Immunology • Innate immunity is nonspecific,

meaning that these lines of defense

It Isn’t Easy Being a Pathogen work against a wide range of pathogens.

What a pathogen must do First Line of Defense

Nonspecific
in order to cause disease:
 Structures, chemicals, processes that
1. Gain access to the body. work to prevent pathogens entering the
2. - Attach to and/or enter cells of its host. body.
 Includes the skin and mucous
- Receptors on pathogen must fit, lock-and- membranes of the respiratory,
key, with receptor sites on host cell. digestive, urinary, and reproductive
systems
3. Reproduce while avoiding host’s immune
system long enough to produce harmful
changes.
Skin – Physical Components of Defense
Normal Flora

• Protect the body by competing with Two major layers:

potential pathogens. 1. epidermis

• This is called microbial antagonism.
Outer layer composed of multiple layers of
• Normal microbiota protect us by: tightly packed cells
– Consuming nutrients that would
otherwise be available to  Few pathogens can penetrate these
pathogens. layers
– Sometimes change the pH of  Shedding of dead skin cells removes
the area they inhabit in ways attached microorganisms
that help them and hinder
competing microbes.  Epidermal dendritic cells phagocytize
pathogens.
– Presence stimulates certain
parts of the second line of  These cells extend out among other
immune defense, helping the cells of the epidermis, forming a network
body defend itself from
to intercept invaders.
invaders.

– Normal flora of the intestines 2. dermis

improves our overall health by
producing several types of Contains protein fibers called collagen
vitamins.
 Give skin strength and pliability to resist
Innate Immunity
abrasions that could introduce
• First two lines of immune defense
microorganisms
considered together.

• Q: Why do you think that they are

called innate immunity?
Skin – Chemical Components of Defense
 • perspiration secreted by sweat glands • Operates when pathogens penetrate
skin or mucous membranes.
– Salt- inhibits growth of pathogen
by drawing water from their cells • Cells, antimicrobial chemicals, and
processes, but no physical barriers.
– Antimicrobial peptides
• Many of these components are
– Lysozyme- destroys cell wall of
contained or originate in the blood.
bacteria
Formed Elements
• sebum secreted by sebaceous (oil)
glands Three types of formed elements:

– Helps keep skin pliable and less  erythrocytes - red blood cell, carry
likely to break or tear oxygen & carbon dioxide in the blood.
 platelets - involved in blood clotting
– Lowers pH of skin to a level
(also called thrombocytes).
inhibitory to many bacteria
 leukocytes - white blood cells;
Mucous Membrane involved in defending the body against
invaders.
 Line all body cavities open to the
2 groups
outside environment.
 Unlike surface epidermal cells, epithelial – Granulocytes
cells are living.
– Agranulocytes
 Epithelial cells packed tightly to prevent
entry of pathogens, but often only one Leukocytes > Granulocytes
cell layer thick, so pathogens sometimes
Category of white blood cells characterized by
breech the barrier.
presence
 Continual shedding of cells carries
attached microorganisms away of granules in their cytoplasm.
 Besides producing mucus, mucous
3 types:
membranes also produce lysozyme and
other antimicrobial peptides.  Neutrophils - Most abundant white

 OMG U R Nasty > Every day you blood cell. Predominant cells in pus,

swallow and digest about 1 liter of accounts for its whitish appearance.

mucus. Respond quickly following tissue injury.

Hallmark of acute inflammation.
 Basophils - Least common granulocyte.
Second Line of Defense When activated, release histamine and
Nonspecific other inflammatory chemicals.
  Eosinophils - Main effecter cells in • Secrete toxins onto
allergic responses & asthma. Also fight surface of virally
helminth (worm) colonization. infected cells & tumors.
 Neutrophils and eosinophils can
• Differentiate normal
phagocytize pathogens
body cells because they
have membrane
proteins similar to the
Leukocytes > Agranulocytes
NK cells.
2 types:
– eosinophils
 Lymphocytes - most involved in
• Mainly attack parasitic
specific immunity (3rd line of
worms by attaching to
immune defense),
their surface.
 Monocytes - leave the blood and
mature into macrophages • Secrete toxins that
(phagocytic cells of the second line of weaken or kill worm.
defense).
• Elevated eosinophil
Components of the levels, is often indicative
Second Line of a helminth (parasitic
of Defense worm) infection.

Leukocytes – neutrophils

- Phagocytosis • Can create the active

ingredient in bleach to
How phagocytes ingest and destroy foreign
kill nearby microbes.
matter such as microorganisms or debris.
• Fibers called neutrophil
- Extracellular killing by leukocytes
extracellular traps
• Nonspecific chemical defenses (NETs) can ensnare and
kill bacteria and fungi.
• Inflammation
Secrete antimicrobial
• Fever proteins.

Leukocytes: Extracellular Killing Components of the Second Line of Defense

3 Cell Types That Kill Extracellularly: • Leukocytes

– natural killer lymphocytes (NK – Phagocytosis

cells)
 – Extracellular killing by  Interleukin-I (IL-1 a cytokine)
leukocytes
 Benefits
• Nonspecific chemical defenses
 Speed of immune system
- Lysozyme, Defensins & Cytokines reaction increased
(including interferons and interleukins).
 Inhibits growth of some temp
- Augment phagocytosis sensitive microorganisms

– Some attack pathogens directly Third Line of Defense

Acquired
– Some enhance features of
The body’s ability to recognize and
nonspecific resistance
defend itself against distinct
• Inflammation invaders.

– Nonspecific response to tissue – Is a “smart” system.

damage.
– Also called specific and
– Damages cells release adaptive immunity.
histamines which increase
– “Memory” allows it to respond
vasodilation.
rapidly to additional encounters
– Heat, swelling, pain with a pathogen.

• Fever - If nonspecific immune system

has warriors, then acquired
 Body temp
immunity has more sophisticated
above normal range special agents and assassins.

of 36.5–37.5 °C (98–100 °F). • Two types of specific immunity:

 Results when chemicals called – Naturally acquired = immune

________trigger the hypothalamus to response against antigens
increase body’s core temperature. encountered in daily life.

 Various types of pyrogens – Artificially acquired =

response to antigens introduced
 Bacterial toxins
via vaccine.
 Cytoplasm of bacteria released
Antigens
by lysis
• Body does not direct immune
 Antibody-antigen complexes
 response against whole bacteria, such as lymph and blood were once
called humors.
fungi, protozoa or viruses.
How Antibodies Work
• Foreign molecules trigger a specific
immune response. • Some act as opsonins, markers to
identify antigens for phagocytes and
• Include components of bacterial
stimulate phagoctosis.
cell walls, capsules, pili, and
• Some work as antitoxins (i.e. they
flagella, as well as proteins of neutralize toxins for e.g. those causing
diphtheria and tetanus).
viruses, fungi and protozoa.
• Some attach to bacterial flagella making
• Food and dust can also contain
them less active and easier for
antigenic particles. phagocytes to engulf.

• Enter the body by various methods: • Some cause agglutination (clumping

together) of bacteria making them less
– Through breaks in skin &
likely to spread
mucous membranes
Lymphatic System
– Direct injection, as with a bite or
needle • Screens tissues of the body for foreign
antigens.
– Through organ transplants and
skin grafts • Composed of lymphatic vessels and
lymphatic cells.
• Antigens Are Like Name Tags
Antigenic particles are often associated • One-way system that conducts lymph
with a specific characteristic of an from local tissues and returns it to the
organism, so are detected as foreign circulatory system.
when they get inside another organism
– Lymph is a liquid with similar
that doesn’t have that characteristic.
composition to blood plasma.
Antibodies
– Comes from fluid leaked from
• Also called immunoglobulins (Ig). blood vessels into surrounding
tissues.
• Proteinaceous molecules that bind
antigens at the antigen-binding site. • Lymph nodes house white blood cells
called lymphocytes that recognize and
• Considered part of the humoral
attack foreign antigens present in lymph.
immune response since bodily fluids
Lymphocytes – Abnormal body cells such as
cancer cells
• WBCs of specific immunity. Smallest
– Types
leukocytes. Have huge nucleus
surrounded – cytotoxic or killer T cells (TC)

by thin rim of cytoplasm. • Destroy compromised

body cells
• Produced from blood stem cells in
– helper T cells (TH)
the red bone marrow.
• Activate B-cells
Two main types:
What Is an Antigen Presenting Cell?
• B cells mature in bone marrow, then
concentrate in lymph nodes & spleen. Consider your WBCs a security force for your
body and any non-self-antigens as pictures of a
• T cells mature in thymus.
bad guy.
• B and T cells mature then circulate in
The larger the force, the more likely one of the
the blood and lymph.
officers will run into a “bad guy” and help the
• Circulation ensures they come into body apprehend it.
contact with pathogens and each other.
Any WBC that can grab and present an antigen
to another, is called an antigen presenting cell
(APC).
T Lymphocytes (T cells)
There are “professional” (WBC) APC cells, such
• Produced in red bone marrow and
as B cells, macrophages and dendritic cells.
mature in thymus.
There are also other cells in the body (non-
• Circulate in the lymph and blood and
WBCs) that are “non-professional” APC cells,
migrate to the lymph nodes (and other
such as fibroblasts (in skin), some epithelial and
areas of the lymph system).
endothelial cells & glial cells (in brain).
• Part of the cellular immune response
B Lymphocytes (B cells )
(aka cell-mediated immune response)
because these cells act directly against Activated B-lymphocytes produce either:
various antigens
• Plasma cells make antibodies
– Endogenous invaders to a pathogen.
(intracellular pathogens inside
• Memory cells remember the
the body’s cells)
same pathogen for faster
 antibody production in future
infections.
INFLAMMATORY CONDITIONS

Animated lesson on Humoral Immune

Response

To summarize the IMMUNOGLOBULINS:

1. IgG is the workhorse antibody, providing

long-lasting immunity.

2. IgM is the first responder, initiating the

immune response.

3. IgA guards mucosal surfaces, protecting

against infections.

4. IgD plays a role in B cell activation,

though its exact function is still being
studied.

5. IgE is involved in allergic reactions and

parasitic infections.
 and status asthmaticus primarily affect
the respiratory system.

• Treatment: Treatment varies

depending on the severity and specific
condition. Common treatments include
antihistamines, corticosteroids,
bronchodilators, and in severe cases,
epinephrine.

• It's important to note that these

conditions can sometimes overlap. For
example, a person with latex allergy
may experience anaphylaxis upon
exposure to latex, or a person with
asthma may develop allergic rhinitis.

Key Differences and Overlaps

• Severity: Anaphylaxis and status

asthmaticus are life-threatening
conditions requiring immediate medical
attention.

• Triggers: Latex allergy is triggered by

exposure to latex proteins, while other
conditions can be triggered by allergens
like pollen, dust mites, pet dander, or
food.

• Symptoms: While urticaria and

angioedema are often associated with
skin reactions, allergic rhinitis, asthma,
 PATHOPHYSIOLOGY OF CANCER

The first stage is INITIATION

where a mutation occurs in a cell's DNA, leading to the activation of oncogenes (genes that
promote cell growth) or the inactivation of tumor suppressor genes (genes that inhibit cell
growth).

The second stage is PROMOTION

where the mutated cells are stimulated to divide and grow rapidly, forming a small cluster
of abnormal cells.

The third stage is PROGRESSION

where the abnormal cells continue to divide and grow, forming a tumor that can invade
surrounding tissues and spread to other parts of the body through the bloodstream or
lymphatic system.