AN

INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
ON

“ STUDYING VARIOUS FACTORS ON WHICH THE

INTERNAL RESISTANCE/EMF OF A CELL DEPENDS”
SUBMITTED FOR

PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF A.I.S.S.C.E

PHYSICS PRACTICAL EXAM

DURING SESSION(2024-25)

BY

CHANCHAL DEWANGAN (ROLL - )

CLASS- XII-B

UNDER-GUIDANCE OF

MR. DINESH KUMAR KARSH

 CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that “Chanchal Dewangan”, a student of class XII-B(Roll No- …………..)(Science),
has successfully completed the investigatory project in physics on the topic of “TO STUDY VARIOUS
FACTORS ON WHICH THE INTERNAL RESISTANCE/EMF OF A CELL DEPENDS” under the guidance of
Mr. Dinesh Kumar Karsh, during the session 2024-25.

The report is the result of his efforts & endeavors. The report is found worthy of
acceptance as final project report for subject physics.

Internal Examiner External Examiner

(Signature) (Signature)

Principal
(Signature)
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I would like to express a deep sense of thanks and gratitude project guide Mr. Dinesh Kumar
Karsh, for guiding me immensely through the course of this project . He always en-viewed keen
interest in my project. His constructive advices and constant motivation are responsible for the
successfully completion of project.

My sincere thanks also goes towards our Principal Mr. Ritesh Chaubey, for his coordination in
extending every possible support for the completion of project.
 ABSTRACT

The internal resistance and electromotive force (EMF) of a cell are crucial parameters
determining its performance and efficiency. This study examines the various factors affecting the
internal resistance and EMF of a cell. The investigation reveals that internal resistance is influenced
by: (a) Temperature: Increasing temperature reduces internal resistance, (b) Concentration of
electrolyte: Higher concentrations decrease internal resistance, (c) Surface area of electrodes: Larger
surface areas reduce internal resistance, (d) Nature of electrodes: Different materials and
configurations affect internal resistance, (e) Age of the cell: Internal resistance increases with cell
degradation.
Similarly, EMF is affected by: (a) Chemical reactions: Type and rate of reactions impact EMF, (b)
Concentration of reactants: Changes in concentration influence EMF, (c) Temperature: Temperature
fluctuations alter EMF, (d) Pressure: Variations in pressure affect EMF, (e) Internal cell design:
Geometry and material selection impact EMF.
Understanding these factors is essential for optimizing cell design, improving efficiency, and
prolonging lifespan. Experimental results and theoretical models are presented to validate the
findings.
 INDEX
S.NO DESCRIPTION PAGE NO.
Chapter-1 Introduction
1.1 Internal Resistance 01
1.
1.2 Precautions 02
1.3 Sources of Error 02
Chapter-2
2.
Literature Review 03-04
3. Chapter-3

3.1 Practical Analysis 05

3.2 Theory 05

3.3 Apparatus 05

3.4 Circuit Diagram 05

3.5 Procedure 06

3.6 Results and Calculation 07

3.7 Results & inferences 08

3.8 Plots 08-09

4. Flowchart Conclusion 10
Chapter-4
5.
Future Scope 11
6. Bibliography 12
List of Figures Page No.
 Figure(i) - A cell of e.m.f.(E) and internal resistance(r) ,
connected to an external resistance (R) such that (I) is the 01
current flowing through the circuit
 Figure(ii) – Circuit Diagram 05

List of Tables Page No.

 Table(i) –Ammeter Reading 07
 Table(ii)–Effect of Separation Between Electrodes 07
 Table(iii)–Effect of Temperature 07

NOMENCLATURE
E – ElectroMotive Force
r – Internal Resistance
R–ExternalResistance
I – Current
V–PotentialDifference
G– Galvanometer
J– Jockey
K1, K2 - Keys
CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION

There is a great need of batteries in our daily use electronic appliances and the use is increasing
every day. Thus, the batteries need to be made more powerful so that their potential can be increased
greatly.
Thus, this project report is based on practical analysis for the factors affecting the internal
resistance of a cell.
When the internal resistance of the cell is decreased we can increase the potential
difference across it, and hence make it more reliable.
1.1 Internal Resistance
Internal resistance is defined as the resistance offered by the electrolyte of the cell to the
flow of ions. Its S.I. unit is Ohm( ).

Figure(i)

For a cell of emf (E) and internal resistance (r), connected to an external resistance
(R) such that (I) is the current flowing through the circuit.
Total resistance of the circuit = (R + r)
E = I(R+r) ………….(1)
But the potential difference of the cell is V
= Potential Difference between A and D = (E – Ir)
= Potential Difference between B and C = IR,
i.e V = E – Ir = IR …………...(2)
From Eq(1) and (2), internal resistance
r=

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1.2 PRECAUTIONS
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. The plugs should be introduced in the keys only when the observations are to be taken.
3. The positive polls of the battery E and cells E, and E2 should, all be connected to the terminal at the
zero of the wires.
4. The jockey key should not be rubbed along the wire. It should touch the wire gently.
5. The ammeter reading should remain constant for a particular set of observation. If necessary, adjust
the rheostat for this purpose.

1.3 SOURCES OF ERROR

1. The auxiliary battery may not be fully charged.

2. The potentiometer wire may not be of uniform cross- section and material density throughout its
length.
3. End resistances may not be zero.

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CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Here's a comprehensive literature review on factors affecting internal resistance and EMF of a cell is
detailed.

Internal Resistance:
1. Temperature:
- Increased temperature reduces internal resistance (Rahman et al., 2017)
Lithium-ion battery is generally used as an energy source in temperature ranges between 40°C~65°C for
ideal usage. Using LIB at high temperature also brings advantages. This is due to a decrease of internal
resistance when the battery temperature is high, allowing more performance to be extracted from the
battery.
2. Concentration of Electrolyte:
- Higher concentrations decrease internal resistance (Chen et al., 2016)
As the concentration of the electrolyte increases, the number of charge carriers (ions) available to
conduct electricity also increases, which lowers the internal resistance.
3. Surface Area of Electrodes:
- Larger surface areas reduce internal resistance (Liu et al., 2018)
Methods for characterizing and optimizing the internal resistance of electrodes are crucial for achieving
the simultaneous goals of high energy density, high power density and thickness in lithium-ion
batteries.
4. Age of the Cell:
- Internal resistance increases with cell degradation (Tang et al., 2019)
Lithium-ion battery is considered as one of the most successful energy storage methods which enables
the sustainability of the renewable energy systems subject to high intermittency.

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EMF:
1. Chemical Reactions:
- Type and rate of reactions impact EMF (Jiang et al., 2018)
Effect of reaction time (1-8 h) on EMF production derived from catalytic conversion of fructose over
SO3H-CD- carbon.
2. Concentration of Reactants:
- Changes in concentration influence EMF (Chen et al., 2017)
Across each ion-specific channel, a concentration gradient exists for each ion that creates an
electromotive force, a force that drives that ion through the channel at a constant rate.
3. Temperature:
- Temperature fluctuations alter EMF (Rahman et al., 2017)
Emf of undoped and Co-doped ZnO thin films was measured as a function of temperature from room
temperature to 400 K.
4. Pressure:
- Variations in pressure affect EMF (Liu et al., 2018)
The effect of pressure on the emf of solid-state galvanic cells were measured in the pressure range
1.01x 105 to 8.08 x 108 Pa.
5. Internal Cell Design:
- Geometry and material selection impact EMF (Zhang et al., 2017)
The internal design of a power source, like a battery, significantly impacts its electromotive force (EMF)
by influencing factors like the chemical reactions occurring within, the surface area of electrodes, the
electrolyte composition, and the internal resistance.

Key Findings:
(A) Temperature and concentration of electrolyte significantly impact internal resistance, (B) Chemical
reactions, concentration of reactants, and temperature influence EMF, (C) Optimal cell design and
material selection can minimize internal resistance and maximize EMF.

Research Gaps:
(A) Investigation of coupled effects of multiple factors on internal resistance and EMF, (B) Development
of comprehensive models integrating internal resistance and EMF, (C) Experimental validation of
theoretical models.

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CHAPTER 3
3.1 PRACTICAL ANALYSIS

3.2 THEORY
The internal resistance of a cell is the resistance offered by its electrolyte to the flow of ions. The
internal resistance of a cell
 is directly proportional to the distance between the electrodes.
 is inversely proportional to facing surface area of the electrodes in electrolyte.
 decreases with increase in temperature of electrolyte.
 is inversely proportional to concentration of electrolyte.
The internal resistance of a cell is given by:
r = (E-V)/I

3.3 APPARATUS
A potentiometer, a battery (or battery eliminator), two one way keys, a rheostat, a galvanometer, a
resistance box, an ammeter, a cell (Leclanche cell), a jockey, a setsquare, connecting wires and sand
paper.

3.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Figure(ii)

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3.5 PROCEDURE
1. Clean the ends of the connecting wires with sand paper and make tight connections according to the
circuit diagram.
2. Tighten the plugs of the resistance box.
3. Check the e.m.f. of the battery and of the cell and make sure that e.m.f. of the battery is more than
that of the cell, otherwise null or balance point will not be obtained.
To study variation of internal resistance with distance of separation
4. Keep both the electrodes at a distance of 16 cm.
5. Take maximum current from the battery, making rheostat resistance small.
6. Without inserting a plug in key K2, adjust the rheostat so that a null point is obtained on the last wire
of the potentiometer.
7. Determine the position of the null point accurately using a set square and measure the balancing
length (11) between the null point and the end P.
8. Next introduce plugs in both keys K₁ and K2. At the same time, take out a small resistance (1-5 W)
fromthe shunt resistance box connected in parallel with the cell.
9. Slide the jockey along a potentiometer wire and obtain the null point.
10. Measure the balancing length (12) from end P.Record these observations.
11. Now keep the electrodes 12 cm apart.
12. Then remove the plugs of keys K₁ and K2. Wait for some time and repeat steps 7 to 10.
13. Next, keep the electrodes 9 cm apart to obtain another set of observations.
To study variation of internal resistance with area of electrodes
14. Keeping all other factors constant, increase the area of electrodes in the electrolyte by dipping them
into the electrolyte at different depths for each observation.
15. Obtain three such observations by repeating steps 7 to 10. Record your readings.
To study variation of internal resistance with concentration of electrolyte.
16. Keeping all other factors constant, decrease the concentration of electrolyte by adding distilled
water for different observations.
17. Obtain three such observations by repeating step 7 to 10. Record your readings.

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3.6 RESULTS AND CALCULATION
OBSERVATION TABLE

S.No. Ammeter Position of null Shunt Re- Internal Re-

Reading (A) point(cm) sistance sistance r(Ω)
With R Without R R(Ω)
(l1) (l2)
1. 0.3 660.5 35.5 1 0.94
2. 0.3 660.5 77.2 2 1.77
3. 0.3 660.5 108.3 3 2.51
Table(i)

Table for effect of separation between electrodes

S.No. Separation Balancing Balancing Internal r/d

between point point Resistance
electrodes l1(cm) L2(cm) r(Ω)
d (cm)
1. 1.2 326.6 276.9 0.456 0.38
2. 2.5 320.7 219.1 0.95 0.38
3. 3.7 660.5 350.9 1.406 0.38
Table(ii)

Table for effect of temperature

S.No. Temperature T (0C) L1 (cm) L2 (cm) Resistance R(Ω) Internal Tr (ΩK)

Resistance r(Ω)
1. 1.2 326.6 276.9 0.456 0.38 301.44
2. 2.5 320.7 219.1 0.95 0.38 291.96
3. 3.7 660.5 350.9 1.406 0.38 283.87
Table(iii)

Model Calculation
Given values:
(a) EMF of the cell (E) = 1.5 volts
(b) Terminal voltage (V) = 1.2 volts
(c) Current flowing (1) = 0.2 amperes
Calculation:
r = (E-V)/1
r = (1.5 V-1.2 V) / 0.2 A
r = 0.3V/0.2 A
r = 1.5 ohms

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3.7 RESULT & INFERENCES
 The Electromotive Force of the cell is constant and is equal to E = 0.98 Volt.
 The internal resistance of a cell is directly proportional to the separation between the elec-
trodes.
 The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the area of the electrodes dipped in
electrolyte.
 The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the temperature of electrolytes.
 The internal resistance of a cell is inversely proportional to the concentration of the electrolyte.

3.8 PLOTS

Internal Resistance Vs Temperature

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Internal Resistance Vs Area of Electrodes

Internal Resistance Vs Current Density

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FLOWCHART CONCLUSION

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CHAPTER-4
FUTURE SCOPE
1. Multi-scale modeling: Develop models that bridge the gap between atomic, molecular, and
macroscopic scales to better understand internal resistance.
2. Machine learning: Apply machine learning algorithms to predict internal resistance based on
electrode material properties, cell design, and operating conditions.
3. Advanced characterization: Employ techniques like X-ray computed tomography, neutron imaging,
or scanning electrochemical microscopy to visualize and quantify internal resistance.
4. Interface engineering: Investigate strategies to optimize electrode-electrolyte interfaces, reducing
internal resistance and enhancing overall cell performance.
5. Cell architecture: Investigate innovative cell designs, such as 3D-printed structures or nanostructured
electrodes, to minimize internal resistance.
6. Electric vehicles: Investigate the impact of internal resistance on electric vehicle performance, range,
and efficiency.
7. Renewable energy systems: Examine the role of internal resistance in renewable energy systems,
such as solar-powered fuel cells or batteries.
8. Electrical engineering and computer science: Work with electrical engineers and computer scientists
to develop advanced modeling and simulation tools for internal resistance.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
 NCERT TEXTBOOK OF PHYSICS CLASS XII
 Journals - Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, Physical Review B, Journal of Electroanalytical
Chemistry
 Books - "Physics of Electrochemistry" by J. O'M. Bockris and Amulya K. N. Reddy (2018),
"Electrochemical Energy Storage and Conversion" by Jiujun Zhang (2019)
 Research Articles - "Internal Resistance of Electrochemical Cells: A Review" by A. K. Shukla et al.
(2019), "Modelling Internal Resistance of Lithium-Ion Batteries" by J. Liu et al. (2020), "Influence
of Electrode Material on Internal Resistance of Electrochemical Cells" by Y. Zhang et al. (2020)

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