example of network governance
 d.4) BRLF also aims to strengthen the SHG movement and develop tribal
leadership.
 d.5) Funding by private partners to BRLF is eligible for being counted as CSR
contribution (Corporate social responsibility- Compulsory for companies having
 turnover of more than 500 crores to contribute 2% of profits towards social
welfare activities)- Initial corpus was 1000 crores- 500 cr by GoI and 500 cr from
other partners i.e. private companies and institutions like NABARD.
PANCHAYAT (EXTENSION TO SCHEDULED AREAS) ACT, PESA, 1996
 Scheduled areas are governed by 5th schedule (Article 244(1))
 5th schedule created the Tribal advisory council (TAC) which has 3/4th of
members as ST MLAs, however, TAC proved ineffective as it largely has advisory
functions. Therefore, PESA in 1996 gave more autonomy to local tribals and
other communities by establishing PRIs.
 PESA mandates state government to devolve certain political, administrative,
and financial powers to local governments/ PRIs.
 Tribals are guaranteed 50% of seats and the seat of chairperson at all levels of
the panchayat system.
 However, PESA has not been fully implemented by the state government [*
Federalism decreases the powers of the centre, PRIs decrease the power of
state governments ]
 1997, Samata judgment- SC ruled that the 5th schedule mandated governors
to bar the purchase of tribal lands for mining activity by private players, After
this GoI gave Governors unrestricted authority in the transfer of ST land to the
government and then allotment to non-tribals, therefore hurting the goal of
tribal autonomy.
SCHEDULED TRIBES & OTHER TRADITIONAL FOREST DWELLERS (RECOGNITION OF
RIGHTS) ACT 2006
 It is commonly known as Forest Rights Act 2006 or FRA 2006
 [* During Britishers time- Tribal autonomy hurt, Landlessness increased, Forest
produce + Culture (added by SC)
 Tribal Autonomy was handled by- PESA in 1996.
 Landlessness and Forest produce rights were resolved by FRA 2006]
 It is For the 5th schedule areas
 It gives the right to land and community rights over MFP, Water bodies, and
grazing areas
 It also gives responsibility to STs and OTFDs for the protection of wildlife,
Forests, and biodiversity i.e. Right to manage and protect their forests. [* Use in
the environment, SDG ] [** Implements 48 A]
 Maximum forest land rights that can be recognized is up to 4 hectares also
rights are heritable but not transferable. [* Therefore, FRA 2006, has the
consequence of preventing the transfer of land of tribal people to non-tribals ]
 Those persons are eligible who are living in and are dependent on forests for
livelihood and to cultivate their land before December 2005. [* Satellite photo
December 2005, cultivation, trees- FRA bans land use change after December
2005 ]
 FRA mandates the need for consent of Gram Sabha for forest land acquisition [*
Therefore Gram Sabha created by PESA 1996 and now empowered by FRA,
therefore, FRA strengthens PESA]
 2013 SC judgment in Vedanta's Bauxite mining project case in Niyamgiri Hills
in Odisha- here Dongria Kond tribals were protesting against the Mining of the
 hill they worship i.e. Niyamraja. SC recognized customary/ traditional rights of
ST and OTFDs. for example- Religious rights, therefore they were given the right
to protect the Hill and later Gram Sabha voted against the mining project.
 Therefore, FRA 2006 gives protection to customary rights as well after this
development.
INDIA- CHINA WAR, 1962


 Source- The Economist magazine
 As per the Jhonson line- Aksai chin is part of India.
 As per the McCartney-Mcdonald line- Aksai chin is part of China.
 China annexed Tibet in 1950.
 India was the first to recognize the PRC (People's Republic of China) in 1949 [*
PRC= Mainland China =Chinese Communist Party led state, 1921]
 India believed that we have common past experiences of colonialism and
therefore can share good relations. There were good relations until the 1950s as
India and China did not share borders.
 Post-1950, when China annexed Tibet, Border disputes began over Aksai chin
and NEFA.
 Also, India-USSR relations were improving while post-1953, china-USSR
relations turned bad which made China anxious.
 Patel did not trust China on the issue of borders while Nehru was overtrusting.
 The entire border is disputed.
 Western sector-
 a) Jhonson Ardagh line, 1897- Jhonson was a surveyor and recommended this
line in 1865. It was accepted by the British government officially in 1897 on the
recommendation of Ardagh, head of military intelligence. Jhonson's line puts
Aksai's chin in India.
 b) McCartney- Mcdonald line, 1899- It puts Aksai chin in China. In 1899, the
British proposed this line to China via Envoy Mcdonald but no response from
 China, therefore this line was not finalized and the British GoI reverted back to
the Jhonson Line 1897
 Eastern sector- Macmahon line 1914
 It was the result of the Shimla Agreement of 1914 between the British and Tibet.
China was invited to the conference but did not attend.
 Post-1949, CCP led government in China did not recognize the Macmahon Line
1914.
 Post-1950, Nehru sent an envoy to China to assess the view of Chinese President
Zhau Enlau/Lai
 [* Chinese system- Party is supreme and not the state. State includes
parliament, Judiciary, etc. A state is a tool for the party to implement
communism. There is only one party i.e. Chinese communist party- one party
system. Mao Zedong was the chairman of the party. The chairman of the party is
the top person. President of state was given foreign policy]
 As per the response, India got the impression that China had no interest in
border areas and its only interest was trade across borders.
 A satisfied Nehru went ahead and signed the 1954 treaty of friendship with
China based on Panchsheel principles to guide future relations
 a) Mutual respect for each other's territorial integrity.
 b) Mutual non-aggression [* Can raise a territorial dispute without aggression
e.g In United Nations]
 c) Mutual non-interference in each other's Internal affairs [* Rarely news item on
India or China commenting on Xinxiang or Punjab/ Maoism in NE]
 d) Equality and Mutual benefits [* Subsidiary alliance was not based on equality
because one partner was subordinate to another]
 e) Peaceful coexistence [* Xi Jinping said- "There is enough space in the world
for India and China both to grow", India also promotes Vasudaiva
Kutumbakam].
 However, the Mistake was that the treaty was silent on border disputes and
gave no clarity on borders. Also, India accepted Tibet as part of China.
 Another mistake was that, in 1956, Dalai Lama sought asylum in India but Nehru
Rejected it for good India-china relations. [* Jhataka/ Shock- 1957 report stated
that China had constructed a road in Aksai Chin]
 Earlier Nehru had called Zhau Enlau and he was assured that China won't ever
claim Indian territory but it was never clarified "what is Indian territory as per
China".
 The road created uproar in Indian politics and Nehru wrote to China. No reply
for one month and Zhau Enlau proposed that if India recognizes Aksai Chin as
part of China then China will recognize Mcmahon Line 1914 i.e. NEFA with India.
 Nehru propose this in parliament and argue that Aksai Chin is a barren land to
which there was high opposition. Example- Mahavir Tyagi responded that if he
was bald then should the head be removed from the body, therefore with no
agreement in Parliament, Nehru pulled out from negotiations.
 1959- Dalai Lama was given asylum but political activities were not allowed.
 1960-62- Forward policy by India and in 1962, in October china started the war.
REASONS FOR WAR
  Unsettled border dispute.
 The India-USSR relationship was improving while the China-USSR relationship
deteriorated and turned sour in 1953. This made China anxious therefore china
wanted to assert itself militarily as a show of strength.
 [* World history- Mao accused Nikita Krushev (1953-64) of comprising core
principles of Marxism when Nikita talked about peaceful coexistence with the
capitalist West and introduced some capitalistic features in USSR's economy.
This created demands in China for similar reforms that irked Mao Zedong,
therefore he took the Anti-USSR stand.]
 Also, china wanted to be the leader of the socialist world instead of the USSR.
Further, both had long-pending border disputes since 1858 when Russia took
over all territory above river Amur.
 China was facing domestic problems due to the initial failures of the "Great leap
forward" (Maoism) whereby agrarian communism was promoted instead of
focusing on heavy industry, a centralized industry based on mechanization and
the rapid industrialization model of the USSR.
 Now focus was to be on the agrarian economy, labour-intensive industry, light
industry that improves the standard of living (* Consumer durables and non-
durables ), decentralized industrialization i.e. Six lakh small steel factories
spread across rural areas, and gradual industrialization. This hurt GDP growth (*
Agri-GDP roughly 4% whereas industrial GDP was 20% ).
 Also, due to geographical events, there were bad harvests, and therefore even
the agrarian economy suffered, therefore Mao Zedong wanted to distract the
Chinese Public and leaders away from domestic problems.

1962 WAR- CAUSES OF WAR

 Trigger was the forward policy of India (1960-62) whereby Indian troops crossed
the Macmahon line in 1914 and skirmishes began. In response, China also
adopted the Forward policy leading to tensions.
 Cuban Missile Crisis October 1962- USA, USSR, and other major powers were
busy in this crisis, therefore, an opportunity for China as fewer chances of
foreign intervention in favor of India.
 War continued for one month followed by a unilateral ceasefire by China on
28th November 1962, China defeated Indian forces and also captured both Aksai
Chin and NEFA. Upon ceasefire, China Withdrew from NEFA but not from Aksai
Chin [* Therefore achieved by war what was proposed in negotiations].
REASONS FOR LOSS
 Poor political leadership and poor planning. Example- When skirmishes began
after the forward policy, Nehru opined that China won't ever go to war as it may
lead to WW III. Also, Defence Minister V K Krishna Menon opined that Pakistan is
a bigger threat than China [* In response to Army Chief]
 India did not get foreign help due to our NAM (Non-Aligned Movement) policy
which prevented assurance of Military help also foreign powers were busy in the
Cuban missile crisis.
 Impact-
  First time Nehru faced a No-confidence motion and also was blamed for failing
to protect the national interest.
 The government was blamed for political interference in the conduct of war.
 Due to high war expenditure third Five-year plan was badly affected.
 Huge loss of Military prestige for India and the Indian military.
BORDER TALKS
 From 1976 onwards, relations improved leading to 1981 high-level border talks
but then the 1987 Sumdorng chu incident in Arunachal Pradesh led to the
derailment of talks.
 1988- Rajiv Gandhi's visit to China led to the setting up of a Joint working group
[In JWG, senior bureaucrats meet regularly to find solutions and overcome
differences small and big ].
 Finally 1993, agreement on the maintenance of peace and tranquillity along LAC
(Line of Actual Control).
 In 1996, the Agreement on CBM (Confidence building measures) in the military
field along LAC.
 2003- After 14 rounds of JWG talks, two special representatives were appointed
to find political solutions (* From the Indian side, the special representative is
the National security adviser, NSA and three stages were envisaged in the
peace process )
 In 2005, the first stage was completed as we signed an agreement on political
parameters and guiding principles
 a) Solve peacefully and don't affect other bilateral engagements.
 b) Must be mutually accepted solutions also final and whole solutions.
 c) Be Flexible and respect each other strategic interests.
 d) Consider historical evidence and national sentiments.
 e) Geographically sensible boundaries.
 f) No exchange of populated areas.
 g) Pending final agreement, maintain Peace and continue CBMs and respect LAC
and special representatives should develop a framework for the second stage.
 Second stage-
 Develop a framework for boundary settlement that will be the basis for
demarcating borders with the help of officials and surveyors.
 We are in the second stage at present.
 Third stage
 Demarcate border on the map and ground.
LAL BAHADUR SHASTRI ERA, 1964-66
 After the death of Nehru in 1964, congress had to choose the next PM
 Syndicates were a group of powerful leaders from Non-Hindi speaking areas
example- Kamraj, Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy, S K Patil, etc.
 They wanted a puppet PM who would follow party directions, therefore, they
chose Lal Bahadur Shastri who had a polite personality, was honest and hard-
working, and was not very commanding.
 Challenges inherited by Lal Bahadur Shastri
 Economic- Third Five-year plan was badly affected due to unexpectedly high
war expenditure also consecutive droughts in 1962 and 1963 hurt agrarian GDP
 and contributed to the challenge of food security and food inflation, Therefore,
economic slowdown. This also contributed to law and order instability.
 Political- Lal Bahadur Shastri was not viewed as a strong personality like Nehru,
therefore, perception of weak political leadership and pressures of factionalism.
 [* Link factionalism of Modern Indian History post-Ranjeet Singh 1801-1839,
Post Strong Peshwa, Nana saheb (1740-1761), Post- Aurangzeb (1658-1707),
etc].
 There was a problem of Demand for the creation of Punjab as a sikh Majority
state, also the official language issue created a problem.
 Military- 1965 Indo-Pak war
 Reasons/ Background
 a.) Pakistan felt militarily confident due to
 a.1) Defeat of India in the 1962 war
 a.2) Sale of sophisticated weapons by USA example- Paton tanks
 a.3) 1963- Pakistan gave Shakshgam Valley to China from PoK, therefore
expected Chinese help.
 a.4) Pakistan expected USA support as Pakistan had joined Military alliances led
by the USA like SEATO 1954 and CENTO 1958.
 a.5) Also known assurances of military help to India by USSR since India
followed NAM.
 a.6) Also Indian economy wasn't doing well and perception of weak political
leadership.
 b) Also Pakistan expected support from Kashmiris if it attacked J&K. This was
due to ongoing protests and unrest created by Sheikh Abdulla and others
(Sheikh Abdulla was demanding autonomy greater than as given by Article 370
Example- Wanted their own military for J&K also he began demanding
plebiscite under USA influence).
 Events during the War
 Pakistan checked Indian military preparedness by attacking Rann of Kutch and
found India unprepared. Rann of Kutch is a marshy Area and India was not
expecting an attack on this front. And therefore, wasn't ready. Pakistan
demanded 9100 Sq km. After this attack, Britain mediated leading to a ceasefire
and a tribunal which in 1968, gave Pakistan 910 Sq Km.
 Operation Gibraltar- August 1965- By Pakistan whereby 40000 Militarily trained
infiltrators entered India with the goal of starting a civil rebellion by Kashmiris.
However, the operation failed as they did not get the desired response from
Indians, and effective intelligence with Indian forces led to their suppression.
 Operation Grandslam- September 1965- By Pakistan-
 i) Akhnoor connects J& K to the rest of India. The goal was to attack Akhnoor
and cut off supplies to Indian forces in J&K.
 ii) Meanwhile Lal Bahadur Shastri was being criticized for his indecisiveness/
Inaction during the conflict in Rann of Kutch. Example- Vijay Laxmi Pandit
stated that Lal bahadur shastri is the prisoner of indecision.
 Along with Army Chief, Lal Bahadur Shastri decided to open a second front in
Punjab so Pakistani forces could be diverted from J&K leading to the failure of
Operation Grandslam. This decision could have brought external players like
 China and USA into war in favour of Pakistan as now it would have been an all-
out war on multiple fronts. [* Good leadership- Strong decision-making ability
and action followed words]
 India successfully captured 1920 Sq Km in Pakistan and reached the outskirts of
Lahore while Pakistan captured 540 Sq Km. India also captured Haji Peer, which
connected PoK with J&K and therefore was a highly strategic location.
 Also, India also destroyed many Paton tanks in Pakistan, therefore real Gains
during War were made by India.
 The USA did not help Pakistan as it was heavily involved in the Vietnam War,
1961-75 (Under Jhonson- 1963-69, who sent a million troops and heavily
bombarded North Vietnam).
 Russia did not openly support India but made it clear to China that USSR would
be forced to come to the military aid of India if China supported Pakistan.
TASHKENT AGREEMENT 1966
 USSR feared the involvement of the USA and escalation of war if the war
continued longer, therefore putting pressure on India and Pakistan for a
ceasefire and Pakistan accepted.
 Tashkent Agreement.
CONTINUATION OF TASHKENT AGREEMENT:
 1. However, LB Shastri consulted the army chief if there was a chance of an all-
out victory. But in response got the feedback we were running short in arms and
ammunition.
 (This was an assessment/intelligence failure. Hence India accepted the
ceasefire.)
 2. Taskent Agreement restored status-quo ante- both sides returned to each
other's occupied territory.
 Unfortunately, therefore India had to give back Hajibi.
 3. India agreed due to USSR's pressure and did not want to lose the support of
the USSR on Kashmir Issues.
 Also, fear of the entry of the US that could lead to a long-drawn war is Not good
for the Indian economy.
 India was allegedly short of arms and ammunition.
 4. During the war stature of LB Shastri (LBS) improved manyfold.
 LBS raised morale and led from the front for example, in Allahabad Speeshc he
stated that:
 a. Ayub Khan said that he will meet us in Delhi to which I responded that you are
a man of high status therefore we would come to Lahore to pay respects.
 b. Also gave the slogan of Jai Jawan, Jai Kisan.
 5. Agrarian Crisis and LBS:
 It was inherited by LBS and now again war expenditure led to the diversion of
resources, and to punish India for not declaring a ceasefire in the Initial phase,
the USA stopped exporting PL-480 food grins to India.
 (PL-480- Food grains of Low quality, exported to poor countries by Public Law
480).
  Therefore, now LBS highlighted the importance of self-sufficiency and food
security, and the crucial role of peasants in the Indian economy and gave the
slogan of Jai jawan, Jai Kisan.
 LBS gave ideas of fasting once a week and kitchen gardens- Every family
growing basic vegetables near their home, and his own family was the first to
practice these ideas.
 Therefore, LBS set the public and political narrative for the future green
revolution. (Even if for the vote bank politics, food security can't be ignored
anymore by political leaders.)
INDIRA GANDHI ERA
 After the death of LBS in February 1966 in Tashkent, a new PM had to be
appointed.
 Gulzari Lal Nanda(GLN) and Morarji Desai wanted to be the PM but were viewed
by the syndicate as over-ambitious candidates who may not follow party
directions.
 Kamaraj was a strong leader but did not know Hindi and English, therefore
realized that he may not be accepted as the PM.
 IG projected herself as not interested and the syndicate thought she would be a
weak PM being inexperienced and being a woman.
 The syndicate thought that IG would also have sympathy from the public being
Nehru's daughter, therefore chose her and India got its first woman PM.
CONGRESS SPLIT, 1966:
 1966-67:
 IG took decisions independently of the syndicate.
 For example, devalued Rupee due to pressure from IMF and the World Bank as
India faced a BOP crisis and devaluations may increase export earnings, ie forex.
 This decision backfired as India was a net importer and was not industrialized
and imported raw materials, especially fuel.
 Therefore the cost of imports increased.
 The real issue was that IG acted independently.
 (Profits of exporters= Revenues(sales in the international markets) - Cost of raw
materials.
 More Profits -> More factories -> More exports -> More profits ->More forex.)
IDEOLOGICAL CONFLICTS BETWEEN IG AND SYNDICATE:

Indira Gandhi Syndicate
Pro-poor
More pro-
socialist
capitalists.
ideology.
Strong welfare
state. Therefore Wanted a strong
favored the private sector
nationalization and opposed
of industries and nationalization.
banks.
 Wanted a weak
state in the
economy and
Wanted a
decision-making
welfare state and
powers with the
planned
private sector,
economy.
therefore wanted
to abolish five-
year plans.
Favored land
redistribution in Not in favor.
favor of the poor They were pro-
via the land landed class.
ceiling.
Favored better Favored better
relations with relations with
USSR. the US.
 1967 Elections at Centre & States:
 To control IG who was the PM face of Congress, the syndicate decided to
distribute tickets to their allies.
 However, there was an anti-congress wave due to food shortages, inflation,
poverty, and corruption.
 Therefore, for the first time, Congress lost elections in 8 states and the era of
regional parties began.
 But at the center there was no alternative, therefore IG was able to get a thin
majority.
 Therefore syndicates were weakened.
 Death of President Zakir Hussain:
 It was the trigger for the split.
 Syndicates wanted Neelam Sanjeeva Reddy to be the President to control IG.
 The conflict led to Congress not declaring an official candidate as IG and started
propaganda that the syndicate wanted to remove her as the PM.
 IG declared that she will vote for VV Giri.
 Finally, VV Giri emerged victorious. (Fewer MLAs of syndicates due to poor 1967
elections)
 Humiliated syndicate expelled IG and now Congress- O of Syndicat and
Congress- R of IG.
 However, IG continued to be the PM as had the support of more MPs.
ELECTIONS, 1971:
 These elections were declared prematurely by IG as she wanted:
 The strong majority implemented her reforms.
 For example, IG wanted to abolish the Privy purses but did not have the
majority in Rajya Sabha and therefore brought Ordinance.
 It was overturned by the SC.
 Nationalization of banks, but overturned by the SC in RC Cooper Case.
  (Link 24th to 42nd CAA).
 Syndicate, Jan Sangh, and all other parties set up a grand alliance and gave the
slogan "Indira Hatao" while IG gave the slogan "Garibi Hatao".
 RM Lohiya said, "IG is a Gungi Gudiya, how will she rule"?
 March 1971- IG came to power with an absolute majority.
BANGLADESH LIBERATION WAR
 Reasons:
 1. East Pakistan(EP) and West Pakistan(WP) had cultural differences.
 For example, EP felt closer to West Bengal culturally than WP due to the
common Bengali language.
 2. EP wanted official language status for Bengali which was resisted by WP.
 (Jinnah imposed Urdu on Pakistan because he wanted an Islamic image).
 3. Pakistan's State and Military were dominated by WP.
 4. EP was poor while WP was relatively rich.
 Even during the British Era, irrigation infra was not developed in the Permanent
Settlement areas of Bengal, Orissa, and Bihar as Land revenue could not be
increased.
 Therefore, more canals were built in the undivided Punjab.
 5. EP felt that revenue from the Jute export was used for the industrialization of
WP instead of the development of EP.
 6. Poor Administration in EP.
 7. Trigger was Bhola cyclone in EP after which poor relief work led to anger.
SHEIKH MUJIBUR REHMAN:
 He was a highly popular leader of the Awami League(AL) in EP.
 He raised the political, economic, and socio-cultural demands of EP.
 There was an agreement with WP on elections and consequent amendments to
the constitution to bring real federalism.
 WP leaders were confident of victory.
 Yahya Khan was a military leader who supported Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, a very
popular leader of WP.
 Election results were a big surprise for WP as Awami League won nearly all seats
in EP and therefore got the majority in the parliament.
 WP refused to convene Parliament and Bhutto was declared the PM.
 Now, a peaceful CDM was started by AL with demands for the right to form the
government and federalism.
 25th March 1971, Pakistani Army launched "Operation Searchlight" where lakhs
were executed and Hindus were selectively targeted.
 Therefore, Hindu and Muslim Bengalis suffered brutal repression.
 10 lakh refugees entered India overall, threatening internal stability as India
already faced challenges in food security, poverty, and unemployment.
 Also, cultural conflicts between the Non-Bengalis of NE and Bengali Immigrants.
 IG and Sam Manekshaw discussed the possibilities of war.

BANGLADESH WAR
  However India decided not to directly interfere, immediately.
 a) Rains will soon to follow in East Pakistan which would make terrain tough for
military movement. For example- Rivers would swell making it hard to cross
them
 b) In the summer china would be able to help Pakistan, therefore, India may
have to fight the war on multiple fronts.
 c) USA was not that heavily involved in Vietnam after Jhonson's presidency
(1963-69) therefore may come to the aid of Pakistan, its military ally.
 d) Also India did not have a military alliance with USSR as we followed NAM,
therefore no assurance of military help.
 Further India should not be seen as an aggressor by the International
community (Can lead to sanctions)
 Therefore we decided till winter also Indira Gandhi began raising awareness
internationally on genocide by Pakistan and refugee issues faced by India. Also,
India began operation jackpot where India decided to support Mukti
Vahini with arms, training, and money. So the people of East Pakistan could
fight their war on their own
 Meanwhile USSR offered and we agreed to sign, a Treaty of Friendship, peace,
and Cooperation, in 1971 that led to a form of military alliance (* USSR did not
want South Asia under the domination of the US and its allies i.e. Pakistan and
China). [** US- china were friends since 1971 and the US agreed to UNSC seat to
the Chinese communist party]
 Finally, Pakistan attacked on 3rd December 1971 and India was well-prepared.
 India immediately recognized Bangladesh. Also, Pakistan, implemented an Air
blockade in the Indian Air space, therefore cutting off supplies from West
Pakistan to East Pakistan.
 The US brought two resolutions to UNSC for a ceasefire but USSR vetoed them,
therefore buying India time.
 The US wanted China to intervene but China did not respond as did not want
direct war with USSR.
 The US started Gunboat diplomacy i.e. use of naval powers and resources to
threaten others. The US sent a Naval fleet to the Bay of Bengal/ Indian Ocean
and in response, USSR also sent its fleet, therefore again buying time for India.
However, now also the threat of a nuclear war.
RESULT
 Pakistan was defeated in 13 days. It was a big humiliation to Pakistan as the
Pakistan army in East Pakistan was made to surrender in Public at the Dacca
race course where 93000 surrendered on 16th December 1971.
 India regained military pride. Also, it was a big strategic victory as two fronts
with Pakistan ended. [* Imagine East Pakistan supporting insurgency or ethnic
conflict in North East or threatening Chicken Neck Corridor, also it nullified two
front war].
 The secular credentials of India were reaffirmed as we helped Muslim Majority
East Pakistan. Also, it was a big blow to the two-nation theory as the creation of
 Bangladesh negated the creation of Pakistan as a nation on the basis of religion
in 1947. [* Language and culture defeated religion].
 Mujib-ur-Rahman declared 4 principles that would guide Bangladesh in the
future. [* NDSS]
 a) Nationalism- [* Linguistic nationalism was suppressed as part of Pakistan]
 b) Democracy- [* Election results were not respected by West Pakistan]
 c) Socialism- [* East Pakistan was poor and neglected by West Pakistan]
 d) Secularism-[* Hindus and Muslims of East Pakistan did together during and
after Operation Searchlight, therefore secularism in the future, also Bangladesh
for Bangla speakers and not for just Muslims.]
 Sheikh Abdulla in J&K realized that no use in confrontation with the
Government of India, therefore Indira-Sheikh Agreement of 1974 where he gave
up plebiscite demand and agreed to autonomy as provided by Article 370.
 Political Gains in India for Indira Gandhi
 Shimla agreement, 2nd July 1972-
 It was signed between Indira Gandhi and Bhutto and it was much more than a
peace treaty as not just an exchange of Prisoners of war (PoWs) but also the
withdrawal of troops from each other's occupied areas.
 Pakistan also recognized Bangladesh but also aimed at the blueprint for
peaceful coexistence by providing guiding principles for Indo-Pak relations [*
Therefore like Panchsheel with China]
 a) Territorial respect for each other's territorial integrity, unity, and political
independence
 b) Sovereign equality
 c) Non-interference in international affairs
 d) Take all aspects to prevent Hostile propaganda
 e) Peaceful resolution of all issues vias direct bilateral talks or by any other
peaceful means mutually agreed upon [* i.e. Third party can be there if India-
Pakistan both agree] [** In diplomacy, options are kept alive- Example- If in
future foreign intervention in India's favour then we may be open to it]
 1949 ceasefire line was replaced by the ceasefire line on 17th December 1971
and named LoC. 740 km LoC was to be the de-facto border not to be altered
unilaterally or by force. Also, LoC to be inviolable i.e. can not be violated in any
circumstance.
 Pending permanent settlements, both shall prevent the organization and
encouragement of any act that hurt peaceful relations [* Therefore, Kargil,
support to Khalistanis and to terrorists is a legal violation by Pakistan]
 CBMs like promoting people-to-people contact, & open communication via
post, telegraph, land, air, sea & cross border movement, & improved trade &
cultural contact, & science and technology cooperation [* Link Lahore Bus
yatra, Samjhauta express, Kartartpur corridor & Sarabjit able to write letters to
India & Indian businessman visiting Pakistan and vice versa & World cup match
to be held in Gujarat.
LAHORE AGREEMENT
 Commitment to goals and objectives of SAARC,
 Prevent Nuclear war and Nuclear proliferation [* Both Nuclear weapon states
since 1988], therefore both agreed to the principle of universal nuclear
disarmament and non-proliferation.
 Condemnation of terrorism in all forms. Also, commitment to human rights and
freedom. Also, to Implement Shimla Agreement 1972 in letter and spirit
 Indira Gandhi wanted to eliminate poverty but the challenge was big due to
high war expenditure due to 3 wars in a decade. Also, 1972-73 were drought
years and this led to economic slowdown and unemployment & inflation.
 The global oil crisis of 1973 led to imported inflation that rose as high as 22%.
 Yom Kippur War 1973 between Israel v/s Egypt, and Syria (1948 Arab-Israel War,
1956 Suez war, 1967- Six-day war involving Arab countries and Israel ). Gulf
countries reduced oil supply to hurt Israel and its allies and this led to Fuel
inflation that hurt the Middle class.
 Also, corruption cases and unemployment increased anger in Urban areas.
 The biggest strike in the history of India took place i.e. All India railway strike as
inflation was 22% in May 1974 therefore corruption, unemployment, inflation,
and the authoritarian leadership of Indira Gandhi (* 42th CAA) contributed to
the JP movement 1973-1980.
 The ideology of the JP movement
 It was a fight for the revival of values in society and to end the system that
forced everyone to be corrupt. This is called total revolution by JP (* Link Anna
Hazare movement)
 Events
 1973, Patna- JP came out of political retirement and gave a call to the youth to
fight against dishonesty in society
 1974, Gujarat- Students began protests in January 1974. JP gave leadership and
later other political parties also joined with the demand of the dissolution of the
assembly and fresh polls. Centre dissolved the Gujarat Legislative Assembly but
instead of fresh elections, applied the president's rule. Now old Morarji Desai
began fast unto death forcing Indira Gandhi to declare elections which were
won by candidates supported by JP.
 1974, Bihar- Like Gujarat, JP took leadership of students who were protesting
for the dissolution of the legislative assembly and fresh polls, inspired by
Gujarat's success. JP's plan was to win state after state. However, Indira Gandhi
did not accept demands.
 Now JP gave the call to Total Revolution 1974 against the corruption and
authoritarianism of Indira Gandhi and also demanded that people don't pay
taxes and that they set up parallel governments [* Recall no Tax campaign and
parallel governments during pre-1857 revolts and QIM 1942-45].
 In Bihar, people stopped paying taxes and set up parallel governments.
 However, by the end of 1974, Movement declined and youth went back to
college as Indira Gandhi did not accept demands. Also, there was a poor
organization and movement did not attract the poor, and participation was
limited to students, the Middle class, and the intelligentsia. [* Recall Struggle-
Truce-Struggle of Mahatma Gandhi where Truce was because the masses got
tired if demands were unmet]
 Allahabad HC judgment in June 1975 re-ignited the JP movement. HC
invalidated the elections of Indira Gandhi on grounds of misuse of official
machinery.
 SC gave partial relief as Indira Gandhi was allowed to continue as PM but
disallowed from voting as MP until the final decision.
 Now JP gave a call for Daily protests. Also on 25th June in a rally in Delhi, JP
asked Army, police, civil servants, and people to stop obeying the government
orders and to follow the constitution of India.
 He also declared that on 29th June will start the Civil disobedience movement,
therefore on midnight of 26th June 1975. emergency applied under Article 352
on grounds of internal disturbances which further ignited JP's movement.
 Oppression during the emergency of 1975-77 led to public anger and Indira
Gandhi lost the 1977 election. [* 1967- Big loss in states, 1977- loss at centre]
 Janta Party, which was created by merging opposition parties won, and finally,
Morarji Desai became PM.
 This government was unstable due to conflicting political ideologies and fell in
1980 before 5 years.
 The Janta party split in 1980 led to the creation of the BJP (Bhartiya Janta
Party).
 Therefore JP movement ended with the victory of Indira Gandhi in the 1980
elections. The government had failed to meet the objectives of the JP
movement
 JP movement failed due to
 a) Ideological difference between opposition parties who joined the movement
 b) Goal got limited to the overthrow of the Indira Gandhi movement instead of
social change or total revolution
 c) Flawed method of advocating Anarchy. Example- Government officials and
the Army disobeying elected government could have hurt democratic
institutions and the spirit of the Constitution of India.
 d) No viable alternative as JP's Idea of party-less democracy with power only in
the hands of people [* Parallel governments, can link with village republics of
Mahatma Gandhi] in practice meant chaos.
 e) Limited social base as the poor did not participate.
 Question- Critically examine the JP movement regarding its ideology, goals,
and methods.
EMERGENCY
 Trigger was Allahabad HC judgment in the case of Raj Narain v/s Indira Gandhi,
June 1975 where the election petition against Indira Gandhi for misuse of the
election machinery. Example- use of PWD and some government officials as poll
agents.
 Indira Gandhi was disqualified for six years from holding any elected office.
Indira Gandhi's supporters felt she has been removed as PM for crossing a red
light/ traffic offence as she had won by 1 lakh votes. Sanjay Gandhi held rallies
in her support.
 SC gave partial relief- can continue as PM but can't vote as MP. Opposition and
the press wanted her to resign. On the day of the SC judgment, JP gave a call for
 Daily protests and asked Army, police, Civil servants, and people to stop
obeying the government, therefore on the 26th of June emergency was applied
without the knowledge of the Council of Ministers.
 Government Rationale-
 Economic crisis- Growing recession, Unemployment, and inflation. Also, there
was a monsoon failure in 1972-73. Also, the 1971 war depleted forex reserves.
Also global oil crisis, of 1973 and the Rising public anger example- The all India
railway strike, in May 1974 and the JP movement that threatened internal
stability
 Fear of external powers taking benefit of internal instability to further
destabilize India.
 Some argue that Indira Gandhi wanted major changes in the Constitution of
India, therefore applied emergency. Example- 42nd CAA 1976.
 During an emergency
 Initially, acceptance among the public as Law and order improved. Also, anti-
social elements were arrested. Also, the efficiency of administration was
improved. Also, there was an improvement in the economy due to the good
monsoon. Masses also felt that emergency was applied as per the Constitution
of India.
 Also, 20 point program by Indira Gandhi was focused on the land ceiling and re-
distribution, abolition of bonded labour, reduction of prices etc
 However, later economic growth did not sustain, the authoritarian behaviour of
government officials, misuse of preventive detention i.e. arrests, anger against
the suspension of elections & president's rule in non-congress states, press
censorship, Suspension of Fundamental Rights, 42nd CAA December 1976 that
hurt independence of the judiciary, a ban on organizations like RSS, Jamat-e-
Islami, etc, Forced slum clearances by Sanjay Gandhi and forced sterlisation
campaign by Sanjay Gandhi & cases of even double sterilization and political
opponents got sterilized
 Result of emergency
 Indira Gandhi lost the 1977 elections and the Janta Party government set up the
Shah Commission to fix accountability for atrocities during an emergency.
 44th CAA reversed most changes of the 42nd CAA. Also, now internal
emergencies under Article 352, are only on the grounds of armed rebellion and
not on the ground of internal disturbances. Also, the cabinet must give in
writing the advice to impose an emergency to President.
 However with time Janta Party failed to issues of the people and the masses felt
that the Shah commission was doing witch-hunting Indira Gandhi was already
punished with a loss in 1977, therefore Indira Gandhi won the 1980 elections.
ASSAM NATIONALIST MOVEMENT
 Reasons
 Migration of Bengalis since 1947 continued even after the creation of
Bangladesh due to the poor economy therefore fear of immigrants @ jobs, land
grabs, economic capture, cultural subjugation, and political domination among
Assamese. Example- Important issue of the faulty voter list.
  Assamese felt that since the British era, their natural resources and economy
benefitted outsiders. Exam- Assam tea garden was owned by foreigners and
local trade was under outsiders, and oil though extracted in Assam was refined
outside Assam hurting employment potential in Assam.
 Peaceful protests, 1975- 1979- It failed
 All Assam Student's Union, 1979 (AASU) now began violent protests and
demanded-
 a) Stop immigration of Bangladeshi, and Deport those already present
 b) Bring new economic policy for Assam so natives of Assam benefit from their
natural resources.
 c) Greater participation in administration i.e. reservation for natives and
administrative autonomy.
 Result
 Assam Accords 1985 by Rajeev Gandhi settled movement led by AASU (ULFA
1979, and Bodo movement came later)
 For foreigners- Those who came before 1961 to have all citizenship rights, 1961-
71- to have all citizenship rights except the right to vote for 10 years, and 1971+ -
to be declared illegal immigrants and to be deported. [* 25th March 1971]
 For economy- A second oil refinery, a Paper Mill, and IIT Guwahati were
announced
 For culture- Promise of administrative and legislative safeguards for cultural
identities and heritage
 Assam Gana Parishad was set up as a political party and Prafulla Mahanta of
AASU 1979 became CM at the age of 32.
 ULFA 1979 was majorly active after 1983 when huge malpractice of faulty voter
lists was revealed again after 1978. Its method was an armed insurgency and its
goal was pre-1826 status when there was Ahom kingdom i.e. Full
independence.
 1992- ULFA declared that their movement is for all natives of Assam and not just
Assamese. 2011- ULFA signed the ceasefire.
 Today following demands for statehood from Assam- Bodoland, Karbi-Anglong,
Dimaland, Kamtapur- they have a sixth scheduled Autonomous council at
present.
KASHMIR CRISIS
 After the 1971 war, the Indira- Sheikh
Agreement 1974, therefore Shiekh
Abdulla came to power in 1975. He
was old, therefore on the advice of
Indira Gandhi declared Farrukh
Abdulla as his Successor.
 In 1982, upon the death of Sheikh
Abdulla, Farrukh Abdulla came to
power. But during the elections, he
took an Anti-congress stand instead
of being in a coalition. Now brother-
in-law, Gulam M D Shah removed
 Farrukh Abdulla from power by doing
a coup within the party.
 However, Gulam M D Shah raised
communal tensions. Example- In
Jammu, he declared his desire to
construct a mosque in the vicinity of a
temple, and in Kashmir, he began
propaganda that Islam is under threat
from non-muslims. Now communal
violence began and with it exodus of
Hindus
 Gulam M D Shah was removed as CM
and Farrukh Abdulla was reinstated.
But he was not able to manage the
crisis. Further, Hizbul Mujahideen and
JKLF escalated communal violence
and killings. They also forced
Kashmiri Pandits to leave Kashmir.
 1986 onwards, the president rule in
J&K on and off.
PUNJAB CRISIS


Punjab
Crisis

The
Electoral
Moder deman
Politics
n d of Central Government
and
Indian Sikh o Akali Dal
Religion
histor majorit o Khalistan
Anandpu
y- y o Bhindraw
r Sahib
Akali states ale
Resoluti
Dal within
on
India
 Akali movement, 1920-25-
 For getting control of Gurudwaras
from Udasi Sikh Mahants to people.
After this movement, Akali Dal came
to exist as a party with a focus on
Sikhism.
 Post-1947, Akali Dal led the Punjabi
Suba Civil movement for a Sikh-
majority state within India (the 1950s-
1960s). Example- Master Tara Singh
 argued that a Sikh organization
should be ruling Punjab.
 The demand of Sikh majority state
within India
 State Reorganisation Commission
1955 report rejected the demand as it
was based on religion. Also, there was
no critical difference were there
between Punjabi and Hindi for
reorganization on the basis of
language. There was concern about
national unity since Punjab shared
borders with Pakistan and the recent
partition on the basis of religion.
 Under the State Reorganisation Act
1956, Punjab was expanded by
adding PEPSU States (The Patiala and
East Punjab States Union= Princely
states during the British era clubbed
post-1947). Therefore, Punjab was a
three-language state- Punjabi, Hindi,
Pahari, and Sikh were not in the
majority.
 Indira Gandhi created Punjab as a
Sikh-majority state in 1966 due to
 a) Demands continued by Akalis.
 b) Rising demand for Harayana by
Hindi Speaking community.
 c) Sant Fateh Singh assured that
demand is linguistic and not
communal. [* No anti-Hindu policy or
politics post-reorganization]
 There was no agreement on
Chandigarh to Punjab and Fazilka and
Pabohar to Haryana as negotiations
failed therefore Chandigarh was
made a common capital and an
Union territory
 However, Akalis still unable to get the
majority and had to form a coalition
government in the 1967 elections.
Also in 1971, the Rival Congress
formed a government in Punjab. This
was because 25% of Sikhs were
Mazhabi Sikhs (Dalits) who were not
vote base of Akali dal.
 

Punjab

60% Sikh
o Out of
this
40%
25%
Hindus
were
Mazhabi
Sikhs
 Therefore Akalis gave Anandpur
Sahib resolution, in October 1973 to
consolidate sikh votes where they
demanded
 a) Chandigarh to Punjab
 b) Punjabi Speaking Areas of other
states to Punjab
 c) Resolve grievances @ River water
sharing with Haryana and Rajasthan
 d) More Sikhs in the army
 e) Protection of Sikh Culture
 f) Amend the Constitution of India to
bring real federalism i.e. Centre's
interference in states to be limited to
defence, foreign affairs, currency, and
some aspects of general
administration. [* A regional party or
a minority party always demands
Federalism because can be in power
in the state not usually at the centre]
 g) Political goal was defined as
autonomy within India but in
Preamble- "Akali dal is a
representative of a Sikh Nation" [*
Nation= People who feel one,
Country= Territory, State=
Organization] [* Deamand was similar
to Article 370]
 [** Recall Syed Ahmad Khan- Hindus
and Muslims are two separate
quams].
 During the emergency 1975-77, Akalis
were imprisoned and won the 1977
elections and revived demands of
Anandpur Sahib Resolution 1973.
RISE OF JARNAIL SINGH BHINDRAWALE
 1978- Nirankaris were to hold a public
meeting in Amritsar and Bhindrawale
was leading opposition to this
meeting (Nirankaris consider
themselves Sikhs but believed in a
living guru therefore regarded as
heretics by other Sikhs). Motivated by
his hate speech in Golden Temple, a
Sikh crowd attacked the meeting and
15 died.
 Personality of Bhindrawale
 An inspiring creature who had a deep
knowledge of Sikh Scriptures.
 He left his family to head a seminary
called Damdami Taksal.
 He wanted Sikhs to purify themselves
and go back to the "Golden Past" ( *
i.e. Spoke against the consumption of
Alcohol, and tobacco, not
maintaining 5 Ks, etc) [* Current
affairs- Amritpal Singh- earlier he had
no long hair but later he started
keeping long hair]
 He raised political tensions- For
example- He argued that Sikhs are
discriminated against by Hindus and
are slaves in India
 Some argue that he was cultivated by
Sanjay Gandhi and Gyani Zail Singh to
counter Akalis by creating bigger
religious icons to cut the vote base of
Akalis. Whoever promoted him, he
later displayed his own charisma
 Major Events
 Some lower Sikh castes of Artisans
and labourers became followers as
saw purification as a path for social
mobility. [* Upper caste is upper
because follows religion in a purer
manner]
 Many Jat peasants joined him as he
argued that the Green Revolution
benefitted mainly big landlords.
 There was a general increase in
religiosity due to the unexpected
 economic benefits of the green
revolution that aided Bhindrawale.
 1980- Sikh Pride of some sections
hurt as Akalis lost and Congress came
to power.
 June 1980- Khalistan was proclaimed
by a group of students in Golden
Temple. Their president Jagjeet Singh
Chauhan was in London and this
declaration was also made in the UK,
USA, and Canada.
 But the main concern of the
Government of India was Akali who
began protesting for Anandpur Sahib
Resolution 1973 under new leader
Longowal who operated from Golden
Temple.
 Bhindrawale also operated from
Golden Temple and kept armed
followers who on his orders engaged
in killings. Therefore in the 1980s,
protests by Akalis and killings by
Bhindrawale followers.
 Gurcharan Singh, leader of Nirankari
was shot dead in Delhi in April 1980.
 Also on 9th September 1981- Lala
Jagat Narayan, editor of Punjab
Kesari who was writing against
communal politics, was shot dead.
 Still, Bhindrawale was not arrested. [*
Lesson- current affairs- Before Such a
situation, Amritpal was arrested].
Finally, when arrested, Gyani Zail
Singh ensured that only Sikh
policemen were used.
 Violent protests led to his release on
grounds of lack of evidence. This was
a turning point in his popularity as
the perception that he defeated the
Indian state/ Government.
 1982- Negotiations on the Anandpur
Sahib resolution between the
Government of India and Akalis failed.
Therefore in 1983, Akali MLAs
resigned hinting at disloyalty to the
constitution of India.
  This was the product of competition
for sikh support, with Bhindrawale.
EVENTS POST 1982
 25th April 1983- DIG, A S Atwal was
shot dead in Golden Temple and his
body could not be picked up for hours
therefore, police morale crashed.
Also, now Bank robberies began. Also,
the exodus of Hindus began.
Therefore, centuries-old Hindu-Sikh
unity started collapsing
 Bhindrawale stated that Sikhs are a
separate community [* link Sir Syed
Ahmad Khan]. He did not demand
Khalistan but stated that he "Won't
refuse if offered".
 He also attacked the Government of
India. Example- Called Indira Gandhi
as Pandityain. He decided to won't go
to meet the PM and stated that She
 can come if she wants ‘He also raised
communalism. Example- Cited
history of Sikh where 40 fought 10000
when Mughals tried to destroy Gurus.
 He also argued that Israel of Jews can
keep away so many Arabs then Sikhs
can fight Hindus.
 October 1983- Hindus were removed
from a Bus and were shot dead and
the next day, President's rule was
enforced.
 By the end of 1983- Bhindrawale took
residence in Akal Takht which had
great symbolic value as second in
importance only to Golden Temple,
and from here, Gurus gave
Hukumnamas, Guru Govind Singh
here compiled Guru Granth Sahib.
And Sikh warriors took blessing here
before fighting the Mughals.
 3rd June 1984- Operation Bluestar
 Due to fear of Bhindrawale
proclaiming Khalistan being eminent,
the Army was sent in. 100s of Army
men were killed. Also, 100s of
 Bhindrawale's supporters and
Bhindrwale were killed.
 Golden Temple complex was
damaged and tanks were used.
 Huge communal violence followed
and even neutral youth joined
militancy.
 Indira Gandhi was killed by a
bodyguard on 31st October 1984.
 Anti-sikh riots in Delhi where police
remained inactive for 3 days
 Agitation by Akalis led to Punjab
Accords/ Rajiv-Longowal Accords
1985 on Anandpur Sahib Resolution
1973, but this was not fully
implemented. For example-
Chandigarh was not given to Punjab.
 1987-1991- President's rule
 1988- Operation Blackthunder.
 After Operation Bluestar and the
assassination of Indira Gandhi
believed that the Government of India
won't ever Golden Temple again,
therefore took Safe haven in Golden
Temple.
 Much better planned on the basis of
effective intelligence and without any
damage to Golden Temple, militants
were flushed out, and leaders of
militants neutralized.
 1992 elections.
 It was won by Congress due to low
voter turnout and now K P S Gill, an
IPS was given a free hand.
 Gill Doctrine- People don't support
militants. They support stronger
factions as they fear for their own
security. Therefore, police should
demonstrate they are more powerful.
He was ruthless and eliminated
militancy.
 The leadership of Militants was
targeted and eliminated but in this
process, there were allegations of
rape and murder of civilians.
 Therefore civilians suffered at the
hands of militants as well as police.
 Question- In the context of the
Punjab crisis, it can be argued that
Language, Religion, and Regionalism
combined into an explosive situation
that the political elites struggled to
contain. Examine. (150 words/10
marks)
 [* Regionalism- Region demanded
historically as sikh State+ Rivers +
Issue of chandigarh].
RAJIV GANDHI ERA
 In 1986-87, Rajiv Gandhi Govt set up
six technology Missions (headed by
Sam Pitroda) to tackle some of India's
fundamental problems.
 The focus areas were: Rural drinking
water, Literacy, Immunisation,
Edible oils, Telecommunications,
and Dairy production.
 Rajiv Gandhi did not want India to
miss the ICT revolution.
 He also started Jawahar Rozgar
Yojana which became MGNREGA
later.
 He started "Operation Blackboard"
and came up with the New Education
policy in 1986.
 He gave extra focus to diplomacy. He
established a separate ministry for
the environment. He set up a planet
protection fund.
 Anti-defection law was brought in his
era.
 Proposal for constitutional
recognition for grassroots
governance.
 He created an Africa Fund. He also
spoke against Apartheid and
Colonialism.
 China and Nepal came closer and it
became a challenge for India-Nepal
relations.
 November 1988- Operation Cactus in
the Maldives.
 Sri Lankan Civil War.
 Kargil War 1999
 1984- Operation Meghdoot- India
took control of Siachen
 1998- Pokharan test
REFERENCES
. INDIA AFTER GANDHI BY
RAMCHANDRA GUHA
.PAX INDICA BY SHASHI THAROOR
. INDIA SINCE INDEPENCE BY BIPAN
CHANDRA
. BRIEF HISTORY OF MODERN INDIA BY
RAJIV AHIR
.INDIA’S STRUGGLE FOR
INDEPENDECE BY BIPAN CHANDRA