LIFE PROCESSES AND NUTRITION

Life processes
- Movements
- Growth
- Nutrition
- Respiration
- Excretion
- Transportation
- Reproduction
- Responsiveness
Nutrition
The sum total of all the processes starting from taking the food up to its availability to the
body cells for utilization is called nutrition.
Food
A combination of various organic and inorganic substances in a definite proportion which
is capable of providing matter and energy for various metabolic activities is called food of
an organism.
Importance of food
- Energy: - by oxidation of food
- Repair/ Replacement of worn out cells.
- Growth
- Reproduction
- Formation of organic substances
- Resistance against diseases.
Classification of food
Various components of food, such as, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals
etc. that help the living organisms in carrying out their metabolic activities are called
nutrients.
a) Energy-yielding foods – carbohydrates and fats
b) Body building foods – proteins
c) Protective foods – vitamins and minerals
Modes of nutrition
 - Autotrophic nutrition (synthesize food from inorganic raw materials).
- Heterotrophic nutrition (obtain food synthesized by other organisms).
Autotrophic nutrition
In this mode of nutrition living organisms synthesize their own food (organic materials)
from the inert inorganic substances, such as, CO2 and H2O by the utilization of energy.
Hence autotrophs are also known as producers. Depending upon the source of energy,
autotrophs are further categorized into:
a) Photoautotrophs: - They are the green coloured plants, some algae and some
bacteria. They synthesize their food from the inert inorganic materials (CO2 and
H2O) in the presence of sunlight (solar energy) and chlorophyll. This process is
called photosynthesis
𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
6CO2+ 6H2O →C6H12O6 +6O2
𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑙
b) Chemoautotrophs: - some bacteria synthesize their organic food from inorganic
substances by utilizing energy released by their chemical processes. This process is
called chemosynthesis.
Heterotrophic nutrition.
In this mode of nutrition, an organism takes food materials prepared by other
organisms, but they cannot prepare their own food from inorganic substances .hence they
are called consumers.
A) Holozoic: - the animals consume the food whole and then digest it by converting it
into simple substances.
a) Herbivores
b) Carnivores
c) Omnivores
B) Saprotrophic nutrition: - the organisms feed upon dead and decaying organic
materials (soluble form of nutrients).
Detritivorous animals- Scavengers, such as vultures and jackals feed upon dead and
rotting meat.
C) Parasitic nutrition: - animals live in (endoparasites) or on (ectoparasites) the body
of other animals to draw their nourishment.
Eg: - Endoparasites: - Ascaris, Tapeworm
Ectoparasites: - body louse
Mixotrophic nutrition
Organisms which include different modes of nutrition. They are known as
mixotrophs.
Eg: Euglena (Autotrophs when light available but heterotroph in the absence of
light.) Insectivores’ plants.
NUTRITION IN PLANTS – Photosynthesis.
In corporation of inert inorganic materials (CO2 and H2O) into organic materials
(carbohydrates) in the presence of chlorophyll and solar energy by the green plants.
Oxygen is evolved and released in the atmosphere as a by-product of photosynthesis.
The exchange of gases through the stomata which are the tiny pore present on the
surface of the leaves. The plant closes these pores when it does not need CO2 for
photosynthesis. The opening and closing of stoma is regulated by turgidity of guard cells.
The important materials are required for the process of photosynthesis. These are:
1) Carbon dioxide (CO2)
2) Water (H2O), and
3) Radiant (solar) energy
1) CO2: It is the raw material for the formation of glucose. Land plants obtain CO2
from the atmosphere through the stomata. The aquatic plant get their CO2 as
bicarbonates through their general surface.
CO2 used by the green plants during photosynthesis is released due to
respiration in green plants and other organisms. Hence, we say that photosynthesis
and respiration are antagonistic to each other.
2) H2O: plants absorb water from the soil with the help of their root system. Water
rarely act as a limiting factor in photosynthesis, because less than 1% of the water
absorbed by a land plant is used in photosynthesis.
3) Radiant energy (solar energy): radiant energy is trapped from the solar energy by
the green coloured pigment – chlorophyll –present in chloroplast.
Site of photosynthesis
Chloroplasts: they are minute, microscopic cell organelles of plant cells. Each
chloroplast can be differentiated into (a) membranes (b) stroma and (c) thylakoids
The thylakoids are present like the piles of coins. These piles of thylakoids are
called grana. The light phase of photosynthesis happened here.
 Stroma is the liquid matrix present in the chloroplast which handle the dark phase
of photosynthesis.
Chlorophyll: the chlorophyll is a highly complex organic substance. There are five
types of chlorophyll molecules out of which commonly occurring are chl-a and chl-b.
The chlorophyll molecules are associated with the membranes of thylakoids. About
250 molecules of chlorophyll form one quantasome which is capable of trapping one
quantum of energy. These are the chlorophyll molecules which trap solar energy from
sunlight and convert it into chemical energy.
In addition to chlorophyll molecules, the chloroplast also contain accessory
pigments – carotenes and xanthophyll. These pigments help in the transference of
absorbed light energy to chlorophyll-a.
Mechanism of photosynthesis
Mesophyll cells in the leaves are the main centre of photosynthesis. During the day
time chlorophyll trap the solar energy and synthesis of glucose using CO2 and H2O
𝑆𝑢𝑛𝑙𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
6CO2 + 12H2O → C6H12O6 +6O2 +6H2O
𝑐ℎ𝑙𝑜𝑟𝑜𝑝ℎ𝑦𝑙𝑙

The following events occur during this process

- Light reaction or photochemical phase
i) Photolysis of water molecules into H+ and OH-.
ii) Production of molecular oxygen
The OH- produced as a result of photolysis of water is oxidized toH2O2. H2O2 in
turn decomposes to H2O and O2.
iii) Production of reducing agent (NADPH2)
iv) Photophosphorylation (production of energy rich ATP molecules from ADP
molecules with the help of energy from e- )
- Dark reaction or Biosynthetic phase (Calvin- Benson cycle)
Fixation of CO2 or Carboxylation
Reduction of CO2
Regeneration of RuBP
 Significance of photosynthesis
i) It synthesizes food from inorganic substances. This food become ultimate source
of energy and life for all the living organisms. Hence, it is very rightly said that
“All flesh is grass” or “All life is bottled sun shine”.
ii) It is the only known method which releases oxygen in the atmosphere and keep
the O2 concentration constant.
iii) It also help the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere.
iv) All useful plant products, such as, timber, rubber, resins, drugs, oils, fibres, etc.,
are derived from the process of photosynthesis.
NUTRITION IN ANIMALS
Animals are heterotrophs (consumers). Depending upon the way of taking food the
animals are further categorized into:
i) Holozoic
ii) Saprotrophic
iii) Parasitic
Holozoic mode of nutrition
It is ingestive mode of nutrition in which the animals take solid food. Holozoic
nutrition involves five process
a) Ingestion: - taking or devouring the food is called ingestion. Acquisition of food and
ingestion is termed as feeding.
Eg: Amoeba – pseudopodia (phagocytosis)
Hydra – tentacles
b) Digestion: - chemical simplification of complex food is converted into simple and
diffusible form with the help of digestive enzymes.
Intracellular – inside a single cell. Amoeba, Paramecium, Hydra, Sponges.
Intercellular – intercellular spaces in higher animals.
c) Absorption: diffusion of digested food through the alimentary canal into the blood. It
occurs mainly through the small intestine.
d) Assimilation: conversion of digested food into living protoplasm by the cells.
e) Egestion or defecation: Removal of undigested food out of the body
ii) Saprotrophic mode of nutrition
Organisms consumes dead and decaying organic materials.
iii) Parasitic mode of nutrition
The mode of obtaining food, from the body of other living organisms. The organism
which obtains the food is called ‘parasite’ and the organism from which food is taken is
called ‘host’.
Types of parasites
On the basis of where parasites live, they have been classified into three categories-
1. Ectoparasites- The parasites that live upon the surface of the body of the host are
known as ectoparasites. Examples of ectoparasites are fleas, ticks, etc.
2. Endoparasites- The parasites that live inside the body of the host are known as
endoparasites. Examples of endoparasites are- roundworms, protozoa in blood, etc.
3. Meso Parasites- The parasites that enter the host body through an opening and
embed themselves are known as meso parasites. An example of mesa-parasites is a
copepod.
Parasites on the Basis of the Life Cycle
Parasites can be distinguished on the basis of their life cycles into two categories-
1. Obligate Parasite- The parasites which require the bodies of their host in order to
survive are known as obligate parasites.
- Monogenetic : If an organism completes its life cycle in a single host organism
- Digenetic: If an organism completes its life cycle in two host organisms.
 2. Facultative Parasite- The parasites which do not require the bodies of their hosts in
order to complete their life cycle are known as facultative parasites
Food habits
Herbivores: - the animals which feed on plants only.
Carnivores: - the animals which eat the flesh of other animals.
Omnivores: - the animals which feed on plants as well as animal flesh.
Scavengers or detritivores (carrion- eaters): - the animals, which feed on already dead
animals.
Digestive system in man
All the organs in the body of man that help in nutrition collectively constitute the
digestive system.
I. Alimentary canal (Digestive tract or Gut)
II. Digestive glands
Alimentary canal
1. Mouth - the alimentary canal opens at the upper end as a wide space called mouth.
2. Buccal cavity (oral cavity): - it is a large spacious cavity present in the head region. It is
bounded on the upper side by the palate on the lower side by the throat and lateral walls
formed by the jaws. Buccal cavity occupied by teeth and a large, muscular, protrusible
tongue and it bears taste buds.

3. Pharynx: - in this part, food and air cross each other. It continues into oesophagus.
4. Oesophagus: - it helps in the passage of food from buccal cavity to the stomach
5. Stomach: - internal lining of the stomach contains numerous gastric glands. They
secrete gastric juice that helps in the digestion of food. The muscular wall of stomach
helps in churning of food.
6. Small intestine: - it is the longest part of alimentary canal. It is a very narrow, highly
coiled tube. It is differentiated into three parts
i) Duodenum – in the duodenum open the bile duct and pancreatic duct through a
common passage – bile duct
ii) Jejunum: - It is the middle part of small intestine.
iii) Ileum: - it is the last part of small intestine. The digestion of food completed and
absorption also take place in small intestine.
7. Large intestine: - the ileum enters into a wider tube called large intestine. It is
differentiated into:
a) Caecum: - it is a small, almost rounded blind sac. From the caecum arises a blind
worm-like structure called vermiform appendix. It is vestigial organ and inflammation of
appendix is called appendicitis.
b) Colon: - it is the largest part and it absorbs large amount of water, preparation
and storage of faeces.
d) Rectum: - it for the accumulation and evacuation of faecal matter.
8. Anus: - The opening of alimentary canal at the lower end. It is for passing out faeces
(egestion).
Region Secretion enzymes nutrient Product of
digestion
Buccal cavity Saliva (i)Ptyalin Starch Maltose
(salivary (salivary amylase)
gland)
Maltase
Maltose Glucose
Gastric Pepsin Proteins Proteoses and
juice & peptones
Rennin (not found Milk
HCl
in adult) proteins or Curding of
Stomach
casein milk,
caseinogen
 Gastric lipase Fats and Fatty acid
lipids and glycerol

Duodenum Bile ---------------- Fats Emulsifies

Pancreatic fats
Pancreatic Starch
juice
amalyse Disaccharides
(Amylopsin)
Dipeptides
Small Peptones
Trypsin
intestine
Ileum Intestinal Maltase Maltose Glucose
juice Sucrose(invertase) Sucrose Glucose and
(Saccus Lactase Lactose fructose
entericus) Glucose and
lipase fats galactose
Fatty acids &
glycerol
Dipeptidase Dipeptides Aminoacid
colon - - - Absorbs
water
rectum - - - Temporarily
Large
store
intestine
undigested
food and
faeces

II) Digestive glands

1. Salivary glands and saliva – they secrete saliva, which is slightly alkaline and contain
two enzymes, Salivary amylase (Ptyalin) and Maltase.
2. Gastric glands: - in the internal lining of the stomach having multicellular gastric
glands. They secrete gastric juice which contains HCl, two inactive enzymes – pepsinogen
and prorennin – and an active enzyme gastric lipase
3. Pancreas: - it is embedded into the ‘C’- shaped loop of duodenum. It secrete pancreatic
juice. It contains enzymes such as amylase, trypsin, lipase, etc., that help in the digestion
of food.
4. Liver: - it is the largest gland present in the human body. It secretes bile juice which
stored in a transparent gall bladder. Bile is bluish or greenish-blue coloured fluid because
of the presence of two pigments biliverdin (blue-green colour) and bilirubin (yellow-
brown colour)
5. Intestinal glands: - throughout the internal lining of small intestine are present
numerous unicellular glands that secrete intestinal juice or succus entericus.
Absorption
Diffusion of digested food through the internal lining of alimentary canal into
blood. To bring about efficient absorption, the small intestine contains longitudinal folds
(villi) which increase the surface area for absorption. Each villus there is an elaborative
network of blood capillaries and an unbranched lymph vessel called lacteal. All the blood
vessels that collect blood from alimentary canal join to form the hepatic portal vein.
Assimilation of food
Conversion of digested food into the living protoplasm of cells. The remaining
monosaccharaides are converted into polysaccharides, the amino acids are converted into
proteins and fatty acids and glycerol into fats.
RESPIRATION
The process of breakdown of food materials in the cells to release energy is known as
cellular respiration.
In our body occur two types of reactions
i) Catabolic reactions (breakdown)
ii) Anabolic reactions (synthesis)
The sum total of these reactions constitute the metabolism.
Cellular respiration
During cellular respiration usually glucose is oxidized releasing chemical energy
stored in glucose molecules. This energy is stored in energy rich bonds called ATP
molecules.
C6H12O6 +6O2---Aerobic respiration 6CO2 +6H2O +Energy
C6H12O6 ---Anaerobic respiration 2C2H5OH (Ethyl alcohol) +2CO2 +Energy
C6H12O6 +6O2--Anaerobic respiration 2CH3CH (OH) COOH (Lactic acid)
Types of respiration
I) Aerobic respiration: - oxygen dependent, enzymatically – controlled, complete.
C6H12O6 +6O2--Aerobic respiration 6CO2 +6H2O +36 ATP
II) Anaerobic respiration: - oxygen independent, enzymatically – controlled, incomplete.
Commonly called fermentation
C6H12O6 ---Anaerobic respiration 2C2H5OH (Ethyl alcohol) +2CO2 +2ATP (Zymase enzyme
promote the yeast fermentation)
C6H12O6 +6O2--Anaerobic respiration 2CH3CH (OH) COOH (Lactic acid)
Respiration in plants
The rate of respiration is high in the actively growing regions while it is low in the
mature regions of the plant body.
The air diffuses in plants through the stomata of leaves and stems, lenticels of
woody stems and surface of roots.

Respiration in animals
Respiratory organs in animals
a) General body surface (eg: Protists, sponges, cnidarians)
b) Skin surface (Cutaneous respiration) (Eg: Annelids, amphibians)
c) Tracheae (air tubes) eg: insects, millipedes and centipedes
d) Gills (eg: aquatic animals)
e) Lungs (pulmonary respiration) (Eg: land reptiles and mammals)
Respiratory system of man
All the organs in an animal that provide free O2 and help in the removal of CO2
collectively constitute the respiratory system.
A) Respiratory tract
B) Respiratory organs
Respiratory tract
The path through which O2 reaches up to the lungs and CO2 is removed from the
lungs. It consists of:
(a) Nose, (b) pharynx, (c) larynx, (d) trachea and (e) bronchi
(a) The nose: - it consists of two nostrils which are lined with hair and mucous.
(b) The pharynx: - It serves as a common path both for the air and food, i.e., larynx and
oesophagus, through glottis and gullet. The glottis is guarded by a flap-like
epiglottis
(c) The larynx (Voice Box): - The upper slightly swollen part of trachea or wind pipe. It
is more prominent in men as compared to women and is called “Adam's apple”.
(d) The trachea: - The trachea or wind pipe is a long, narrow, whitish tube. It enters
the thorax where it divides into a pair of branches called primary bronchi.
(e) The primary bronchi: - primary bronchi are formed by the bifurcation of the
trachea. These are enters in to the left and right lungs.
Respiratory organs: The lungs
Each lungs is enclosed in a double walled pleural sac. In between the two layers is present
a space called pleural cavity, filled with pleural fluid.
Pleural sac performs as
1) Protection
2) Act as a lubricant
3) Keep moist condition
Each primary bronchus, after entering into the lung divides repeatedly to form a network
of very fine tubes, bronchioles which give rise to alveolar ducts that open into blind end
sacs called alveoli.
Physiology of respiration
(1) Breathing
(2) External respiration
(3) Internal or Tissue respiration
(4) Cellular respiration
Breathing: - movement of fresh air from outside into the lungs through respiratory tract
and foul air in the opposite direction.
Mechanism of breathing
(a) Inspiration (Inhalation)
(b) Expiration (Exhalation)
External respiration: - Exchange of O2 and CO2 between the inhaled air and blood
through the surface of respiratory organ.
Internal or Tissue respiration: - Exchange of O2 and CO2 between the blood and body
tissues.
Cellular respiration: - The biological oxidation of glucose in the cells.
Effect of altitude on breathing
As a result of decreasing atmospheric pressure at high altitudes, the tidal volume of
inhaled air also goes decreasing. About 4500 meters above the sea level one suffers
from mountain sickness (artificial hypoxia)
Hypoxia: - A condition in which availability of O2 to the body is lesser than the required
amount.
Asphyxia or suffocation: The condition in which deficiency of O2 to the body is
accompanied by the increase in CO2 concentration in the blood.
Carbon monoxide poisoning
Haemoglobin has more affinity for carbon monoxide than oxygen, so if CO gas is inhaled
this binds very strongly with haemoglobin in the blood and prevents it from carrying
oxygen to the brain and other parts.

TRANSPORTATION
Transportation in unicellular organisms
In unicellular organisms like Amoeba, Paramecium, Euglena, etc. the body size is
very small. Exchange of harmful substance out and useful substances in by the process
called diffusion.
Transport in multicellular organisms
The multicellular organisms have a transport system that caters to their needs. An
extra cellular fluid is present in the body of multicellular organisms that keeps on
circulating and help in transportation and distribution of various materials. The flow of
extracellular fluid in the body called circulation. All the parts of the body that help in the
transport of various materials collectively constitute circulatory system or internal
transport system.
Transportation in Plants
The transport system in plants is made up of tube like structures called Xylem and
phloem. These tissues constitute vascular system of plants.
Upward movement of water and minerals from the roots upto the leaves takes place
through the xylem. It is called ascent of sap. The organic compounds are transported from
the leaves to all the cells of the plant through phloem. It is called translocation. The
medium of transport in plant is water.
Ascent of sap
The upward movement of water with dissolved minerals (sap) from roots to the tips
of stem branches and their leaves is called ascent of sap. The elongated, lignified tracheid
and xylem vessels placed end to end without any cross walls form the pipe line for
conducting water and minerals from the roots to the leaves.
 The water enters the roots hair cells by imbibition and then by the osmosis.
Minerals are absorbed from the soil by active absorption by the utilization of energy. The
movement of sap is brought about by two ways i.e.
i) Active absorption under suction pressure gradient or diffusion pressure
deficit (DPD)
ii) By transpiration pull.
The sap that reaches into the treachery elements of xylem of roots is lifted upward upto
the leaves as an unbroken column of water by virtue of one or more forces, such as:
i) Root pressure
ii) Cohesion and adhesion of water and transpiration pull.
iii) Capillarity action.

i) Root pressure: - root pressure develops in the root cells because of turgidity.
ii) Cohesion and adhesion of water and transpiration pull: - cohesion of water
is due to the binding of water molecules among themselves by hydrogen
bonding. Adhesion is the binding between water molecules and xylem vessels.
Transpiration pull: - water potential of air inside the leaf is higher than that of
outside the leaves. As result, water vapours from the substomatal spaces move to
outside air through open stomata. The entire movement of water vapours from
the surface of mesophyll cells into the outside atmosphere is the result of
diffusion. The water potential falls. The mesophyll cells withdraw water from
the deeper cells and treachery elements. The water in the treachery elements
comes under a tension called transpiration pull. It responsible for absorption and
ascent of water.
iii) Capillarity action: - water rises in the very thin narrow spaces due to capillarity
action.
Translocation of organic nutrients
The transport of organic solutes from one place to another in higher plants. Material
like sucrose is transferred into phloem tissue using energy from ATP. This increases the
osmotic pressure of the tissue causing water to move into it. This pressure moves the
material in the phloem to tissues which have less pressure.
Transportation in animals
Circulatory system in higher animals consists of three major parts.
i) A fluid transport medium (blood, lymph. Tissue fluid)
 ii) Controlling centre (heart)
iii) Path through which transport medium circulates. The blood vessels, lymph
vessels or spaces in the body.
Fluids in our body
Intracellular fluid (present within the cells- 60 to 65%)
Extracellular fluid (present in various spaces in the body – 35 to 40%)
The extracellular fluid that forms the transport medium is of three types, i.e.
i) Blood: Red coloured fluid that keeps on circulating through the heart and
various blood vessels (arteries, veins and capillaries).
ii) Lymph: A faint yellow coloured fluid that is contained in the lymph vessels
and lymphatic organs.
iii) Tissue fluid: colourless fluid occupying spaces between various cells in the
organs
These three principal fluids are inter-convertible.
BLOOD VASCULAR SYSTEM IN HUMAN BEING
Blood vascular system in man has three parts i.e.

1. Blood
Blood is bright red (oxygenated) and dark red (deoxygenated) coloured fluid.
It is salty in taste, slightly alkaline in (pH 7.4) in nature, heavier than water
and viscous sticky fluid. The heart pumps blood into arteries that carry it to
various organs and it returned back to the heart through veins.
Composition of blood
A) Plasma (fluid part of blood, 55-58%)
B) Formed elements (cells or corpuscles and cell-like structures, 42-45%)
Plasma: - plasma is a straw- coloured fluid part of the blood. 90% of plasma is made up
of water and 10% include blood proteins, inorganic salts, digested food, waste materials,
hormones, antitoxins and gases.
Formed (cellular) elements: - shaped structures visible under the microscope are cells
and cell-like structures present in blood. These are of three type i.e.
1. Red Blood cells or RBC or Erythrocytes
 2. White Blood cells or WBC or Leucocytes.
3. Blood platelets or thrombocytes.
RBC’s or Red Blood cells (Erythrocytes): - Red in colour because of the presence of
respiratory pigment, haemoglobin. Small and biconcave in shape for efficient absorption
of O2. The new erythrocytes are produced in the bone marrow of long bones. The worn out
erythrocytes are destroyed in the liver, spleen and bone marrow.
Functions
(i) Transportation of O2: Haemoglobin in the cytoplasm of erythrocytes helps in
the transportation of O2 from the respiratory organs to the body cells.
(ii) Transportation of CO2: A part of CO2 produced in the cells is carried from
tissue to respiratory organs for its elimination by the erythrocytes.
WBC’s or White Blood cells (Leucocytes): - The leucocytes in general are amoeboid
(without any definite shape). They are known as phagocytes – as they engulf foreign and
worn out structures; Scavengers – as they engulf the worn out tissues of the body; soldiers
of the body – as they can accumulate at the site of injury and fight with the invading
micro – organisms that may cause infection.
Granulocytes - Basophils, Neutrophils, Eosinophils
Agranulocytes – Monocytes and Lymphocytes
Functions
(i) Defence of the body against diseases and invaders.
Blood platelets (Thrombocytes): - They are the smallest corpuscles and denucleated.
They produced in the red bone marrow.
Functions
(i) Responsible for the clotting of blood at injuries.
The Heart
Heart is covered by a two layered sac known as pericardium. In between the layers
present a narrow space known as pericardial cavity and filled with pericardial fluid. This
performs three functions:
1. It protects the heart from any kind of mechanical injury and shock.
2. Keeps the tissue of heart moist for proper functioning.
3. It acts as lubricant and reduces friction for the beating of heart.
Structure of human heart
The heart of man is four chambered
(A) Two atria or auricles (B) Two ventricles
A. Atria
Right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from all the body parts through
vena cava. The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through
pulmonary veins.
B. Ventricles
Right ventricle supply deoxygenated blood towards the lungs through
pulmonary artery. The left ventricle has to push the blood to the body parts
through aorta
Circulation of blood through the heart
The heart undergoes regular contractions and relaxations. The contracted phase is
systole and relaxed phase as diastole. Re-entry of blood towards auricles are prevented by
bicuspid (right) and tricuspid (left) valves.
Double circulation
The blood has to pass twice through the heart so as to circulate once through the
body. Once it passes through the right side from where it reaches into the left side through
lungs. This type of circulation is known as double circulation. Which consists of two
circulations;
A. Pulmonary circulation
B. Systemic circulation
Pulmonary circulation: - circulation of deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to
the left auricle through lungs.
Systemic circulation: - circulation of oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the right
auricle through various body parts or systems.
Heart beat (cardiac cycle)
Time taken by one systole followed by immediate diastole of heart. Heart beat rate -
72/min
Events in cardiac cycle – Atrial systole, Ventricular systole and Joint Diastole
Pulse – the expansion of an artery each time the blood is forced into it, is called pulse
Blood pressure – the pressure at which blood is pumped around the body by the heart is
called blood pressure. The maximum pressure during contraction phase (systolic
pressure). Minimum during the relaxation phase (diastolic pressure)
Systolic pressure – 120 mm Hg
Diastolic pressure – 80mm Hg.
Blood pressure is measured by using sphygmomanometer.
The blood vessels
a) The arteries are blood vessels that are distributary in function. These distribute
oxygenated blood (except pulmonary arteries that carry deoxygenated blood) to
various body parts from the heart.
b) The veins are collecting in function. These collect deoxygenated blood from all
the body parts (except pulmonary veins that carry oxygenated blood) to the
heart.
c) The capillaries are very thin walled narrow vessels present at the junction of an
artery and a vein. Exchange of materials between blood and tissues through the
walls of capillaries.
Lymphatic system
It consists of (a) lymph, (b) lymph capillaries, (c) lymph vessels, (d) lymph nodes.
Lymph – colourless fluid connective tissue. The composition of lymph is like that of
blood plasma except the plasma proteins. Source of lymph is blood. It act as a medium for
exchanging materials between blood and tissues.
Lymph capillaries – interwoven with the blood capillaries are present lymph capillaries.
Lymph vessels – lymph capillaries join to form lymph vessels.
Lymph nodes – lymph vessels at intervals are present bead like swellings called lymph
nodes. They contain lymphocytes, plasma cells and fixed macrophages.
Functions
1. It act as a middle man and helps in the exchange of various materials between
blood and body tissues
2. It carries lymphocytes and antibodies from lymph nodes to the blood.
3. It transports fats from the intestine to the blood
4. It destroys microorganisms and foreign particles in the lymph nodes
5. It drains excess of tissue fluid from intercellular spaces back into the blood.
6. Spleen as a lymphatic organ acts as blood bank and graveyard of RBC’s
 HUMAN EXCRETORY SYSTEM

 The excretory system (urinary system) of man consists of a pair of kidneys, a pair
of ureters, urinary bladder, and a urethra.

 Reddish brown, bean shaped urine forming organs.

 Location of kidney: - The kidneys are found along the posterior muscular wall of
the abdominal cavity.
 Size of kidney: - about 10-12cm in length, 5-7cm in width, and 2-3 cm in thickness.
And in adult, it weighs about 120 -170 gm.(average about 150gm in males and
135gm in females)

Structure of kidney
 The outer layer of kidney is a tough capsule.
 The outer surface of kidney is convex and the inner surface is concave.
 In the concave surface of kidney is a notch called hilum. Ureter, blood vessels and
nerves enter through the hilum.
 Inner to the hilum is a broad funnel shaped space called renal pelvis with
projections called calyces (sin:calyx)
 Inside the kidney there are two zones, an outer cortex and an inner medulla.
 The medulla is divided into conical masses (medullary pyramids) projecting into
the calyces.
 The cortex extends in between the medullary pyramids as renal columns called
Columns of Bertini.
NEPHRON
 Nephrons are “the structural and functional unit of kidneys”.
 Each nephron has 2 parts – the glomerulus and renal tubule.
1. Glomerulus
It is a tuft of blood capillaries formed by the afferent arteriole. Afferent
arteriole is a fine branch of renal artery. Blood from the glomerulus is carried away by
an efferent arteriole. It is a fine branch of renal vein.
2. Renal tubule
It consists of Bowman’s capsule, PCT, Henle’s loop, DCT and collecting duct.
Bowman’s capsule
- It is the beginning part of nephron.
- It is a double walled cup-like structure
- Glomerulus along with Bowman’s capsule is called the Malpighian body or
renal corpuscle.

Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT)

- It lies next to the Bowman's capsule.
- It is highly coiled long tubule
Henle’s loop or Loop of Henle-
- It is U- shaped
 - It consists of descending limb and ascending limb.
Distal Convoluted tubule (DCT)
- The ascending limb continues into DCT
- It is highly coiled tubule.
Collecting duct
- The DCT of many nephrons open into straight tube to form collecting duct.
- Many collecting ducts converge and open into the renal pelvis through
medullary pyramids in the calyces.
URINE FORMATION
 Man is ureotelic. Urea is formed in the liver is released into the blood, and is
removed by the kidney as urine. It involves 3 steps – glomerular filtration tubular
re- absorption, and secretion.
Glomerular filtration
- The first step in urine formation is the filtration of blood, which is carried out by
the glomerulus and is called glomerular filtration.
- The glomerular capillary pressure causes filtration of blood.
- Blood is filtered so finely through the membrane, that almost all the constituent of
the plasma except the proteins pass on to the lumen of the Bowman’s capsule.
Therefore, it is considered as a process of ultra-filtration.
The filtration occurs through a separation wall formed three layers
- Endothelium of the glomerular blood vessels
- Capillary basement membrane.
- Epithelium of Bowman’s capsule.
The specialised cells of the epithelial layer of the Bowman’s capsule are called
podocytes. The small spaces between the podocytes are called slit pores or filtration
slits.
Tubular re-absorption
 During this process a major portion of water and useful substances are reabsorbed
from the glomerular filtrate into blood.
  It can take place by active and passive mechanisms.
 Glucose, amino acids, Na+ etc., are actively reabsorbed.
 Water and nitrogenous wastes are absorbed by passive transport.
Tubular Secretion
 Tubular cells secrete substances like H+, K+ and ammonia into the filtrate.
 It helps in the maintenance of ionic and acid base balance of the body.
Composition of human urine
 Urine is a transparent, light yellow – coloured, watery fluid. It is hypertonic and
slightly acidic in nature.
 Daily urine output in a normal adult – 1-1.5 litres
 Daily urea output – 25-30 gm.
 pH of urine – 6.0
 Urine contains 96% water inorganic ions such as chlorides, sodium, potassium,
phosphorus, sulphur, calcium, magnesium, iodine, arsenic, and lead. Organic
constituents like urea, uric acid, ammonia, creatinine, creatine, and hippuric acid.
Haemodialysis
 In patients suffering from kidney failures, the blood urea level rises abnormally
(uraemia). In such patients, the excess urea can be removed by a process called
haemodialysis.
 Blood drained from a convenient artery is pumped into a dialysing unit after adding
an anticoagulant like heparin.
 The unit contains a coiled cellophane tube surrounded by fluid (dialysing fluid)
having the same composition as that of plasma except the nitrogenous waste.
 The pores cellophane membranes of the tube allows the passage of molecules based
on concentration gradient.
 As nitrogenous wastes are absent in the dialysing fluid, these substances freely
move out, thereby clearing the blood.
 The cleared blood is pumped back to the body through a vein after adding anti-
heparin to it.
Excretion in plants
- The major metabolic waste products like CO2, O2 and H2O. CO2 and O2 exchanged
through stomata by simple diffusion.
- Excess amount of H2O is eliminated by transpiration.
- Excess amount of salt is removed through hydathodes along with guttation water.
- Most of the toxic waste products are stored within dead permanent tissues such as
heart wood, leaves or bark which are removed periodically.
- Some excess organic acids combine with excess cations and precipitate out as
insoluble crystals (calcium oxalate, calcium pectate, etc).
- Some waste materials are eliminated through petals, fruits and seeds.
- Many waste materials are stored in cellular vacuoles.
- Some excretory products such as latex, gums, essential oils, etc. are stored in
special type of tissues and old xylem.
- Plants excrete some waste substances into the soil around them.