UNIT -III

5Foundations
syllabus
Requirement of good foundations.
soffoundations--Bearing capacity and settlement -

Contents 5-2
Dec.-14
5.1 Introduction.
"..5-2
Dec.-14, 16, May-15
Foundation
5.2 Type of .5-10

: Concept
5.3 Bearing Capacity of Soil .5-11
Foundation
5.4 Settlement of 5-13
May-15, Dec.-15
Good Foundation
5.5 Requirement of ..5-15

Foundation .5-15
5.6 Functions of
Foundation
Shallow Foundation and Deep
5.7 Comparison of 5-15
to avoid Failure
Foundation Failure and Preventive Steps May-17
5.8 Causes of .5- 16
Answers.
5.9 Two Marks Questions and 5-17
Answers
5.10 University Questions with

(5-1)
 " " " Basic
bricks, (Fig.Foundation
rocks,which forn The superstructure.
soil The 5.1.1.] below
Introduction5.1 Civil
foundation on
foundation
is of which the and
constructed a ground
concrete
footing, is Mechanical
foundation the
includes transmits
surface part
IAIA timberetc. bypile Engineering
various a is the
system,constructed. of
and
foundation
Shallow(a) transmiting load sub-structure
it
1-1.5D/B < building pier, of gives
TECHNICAL Fig. superstructure
caisson,medium the
5.2.1 materials support which
AU
PUBLICATIONS-
Shallow Foundation
5.1.1
Fig, pedestal isDec.-l4
D<B to tolying
like the he the
GL
and 5-2
An
up deep
thrust
GL. 5.2.1.)
(Fishallow
g the ofThe Following 1) 5.2
foundation
for
foundatlion
Deep(b)
foundation. Shallow
knowledge DI1.B5 >
width typethe Type
foundation are
of foundation,
of
Pedestal the of
foundatoinfoundation
the
If
Foundations
types
Depth
otherwise depth 2) of
depends Deep
GL. (B) of foundation
itthen foundation.
foundation
1s on
a it
deep is (D)
depth
known is
foundation Poundatons
Mv-15
AU:
less and
as width
A

"
the TomSpreadSpread A)layer. to"The depthThe of.level. waterhearing This . 5.2.1
Foundation
Shallow
soil the the BaslcCiviland
(Refer shallow
bed footingsare distribution table type
superstructure footing structure
to of Mechanical d
Fig.
foundations shallow level
provide foundation
:
5.2.2.) of is as
used atwell
Engineering |
aover load foundation
IAVAS safe higher as
G to onare is
footing Strip
a
and distribute ramed L
(a) wide thfurther
e commonly SteppedSimple
varies depth
Slmple unyielding
area
supporting
fooüngSpread
classified structure
below wherethe
TECHNICAL strlp concentrated
so
from
Dec-14,
AU. 16
footingIsolated
IAA support. as 3.5 used -Rectangular
-Sloped
Circular Square
footing - soil the Fig.
L to according
PUBLICATIONS- Flg. Concrete
block
Wal enable or to
4 ground
in 5.2.2 foundation
Grilage
5.2.3 load rock m. load
Shallow Combined foundation
Shallow 5-3

An
Strip (b)
IAIA fooûng
(OB)<1-15
up
thrust footing Stepped structure. lsolatedpad
the footing:
This b)
(Fig Strip
footing
5.2.3.)
"
150 ofwall, The ight
" a)
foundation "It Trapezoióal
-Redangtar

individual type mm wall. isStrtp

for strip footing number width
structures alfootdng
so
knowdedge from The carntileverStrapor
footing of
can of known fooing

Wal L columnsfooting the width of

stepsfooting
such :
bewall as
-Ofset
is provided of aswall
toused and gardenis Mat o
offisets rat
Steo provide calculatedfoundation.
projection
in 2s varies walls
framed simple
the
offrom or
compound
support from It
structure or steps is
stepped the used
50 Foundations
from width
of mm walls.below
super below strip face
to of
 "The c) " Basic
underlying
T columnsveryfoundatlon
is
Grillage footingIsolated
required.
5.2,4.)
(Fig.sloped
Isolated
footingcan
type Civil
used in and
lsoiow.l is of sloped shape
footing in Mecharial
moderncolumn depending
heavy
is (c)
suitable square,be (a) Erngineering
R.C.C lsolated
lsolated
and footing
upon
bearing when buildings. column
the or
is rectangular,
crcular column
TECHNICAL load thedistribution footing
capacity footing
from most
Fig. Clrcular :
PUBLICATIONS of
the cormmon of Square :
5.24
the steel load
lsolated S-4
An (b)
up " It (d)
thrust positionkeyand The right
concrete.
5.2.5.]
(Fig. footing Isolated
lsolated
has
lor steel angles
steel G
knowlodge column
beams column
to
beams
each footing
other are footing
other. of
components beld I :
sections Slope : Rectangular
G
in
position
in
and
two
then by tiers
covered space
placed Poundators

bars,
by at

C)
of
beampermitted near providedbetween "Whencolumns. "nfooting.columnsbearing"When
Strap (Refer Combined
B)
Reck
column s this
the totype

near
to cantilever
of
or Fig.
otherwise them
S.2 .6
loads footing

on
capacity
are
loads
footing :
Iviland 4
extend plotfooting
the
notis
on less the
is the grouped
adjacent
of
on Mechanical
boundary
boundary.
beyond plot footing trapezoidal
next columns common
boundary is that the Engineering
provided page.) together separator
Pipe
time is base soil
columns
is
and :
footing pearly Secondtier
First
tier separator
Pipe
reactangular is to is Firsttier Base
plate
supported colunmn where provided relatively
form are
TECHNICAL is same
the provided.
onHerfoot
e, ing and a very Fig.
to
the the column to0ng combined less, high
PUBLICATIONS- strap losd
distance the 5.2.5
Sectlonal
plan
elevatlon
Sectlonal
s two two or
S Grillage
An (min)cm
15
up "
thst WAIA interior foundation
The
starngirnael
br GL strap
knowedge Flg. part beam
5.2.7 of Arde
det
plonnateS
ot Secondber
Strap CoiumS
beam Suap [Fig
or
527.] rom
cantilever
a
column
footng
which
Fooing Foundatians
iS
n
the
 " " D) Basic
The
structure
sub-sol.onslab This
Mat Civil
slab
covering type or and
is Raft
of Mechanical
reinforced
footing
footing
the
eatire
consists
with : (a) EngineerinS
GL steel
Rectangular
area
of w.
bars thick
of
in the Wa
w,=
TECHNICAL reinforced combined
both
bottom
Flg. direction. W,
Fig.
PUBLICATIONS footing
5.2.8 concrete
of 5.2.6
the
Mat
Comblned
- or
S-6
An
up raft It the
thrust
footing bearing load
differential
settlement.
capacity This
distributes footing
for transferred Trapezoldal
footing(b)
knowledge type
capacity. of
W

soil of >W
W,
the
Inverted
slab Columns footing
is
[Fig. toload
type
raft very
soil Wa
5.2.8.] over
below low is
a suitableor
wider
is it
much is
area difficultwhere

less such
the
to Foundations
than that
bearing
control
the the

used ACCording
uder-reamed Plesstructure. the Pile "Pile5.2.9.)
super ofIhe foundation A) Fig. "The bearing
(Refer and Thisgreater
reasonable
depth. Foundation
" .The |5.2.2
In
with foundation Deep
sturctural deep where deep
as are piles is depth Mechanlcal
Ctarnild
type
a capacity
concrete slender foundations foundation,
are the is of
classified to of depth
piles the used load water known
foundation foundation
piles, action coumn
to
of because
and to soil as
bear
the are table the Engineering 1
timber also as Deep
ofunderlyingwhich further is
friction pile is ofhard 1s
the near very is Function
based
classified
piles, that
foundation. bearing
+End
vertical is classified suitable strata greater dolphin
Tender
Sheet andCompaction
pile Anchor
Tension Friction
to tolow foundation
capable
steel support
piles, layeTS. the
(Black is than
TECHNICAL based compression ground
level. where
piles. loadthe not
bearing the of as the Pile
on transferring follows. cotton available
is
load, width Flg.
PUBLICATIONS matenal construct Material
tased
les the load soil) 5.2.9
at of Composite Sand oPipa Timber -concrete
Seel
Deep foutalonDeep
Concrete
steelandtirmberand
Concrete pilesH+ Precast 5-7
stCastu in
An
up " "When b) foundation
Friction
piles a)
thrst
In
depths
soft-soil
strata to
Bearing constructedcalled skinWhen
plles
this Pile
cap
tor resistance
knowledg system then ples Friction
plle
it No on transfer
ple called transfer :
Flg. hard bard without ciralar
Teen
belReczrgu
Dumo
ples. Dauble- D Cratar
rests 5.2.10 strata
a strata the
Bearing suitable load
on Inany
at (Fig hese end load
hard of Friction end
bearing
pile. of 52.10.) beaing
of
strata. the piles, stroctre
plies cotunn
RC.C -
pile
building
(Fig. stratumn the then
by
5.2.11] pile the Foundations
through
at pilesmeans
greater is
Dot re of
a
 " "
1) excavation
Caissons
Box stuctures etc. Calssonswell
dock foundation:
Caissons B)
wood,
"
(Fig. bulbs This andUnder-reamed
5.2.12.) OrThis
c) Basic
expand Pilecap Civil
caisson, pileshrinks type
is steel, along and
is
classified for is
when to of Mechanical
a
2) the RC.C water constructed a pile -Hard
its greater
Open
foundation dry. ispiles Fig.
in length used strata
caisson, to constructed tight extent 5.2.11
: Engineering
the with in at
structure black Bearing end
knoWn
3)types
threeas of one
when
of
Pneumatic bridges, cotton piles
in
preferably or in píle -R.C.C
column
TECHNICAL as
connection with more contact soil
piers reams.
under resting
hardon
Fig. following -
caisson. -Bearing
piles
PUBUCATIONS in made spreads with which strata
5.2.12
ivers, water swell GL.
Under-reamed of or
5-8
-
An
up
thrst 1)
WallRC.C. Box
for pile -Concrete -Stirrups reinforcement
Main
knowtedge calsson
under
ream Sectional
Bulbor WAIAVAVA
Fig. :
5.2.13 elevation
Plan
Box
(Section
caisson

X-X)
-R.C.C
Wall filing
Sand
filing
Sand
Foundaion

"I 2) "
Curved,provided
" asson
a which Concrete then Boxbottom.the at "Itis
Open page.) Bas c
T plmped When he used
1s
the
is
caisson
it the vil
S iscaisson is and I
seal required cylindrical in water
out to
contructed inmade launched
the
and isserve sandy
by empty casted
is
tight
Mechanical
completely
then :
on
location. brick. in
soil structure box
Engineering
thephug/seal. on spaces water and
round R.C.C or which
bottom soft curved
R.C.C.
WNall
Rich open (Fig. by Conlcal
shoe
bearing or filling is
and
is
1lowable steel. at 5.2.13 properly open
closed water then
stratum.
bottom
sand at
TECHNICAL it se on top
and in concTete is and on grond or and
PUBLICATIONS interspacecaissoD penetraled Tbe top previous gravel closed 5.2.14
Flg.
opeu SectlonX-X
is 1S
and orand Plan 5-9
Open
An " 3)
"
up
thrt compressed and is "Inthe
This porton.
5.st2.e(1Fel5.ig. ) excavated m. at
12 The
Pneumatic
the
closed
filled
iscaisson
maintained pneunatic
br type concretingconstruction top. bywith -Reinforced
cement gravel
-Sandor
nowedge of It concrete. Concrete
air is calsson murum
caisson so
suitablecaisson
work
1S that
used
of
: (Fig
can pneumatic
wateT sand
is for is 5.2.14.)
be todone open etc.
the
docs
made remove depth at and
in Dotcasson the
by dry then
get
of
bottom
timber the the water the
condition in Foundations
water air
more and top
excavation
COnCrete. pressure closed is
from The than also
 base "It
1) 5.3.1 " " Basic
Utimate The test5)
Laboratory 4) test3)Analytical
Penetration 2)methods. "The It" "
Thesafely, onThe |5.3
is 1) before ofstructural
of Model Plate can Civil
defined
CapacityTypes Various
B.C.of
unin bearing applied bearing
the total
the umderlying be then Bearing and
of bearing underlying
foundation Bearlng and also load structural
bearing pressure Mecharical
as
proto methods capacity capacity the
safcly structure
the Terms test define Capacity
Capacity capacity material
maximum at
type that soil. load without
of as is Engineerin8
which Related test soil the will If is
fails finite ea th
of
(UBC) is is maximum failing
the
capacity fail transfered Soii
the
pressure kN/ determined in Blow-out
pipe
shea.loaded or soil
soil (4,) Bearing
m. nder collapse. can Concept : shaftAir Ladder
NICAL fails of by
intensity : average
area the soil not the
in by Fig.
lockAir
ONS- shear. following can shear. to foundation
cary
intensity bear 5.2.15
at
carry load
the the
Pneumatic 5-
10
chamber
Working
An workmenfor
capacity
bearing
Safe Net
thrust
up
bybearingIt" sefely The "Safe 3) Thibearing
s
Net "
pressure The Net
from
" 2) "
It
the is bearing caisson
is
for calculated maximum pressure trench net
Bearing denoted release
-Air
edge suitable capacity. carTy Bearing
bearing
of
capacity -Cutting
edge
factor by intensity
without capacity
Capacityoccured
is
to
surcharge
the Capacity
by Compressed air
capacity (9u
F.O.S. dividing =9u 9 ultimate=
9u risk is
bearing safety.of
Ultimate
capacity considered
by
9u means
(NEBC)
of (SBC),
of is
Factor
safetyof the shear only bearing
pressure calculated
pressure() pressure
Surcharge
(
ultimate (Aun)
2 (9,)
structural
to failure for capacity.
3). that foundation design. of by
bearing is excavaled
called the load. deducting PoundatBone

capacty soil
as
safe wll soil the

"We " The " made The " Droving hydraulic .The
jack Hene "it
"li intensity
corresponding The lcompression
indirectly applied. oad jacks. ring centre thick
hydraulic ,A mhich In
oroperly. of
"
test. factor bearing The " soil or thIt
imposed thon
e is
e RasCiicvil l
(Refer of
calculatedbyLhis slope. log-log
wemuch
at
this UBC, 5.3.2 excessive Al
Prossuro
lowabl e :
intersection get compression compressionof pressure to plate ol
S.B.C Capacity Sof
point plot below
Fig. gaph rapid ultimate at lift square should A test safety. capacity
of
Plate is Mechanicaland
the th e
dial thin load emaller maximum
5.3.1 gives proving
ring.of the is placed is the first Load settlerment
taking a paper, graph instanct
rate. to
gauges applied plate layer be IS
can
test soil
of settlement
bearing of load bottom as at
of
on the than
two ring is of shown : besoil Test with
intensity
be Engineering
net
next yeild of proving
ring On of all 1888 is
reasonable
facter value will underneathplaced ofsize sand calculated, the of
load at
is through
main pit used for soil. no
page.) straight point capacity
which test 30 in is gives the
intensity of noted
indicate net
of test is Fig. Determinatlon
to possibility
can girder.
steel
hydraulic over pit. to spread excavated foundation
the determing safe
UBC the 75 5.3.1 of
lines asplate by
proportional is steel
truss by loading
beand plate the a these cm details bcaring
the over assuming
TECHNICAL safetyof and having noted is dial
loadings
applied is (b) of of
settlement begins value also jack, plates placed of level the faihure
shear that
SBC gauges, causes
This it. and of of capacity
as recorded. overand dimensions plate
efort certain fromultimate Bearing
can
LICATIONS- can different the to of theto and at leveled load
pont on sink load thus the its of
be is a 5-11
a
An " " " Soil
Dralning
5.3.3.2| Compacton
533.1|
"Sol 5.3.3
It under foundation herethe Confining
This5.3.3.3|
Sol of water B.C. I1 CompactOrs SOils heparticles.
1he othet Cohesion
Dy Ihe
up to
because |5.4 is and soil, treatment, B.C. particles Chemical
It" paricles
ncrease. etc. Treatment
Chemical
|5.3.3.4|displacement be Dependng
used.pipes,
the compaction, bearing
thrust soil is quick settlement is water weak
compaction Sol of |
is injected level, of Methods
for
grains
Settlement
the more. the loads. method shallow
soil
water
Hence
ad
between
knowledge of
vertical and time are as soutionsodiumlike steel
level; on
the can soils inteases
the a into Hence of to is is capacity
cominoriginal
g less. On not
cohbesive
is tube the B.C.
reduced present machine, inCTeases
is soil soil of
the
dependent
is soil, ferm sheelsimilar methods
amount
also
Imoroving
downword of very the increases wells of done particles
other liable or increase the particles of
closer depthFoundation loose lateral onpiles to soil above
to
gradual homogenous and of oT isnear rolling, bycohesion the soil
hand process, drivingBearing brought andmainly
for the 'encloure the quantity
together. movement soilsilicate movemet pumping using increased
the at
or B.C. the
of are
continues
for displacement mass stability compaction ramming ground Bearing
soil i.e. porous half, the compaction
of capacity between very depends
sandy driven of
mass in mass. to or and out water foundation by
the
sodium of of close water CapaciyPoundations
of soil for case unite soil. soilrestrictaoundmethod gravity
of drawing loose md
OT
decreasesloaded a As water and ple So the to tabie. on
settlement long of after the chloride
the particles level. sandy use
clayey dran depth the mo sou each the
time the the but can of
due base the soil soil
 Basic
Civil
and
Mechanical

Planks -
Masonry
support Engineering
D
TIAS

Anchors IAAVIAV/AW/A
IAVIAIAVAVA AAAIAIAIAIA
L (a)
Loadingpost
IAVIAAC gaugeDial plate
Test
S Flg. plate
Test Tube
ANIANJAVAAVAA gaugeDial
5.3.1
5-12
Plate (d)
- (C
An
up load -Post
Datumbar
WA
t -Hydraulic Proving Hydraulicjack
AVAZA jack ring -Reaction
truss
test girder
Main Cross
joists
r
Datum
bar IAIAAAIA VIAAAIAVA (b B

Anchors AIA

B
Masonry
support -Sand
bags
D,

Foundaions

settlement
Differentlal 2) .If Differential
settlement2) Following
1) settlement
Uniforn 1) 4) ) 1)54.1
ement.
rential then orAverage
OnIns typeofhave drainage Structure
the This (Fistructure
5.4.1.)
g. 5.4.2 6) of " Basic
Uniform soil The Civil
TAVIAVIA
u
homogenous
difference Part type been undergroundsettlement
GL. the
vertical
Loweri
Excavation
Excessive ngLiquefact
Soil ion ElSettlement
asticCauses of amount
TYpe or
of construction.
of settlements pipes,
permitted
but is
equal,settlement
are compactofion compresSion rock. and
settlement excessive Fig
downward
the of on near
expansi Mechani
of cal
between
structure rigid electric
utility will 5.4.1 Settlement
two water urng settlement
the to due
: types the table. Engineering l
and dependingranging cables Uniform settlement and tocarth or
thesettles
occurs servicesunifrom not Settlement
movement construction.
of contraction shocksconsolidation
uniformly cause quake. is
two
more when from etc. settlement
settlement different
like
settlement is and
settlements than loaded the Type 20 any
Uniform
water the swelling of vibration. under for
CAL loaded of mm damage
the soil. soil, to supply will total different
is static
called other base structure 300 settlement.
ONS- damage to base
soils. load. types
part, rests mm lines, the of
as 5-13

An B) A) " "
up
2) 1) "
Following 5.5
5) 4) 3)Preloading 2) 1)
Methods 5) 4) 3) 2) 1) Causes angular and Ratiorespectivey.
distortion. The (Referleadingstructure This
thrust
The carefully Hence future. any LocationLocationRequirement
it Soil compressibility.
Use
Increasing effective
load.
Providing Titing
Diierence Overlapping
Uhequal Unequal istance Then oj
for stability Stability
settlement of Fig differential
to
can differential and cracks
knowtedge unexpected are stabilization of to of differential 5.4.2
because
foundation
to the be
piles. of
reduce rigid swelling, intensity differentlal 8= between &,
and the and
of location able of of the the floating in
of is on in it
the foundation
designed foundation
foundation
requirements depth compresssibility
base. stresses Angular settlement the super setlement
5induces
structure. to
of
techniques, differential softening of settlement -
crack should ofinfluence resist foundation settlement the settlement 14
Good of
precompaction foundation.
loadingon structure.
page.)
foundation from distortion two heavy is
in So properly.
: totalshould : foundation between =
the
its be which load Foundation
good
of
soil settlement and
of adjoining :
columns
of stressesin
more
be so drying = =
structure.
preventsprovide AU:reinforcement underlying
soils.
the ß,
column
harm-ful
should in in decrease
may of foundation. sandy istwo -
such May- to structure.
of 01
structure : known A structures
Foundations
the be appear 15. soil. 1oomg
addequate way Dec.-15 soils. reduce in ano to
unequal selected etc. the 2S the
and that b
in
 Basic

Civil

and
3) Mechanical
settlement.
avoid
the
located soil The
Settlement
settlement
strata. Engineering
on
hardHence of
foundation
of ,I
and (a)
foundation
the
compacted (c) Titing
foundation Support
TECHNICAL
: of
depends rigid
soil partly
Fig.
should base
PUBLICATIONS- strata on
on 5.4.2
firm
the
to beDiferential
5-
14
ground

An
up and (b)
knowledge
thrustfor settlenent Dishing
partly

4) on of
foundation
Durability
resistant
years.
many haveunder The
Thesettlement.
differential lo0se flexible

foundation ground W
the
base
material
of action base
foundation
should of
so should
it load 8,
should be
: and not
made
be it be Poundattons
urable by should
deflected
weather
tor not

|5.8 Amparison s6FunctFoundat

lonstonof
Basic
CvCivil
4) 3) 2) 1)
No.Sr. " To
" prevent
To To distribute
any .Toload and
Causes
" 6 To
failure raureFoundation
over Mechanical
Duterent secure
increase prevent
a Ex. Hard suffñcient
groundof excavation
This
type foundation.width The
of Shallow
of
iswider Spread depth of level a the the Engineering
causes Foundation
an strata of
ShailOw
is foundation foundation stabilitylateral
unequal
area
unacceptable an TIANIA
footing is foundation
of natural
iimand of
of interface available foundationFoundation
Shallow superstructure
at escape
failure pressure.
reduced Foundation ofsettlement
combined can it
Failure capacity.
bearing
is structure
at is be called is of
diference
are to shallow constructed constructed equal the
TECHNICAL transfer bed ofoVer
listed and GL
foating as Supporung
so the
shallow or to and for to
depth
structure. mde a
belowbetween Preventive D<B
the etc. on by less layingprevent
PUBLICATIONS loads dry open than
Desp 5-15
matenal spread
expected
along
from Steps
Foundatton masoarythe the
sliding area
-
An with EL Hard soitof Deep xcavaton Deep foundaion The
SuScepable
capscity
as
p superstructure
and
orwill
it to
thrst prevenive to Ple depch cOurses. prevent
observed Avoid stran fourdason foundzion overturning
br foundaticn
is of
endangr
vible to
knowledge nequal called
fuundanon it
Failure Posdadon
Deep from
performance.
measures to
provided
is geoerally
s of he
and sel at any
deep
get sttiemerts is whole
struchre.
into foundationa not toundahongeater
that where constructed moment.
the dep structut
GL
can on than
undertying tc
strucure
low
be
adopted bearing by widh e
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soil AU of Foundations

to or May :
avoid rock 17
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support" Iv) liquefaction, " ) To " " I)Baale
Clvil
It" from imegular
In" Il)
Ans. 4.1 improvement
5.9 It" bearing
inFooting
investigations, It with Duc zOnofooting is" Mccompanicd
Also,Portland
ccment. distanccawuy. " or
Dreg Higher uccomplished
"Undor
Width adopted trunsfer boaring When Load
the can may Fallure
Two can distributes
base foundation
structure
Foundation :
Define unequal ground to of provent soils,
nownew
transfer
be ground resultmannercarthquakc, cxpansion down factor sO
becapacityvesting such lond loglneering
Mechanlcaland
to capacity
of Marks due that
prevented soil
it, is
the techniques
prevented differential coming
below foundation settlement soil in and to by and of its circumstancos, by
it roctity
and on to duc earthquake tnken to falluro
building. improvement, ground and upward leave: safcty load rests
: Questions superstructure oxtcnding of
grOund Fcda
unequal
different by the foundation
to across on
at settlement, incrtia contraction. stabilizod is the Noll, over :
place by i.e. proper structure, failures, doepcr scttlcmonts
movements
down)
drng used a
tion and differential load tho
level and adopting of
:
groater
to
the method foundation
amore problem.
is wrúe of type hardening
planning of levcl with toundatjon
which the Answers necessity. distribution landslides.vibrations thcir building and provent supportive foundation
TECHNICAL of limc, arca. of
lower function suitable
settlement. cracking,
ground masses. it ignoring nd fails
provides
soil, techniques. of vibrates it. Underpinning underpinning
moves lime lcave soil in is
PUBUCATIONS- part will subsurface transmitted the during moro
ground different ly dcpth
result in
along activo stratum
a of of ash, somo
n arc
or is is
load hn
5.16
An
up
thrust isThe Ans. Q.3
known FoundationWell b) Foundation Pilea) B) A)Ans,
0.2
load structure.
: Caissons i) Batter
pilesCompaction
v)pilesiv) Frictional
Anchor i ) pilesi ) piles i) Deep footings
pilesEnd-bearing Grillage
vii) vi) iv) iii)footings
Combined Isolatedi ) Shallow
footings lv)
for Cantilever
footings v) )
knowledge
i) Define : To whole To ) 1)
asBearing
carrying Pneumatic
Caisson. 3) Caisson
Open 1) Foundation Mat Inverted footings
Wall Tho Glve overturning. supportmatienrigal.
increase over
loundatlon
Punctlons of
CaissonBox operatlon.
building
the
Foundation overloading diatributeTo
bearing
Bearing
: or foundations the prevent
Foundation so
raft classiflcatlon
Capacity
capacity arch 0s the
capacity foundations.
: to the
capacity footings any large the
: are stability
prevent provldes of
of classificd lateral the
of ofSoil of foundatlon
of
soll arca total
soil. soil soil it of
at : trom the levelbeneath load
and as escape sO
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sllding of
ourface 8
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avold
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Ans. : 0.5

economy.
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possible swelling
loading. to
ItFoundation
should prevent
i)
swelling
State
soils.
vi)
construction.
Excessive
Excavation
LoweringLiquefaction
v) iv)
consolidation
Soil
Following Wrile
ure The
the
Clvland Mec
compaction a9 that
should or the
of
causes vertlcal
It
structure is
of underlylng
capaclty.
ultimate Engineering
chanlcal
be shouldrequirementexpansion
shrinkage compression,
and water during may of a
the
designed pile due
under
sellement?
the
downward
be
aro of Structure fnltely
Intenalty
average
ensure damages be bearing
table.earthquake.
to stattc causcs materlal
of at of driving uniform loaded
good and shocks known
tosoil.sufficient load.plastic of
both from foundation movementof (aoll)
carry Contractionof in settlement
and as area
or
TECHNICAL safety thedepth neighbouring vibrations. 8ettlement falls
maximum flow diferential can of
erosion ? : Inappled
PUBLCATIONS. and so
the
shear Carry
as of
5-17
An
up Q.5 Q4 Q.3 0.2 5.10|Unlversity
0.1
thrust V) )
for unlforrnlyettlements
depths. The The
preventive 5.2.1)shallow Wuh
5.3) State constructions.
(Section (Sectlon (SectlonS.5) What (Sectlons
requbementslhof
e What foundatlonssketches What
kowledoe design
are do foundation
the neat are
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should
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requirements
Dec.-
2016 Dec. - and
2015 bypes May-
2015 thow 2014
Dec. -
to May-
2017
5.5) good
a
be
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5.1 such
adapted foundation settlement
and by wth
used
of a areag that
the foundatlons distribute
of diferent
good 5.2.1) types Answer
to
foundation at 0CCUr.
no
avoid foundation ?
Wrle of differentlal
sufficient Puundatons
failure. bullding ypes shallow 7
down Draw loads
16 and (1] (16)
?
 UNIT - |||

Civil Engineering Structures

|Syllabus
Brickmasonry- stonemasonry -beams -columns -lintels -roofing -flooring -plastering -floorarea, carpet area and floor space
/ndex -Types of bridges and dams -water supply -sources and quality of water -Rain water harvesting -introduction to high way
and rail way.

Contents
6.1 Introduction . . . 6-2
6.2 Walls 6-2
6.3 Brick Masonary 6-2
Dec.-16

6.4 Stone Masonary ..6- 5

6.5 Composite Masonary. ..i.6-7
6.6 Beams ..6-7

6.7 Column ... .6-7

6.8 Wall Openings - Lintels. ..6 - 7
6.9 Roof .6-7

6.10 Flooring/Floor .6-9

6.11 Plastering 6- 10
6.12 Covered Areas of a Building. .6- 10
" . . . . 6 - 13
6.13 Bridges..
Dec.-15, May-16
"....6 - 15
6.14 Dam
Dec.-14, 15
6 - 16
6.15 Water Supply Schemes
6 - 18
6.16 Rain Water Harvesting
6.17 Introduction of Highways .6- 19
6-21
6.18 Railways . 6- 22
6.19 Important Difference
May-15, 16, 17, Dec.-15
6- 23
6.20 Two Marks Questions and Answers.
6- 25
6.21 University Questions with Answers
(6 - 1)
 thatin"The "
under adifferent
vertical According them. one The "
masonary "
2) 1)Size size Theconvenient "types structure. is " Composite c)masonzry
b)Brick 2) m2in Based 6.2.1 " Basic
The
ItMasonary
6.3Brick StoneRubble Walls floor.or
rznsfe the Walls Walls62 pece colan, ndBudng COmpotet Introduction
Every 6.1
important and types on Cind
concentrated
load. lne These above bricks Standard
Conventional of are gpod
of clay spece painting
and
19 brick used
heTypes may t
zre civil
used to buildings
to layers the of 19x qualty type bricks
of
be to zrd he takine foons, struce parts
thing are the brick - in meson2ry mn2sonzrymaterial ogneering Mecthial
get
courses, good called m2sonzry of of
lowe coponet to for
other x9 Brick of roofs,
finisting depending
proper Eaglish laying are bricks of in 2re Masonary brick, take loads
to Cm = masonery. 2s subsequent is
be to without 20 masonary. bricks rural
called quality used are sed rubble load opeaings
n made Engneering
joints of x = Brick
bondng observed Bond have 10 23 2s to 2s for par some stucture
brick,
'courses!. are x x
of well follows from m2sonry 0n
should bonding
proper standard Hence
masonary. construt construcaon or of uptype
and laid
mortar 10 114
2s composite component cases for
and in main cm operbulding of
coaposed
Flemish x ubanidely : ciculation, of
NICAL not Brick in
joint. with 7.5 workfoundation
to different or It the structure.
come
avoid masonary
types cmconventional area is of materials.
cotnponeats
Le. vsed
mortar usedsimple wall
Bond. wall, for of
ONS
in between foundation to plastering
diding Beams, different
failure brick layers joint for of
one three divide
is all and any and
6-2
-
An
" Bat 3) closer
Queen 2) " 1)
known The width "For
up width. It 6.3.2
Fi(b).g. inThis " King 6.3.1
into Kingcloser "Final5) Pointing " "Brick
thrust is has of means Fig.curing 4) 3) 2)mason2ry
1)brick : coming
Following one
shape
for defined
closer two
closer Terms piece proper
of laid brick 6.3.1 Plastering bonding. ensure
goodCuttingWetting and
ledge
pieces as bricks masonary
between is closer. of wall, parallel
masonary shows on half
is Fig. Closer are the
obtained used brick bonding
the Q
sS runs and the
he obtained
as 6.3.1 H H to header the wzll or can
portion the Following
shown pieces thlengthwise
e work laying bricks two
in is steps or
laid Header
as be
centre by
in by Brick ofwell
S S wall.
and purpose brick
of cutting Fig.cutting are in
bricks Stretcher brick constructed
nvolved
and thick
brick of Masonary the
the as
H
Quoin
stretcher
at courses to
6.3.2 Header
H= S=Q=
Stretcher Engineering
SrucCivi
the course are stretcher
for right in be
depending
when header a types with
brick (a).bricks also means the served
angles of
cut of ofobtaining bricks,
to
brickODe
as in length masonary
closers.
to
brick establish. construction by
across be to the on
triangua
stretcher used.desired the Hesd. the
wise lenof wall. load hic
is f

l6.3.2 Sesk
Cvi
Following Bonds )Thereatwreo and
"
It This " Header
2)
Inbond : ThisStretcher
InbondStretcher
1) bond,1)
is this
Three
this type
Mecharial
suitable bond in
types type fourth
of are Brick closer
King(a)
is of the
inused of bond
bat Engineering
types
batsof
the bond
bond Masonary
types
Elevation is ((Fig
Elevation wall one in the used the 2) of
ofbrick brick Stretcher only
bnck
Header bonds 6.3.2 used
load
for laid (d))
UBLITECHNICATICALONS bearing thick laid walls down bond,
used
Fig.
closer
Queen(b)
bick
in

wall. down Flg.

in
Flg. Plan Plan having with brick 6.3.2 masonary
structure. with 6.3.3 English
bond, 3) 2
6.3.4 for for ther masonary. Brick
2, their 1,3, thickness 6
Header 4,
6
Strecher length closer
rzmety,
An
courses length courses
5
up
thrust bond bond parallel
of and Halbat(cf) l)
bor
perpendicular half
Bat
Half
knowledge Plan Plan
brick to Flemish
bond 4) Bt
for he (Pig
for2, Ez face
1, to 632
3, the frzmed Threeurthbat (
5 4,6 of
courses face course wal. (c)
structuTe
of
wall.
wall
DecAU
t6
constructioa
 Basic
Civil
and
Mechanical
header
Quion
Stretchers<

doserQueer Engineering
Fig.
6.3.5
TECHNICAL Elevation
(b) Stretchers Headers
Fig. Plan
One
6.3.5 for
PUBLUCATIONS-
and 2,
(a) 4,
half One (courses
b)
6
Queen
cdoser
(1½) One
An brick (a)One Plan
and 6-4
upbrick
thrust wall a for
half Queen
doser brick
English
for bond
wall 2,
Plan Plan english 4,
knowledge brick wall
6
of of courses
header stretcher (1) english
Elevation bond Plan
wall
for bond
course english
course 1, Plan
3,
5 for
bondcourses
Face Back 1,
Face Back 3,
5
courses Engineering
StructureCivil

Closer closerQueen
) ) "The re.tquired. "It is Thale teEvrneraty e aFlemlshnhibondckness
W strongeI s courSes.e.TnhigelEnglish lsh1)
cm. .Thialternate
Is 20 bond
SS H sS H sS
Flg. |sS
Double Single
flemish gives slightlyflemish
the
alternativelybrickinmore
this
more type
Mechanical
and l
Fig H H
flemishflemish bond bond aTangedbond of
consists
bond of
6.3.6 6.3.6 more thcompact bond
(b) (a) bond bond attractive
is economicalare cOurse
is
the
each
the an
is
divided less 1%
commonly Engineering
Double Single (Fig. starts header and
Plan
(Fig. stronger
as
course brick
into face
Flemish
Plan
6.3.6 6.3.6 less with and header
flemish S types.
two of than
of used
Stretcher
H=S=
Header H=Header
Sretcher
S= (b) (a) wall.
number header stretcher
in and
the foT
TECHNICAL bond bond masonary. wall
English at stretcher
of the is wallsthickness
bricks
PUBLICA -Closer
bond. corner. having bond
of
TIONS- 6-5

An
up c) a) can masonary
On Rubble1) 1) The " " and These Stones
" "
masonary.
stone The
" 10) 9) 3) 7) 6) 5) 4) 3) 2) 6.3.3The 1)
thrstCoursed Dry Rubble stone 6.4.1
to The stone foundation, The Masonary
Stone6.4 embeded Hold Vertical m2Sonary the in Brick
Bnck-bat n The ra1sed Jont up.masonzry. Using nBrick SZe The
be the get bulding
for Wall Brick
tor nubble divided basis Types hard a gap blocksvanious size.
stones are proper long
18shouldshould should should should
and bick
knowledge rubble masonarymasonary between decorative They abundantly in
fasts
joints
wall
wall mm umform Consrucion
and should
masonary into of monolithic
of
are types are
constructed
is joints ofload should after
wide not be
not be be
Guldelines
degree sed doors closer
masonary. the
2)
isStone the of are cut distribution.
of the
in
be the be
niformly thicker
be laid soaked shape. have
following
of classified stones in
rockSpurpose used available and brick and are cured expansion 30 more on of
b) Ashlar Masonarycomponent the masonary used to wateT in good Briek
Uncoursed dressing, masonary into
dressed windows mortzr
construction
is are by
masonary. for 40 fhanraised than MnipiesEngineering
flled etc. in in using as mm joint 15 quality Structures
Civi
types. quarmied construction to nature. minimum 10
bed
should minimum maximum
height
and
mn.
the the of by stones should lengthsbould m befoTe
hoursfor
the n with with
rubble rubble following structure. workable dressed of
proper be 7 day. 2
stone is be as be frog in
known staggerea possible ay. provided standard
masonary masonary types. wall. and
of
Shapes
properly facing of
mortar wall,
the as
 " "
6.4.2.)
(Fig. appearance.
boundary This This cormer 13The them dressing
"
In
" b)
In This " In" " a) Basic
which Uncoursed Thus " interlocking
Retaining
wall 6.4.1.)
(Figctc.
mm
thus retaining top.the at hey and undressed In Dry
is type and all in which Ctvil
used thickness joints line type shouldsmaller thus
and
the masonary type rubble
wall, jambs and
of and mason shape rubble 64.1 Fig.Dry wall, of the stoncs type
for of with Mechanical
masonary to by plumb
are wall havestonesBigger mnasonary:
plinth
construction increasetravel. filled selects and the
brcast
masonary of
masonary:
cach
isminimum are masonary. are
so size walls, broader piece uscd Engineering
wall, as thewithb stones masonary
Rubble other. arranged
strength. The
does to
of
is without
of
stones. boundary used
of largemortar fom stones are at of stones cither
retaining botom voids on
compound not use
TECHNICAL stones a
randomly used that are
with stong in
provide walls and placed quary
of
construction level in any
walls are more bond. without
PUBLICATIONS-
Earth
sollor
of and have such
wal) used and dresscd
montâT.
good building way at
etc. than lays any thinncT proper bottom
or at that
of of
An
(Fig This " Win " " 2)
up
thrust 6.4.4) Thelabours.
skilled " AshlarAshlar
Thishaving " " Ine
c)
abutments building
like Coursed mortarJoints 200
mm. toSize
with In
lor pleasing stones
masanary type Coused
this
sharp masonary Elevation(a)
masonary residential of its which
knowledge with of stones
of Fig construction
of rubble this
Fig.
Elevation(a) width the type
that
appearance masonary and 6.4.3 small thickness 64.2 rubble
of
is masonary used notHeader
used
are straight is Coursed buildings masonary Uncoarsed masonary,
less masonary
used constructed : bridges. in
work not this thanstones
indense is is
edges less
decorative should expensive rubble (Fig.public where is flled masonary its stones
are :
structure than rubble
and with
6.4.3.) Commonly height.placed atEngneering
are Structun
Civil
be masonary Sectlon(b) buildings, the 13
by Section(b)
of andsmooth well wall varnes workable
mm. masonary laid
work with
uniformn required dressed to
face. height used trom
regular
course
level
of no -Through piers LThrough
matrix headerstonestone
or
builang defects. stone
is in 50 interval
colou highly stones
and ow the of m

" Function
Beam Structure.
transfer
takes
It
gves
1t a)made "lBeams
t

of the
is
6.6 backingbricksfacing
e Stone Inworketc. .This
smooth hricks masonary
exteirioror masonary
Super
ae
which 65ComposiMastheotnare y
type
"
I
is
Mechanicaland I
tensile Stones surface the
the steel,
horizontal used combination
n
boam of: Fig. of a
supports reinforced stones Fig.
load load 6.5.1 in in masonary wall.
Bricks internorinterior surface, 6.4.4
from of component are Engineering
to Composte used Ashlar
structure. is of
slab the cement part
face providing used
n achieving
any
backingblocks
tacing Brick of
and transverse of exterior twmorO eOr
masonary
other concrete,
building masonary building. of for
Bricks
Blocks
wall.
yeater
TECHNICAL pars load tumber For face
6.5.1.)
(Fig.
sturcture.
to of acheiveing of strength
cot wall cconomy, ypes
buiang etc.
PUBLICATIONS It and
to of 6-7
is

An " " " "lf |6.3.1

whuch Coloum iramed ) 67Column
It
is
pre-casttcCOmponcnt foundations I Funcdon
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n
thrustbr sheds.orform stTheructclement
cOvering metal supporung ural . opcin Imtel
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he
cac akes gres nade
verical
he
6.3.1 a made Types s cOmosvestrucoure
of orsheeting,
mangalore basic is (Scee drys, borvzontal
on Wal tansfe madzbaring gves he of u
nowecge terraced
concerte material for the shows provide Openings foctng colunn
Rupports of
compoDents protectoncoverng Fig up the up sabuty renorced member
concTete of or
of opening stracture
af lcadbrico of RCC
slab roots usedcement plan
elevaton uppars
6.3.l componnt intals load
RCC, ruturt. to
provded cn and hke Lintats - coming structue. tostructue. of he Component
t
for
coverng in or or of tom net o
cobump sructurt
cemert
slopingasbestosallahbad roof ioors
multistoreyed the
nd to stope bmbr, wrdow, acts fromstoncs. Engineertng
StructursCvd
on page.)sectons the COncrete,
timber
stecl,
are ke s of
aeroofs. rain, porioo mtels bean
types the the steel, door, beam termed vrious
levels framed
mainly sheeting sun,
topmost of
covering re md
building, of wind,
main of stone or nd
3 structure
used etc tiles, wall commonly ny
alwys
slabs
loor types slabs, p
are and othT in
factory in froast, over to
slate, the of of
the the
 3) roof
Flat2)
Shells
1) The|6.9.1 "
Pitched (SeeTruss. The Basic
roof
and Classification Fig.supporting
is The Civil
or
classified
Domes sloping 6.9.1 truss and
on
structural Mechanical
may
roof into next
ofpage.) be Wall
three made Wall
Roofs element
Wal
Engineering
types by
wooden in
- the Reinforcement
Concrete
lintel
(d) usually
NICAL
roof Steel
lintel(c) double
bolted UseT Timber
lintel(b) Winows
door or
or
provided Stone
lintel(a) Window
dooror
of opening Elevation opening
metals. is single
ONS- known Fig.
6.8.1 or
as
Types
An 6-8
up 6) 5) Durability
4) and 3) 2) Wall
thrust 1)6.9.2 of
Wall
for
intenance
edge
Easyclimatic
conditions. the system
Economical It Good Strength

for
can
should
lintels
withstand
Requirement
sound,
HHH Wal

rain be and
and water heat stability thikness
Wall
water. good in Section
at suitable tight and super
low appearance. of Lintel
fire
imposted of embedded my
be
section
Steel"I"
cost. type structure roof Good R.block
C.C. concrete in
Bol
resistance
of should Roof
roof with dead
Engineering
StruchureCivil
depending proper capacity. and be
adequate
live
ramos
load.
upon so
it

kota
etc. " the "II
Timber
floor 6) 5) 4)floor
Tiled 3)
floor
Brick 2) 1)
rolowing 6.10.1 materials The 6.10Flooring/Floor
top
occupants
Cement Tar Murum upper of is
Types floors
plinthhorizontal
AuCis c vila
and like storey. to
concrete sand or are shahbad are whereas use. and l
mud the of Monitor
truss span
10.5 m Mechanical M
Floor then Thesurface span75m span4.5 m
floor types
floor floor tiles,
covered slab floor
of ofprovided North
truss
light
Engineering
(Rural floor masoic for
oneground truss
Fan
at by
area)ground tiles, floor
different in
ECHNICAL granite, acts
storey every
tlo0r span
13.5 m
-10.5 spr m
6
as is truSS
Fink
Fig.
UBLICATIONS marble, types generally room
floor
span
m
6.9.1
of for for -
Types
An 6.0
up
thrust The b) of
boardFaves
for Reinforcement 4)floor3) 2) building
Timber 1) -
Following trusses
typical Brick Floors RCC
krowiedo
North
RC.C or of slab re
Fig. for
concrete steel floor span light
floor the
6.10.1 trusscouple Elevatlon
isjack joist type upto Plan
Paters
(Fig.
R.C.C R.C.C.
slab Flooring shown of 5.5 yRigo
pieca
arch 6.10.1) upper mn
floor in roof
Fig. floor floor -Boarding Engineering
StructuresGil
6.10.1. in plate Wal!
mulistored
-Beam
 2) 1) Basic
stains
Rust 7) 5) 3)Following
Efflorescence plaster3) Lime "
4)
Gypsum Lime " 2)
plaster Following
" as plaster:
Cement
" 1) " matix
The "
construction 6.10.2
Peeling 1) mak1ng In
20 cement
plaster. Sometumes
plastering.water materia masonary
ofplastering) Plastering
exposed
Plastering
6.11
Blistering 6.11.2 PlasteT givingproportion
or sand LimeThickness 6.11.1 casy to It FlOor
repair. OCcuring Civü
mm which should Function
mortar as proofing and
Defects plaster
fine depending the Types
are with should
are ofapearance and suface is due Mecharúcal
of mortar the some be
of the paris aggregate
is the the of
plaster used
mixtue of
is : cement
cement types compounds appropriate finegiving
defects, casy to
offer
defects in on
of filler process
of
its
of
for Engineering
Plaster to at
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6.12.1 area Area from area. area is Area are avoided in or
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6.12.1Ex. Acontroled.be By " built

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pe Plot bult al
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TECHNICAL Dec..14.
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of bridge
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6-15

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6.15.2 source
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6-21

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Ans. : Q.4
Following
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1) King i)
O.3

: Garden Rat
Stretcher
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v)bond
vii) English facingiv) ji)
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masonary
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chamfered
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masonary Ans. : Q.2

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masonary
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a.1
Uncoursed
Coursed
fol owing Ans. : 620 Civil
least The freeuniform
The areBrick which Two
Write Define
used
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twobrick frombrick sound,
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e
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in
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the
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Marks
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masonary Engineering
be shape.
be
should
of
end ?
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vi) bond iv) bondiü) types
the Header
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requirements good
utilise brick name of can and
band (CR)
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L in ?
water bricks different
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compact goodof masonary a
S for which piece in ?
with closer brick
at of as
6-23

An
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ust v) iv)Tiled
flooring iüü)Brickiü)
flooring flooring
Ground
i) A) 5) 4) 3) 2) 1) vi) V) iv)
structure
for
Timber
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marble
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bond.
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point. The beds In
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ge or takes gives supports
takes Column brick
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floor and classification
floors. of
compound by : : in
such : the
concrete are is It It framed the : It
various compressive
is
tensile
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3) wall and the
vertical for is
etc.
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to the asand support is the course
frogs the
hoizontal the the lintel
occupants
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flooring flooring the always structure. vertical
portion horizontal transverse
load brick
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ike wall
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 and
Mechanlcal Engineering
Civil d
Civil Engineering Struchure Rusie
6-25
621
|Unlversity Questlons with Answen
6-24
Basic Civil and Mechanical Engineering
bridge
i) Fixed span Dec. - 2014 State the
Cvl Engineering Structures
bridge
B) Upper floors ii) Movable span
bridge floor : What are
the factors
influencing selection ofVarla steous forpottsadam.to be considered for the
i)) RCC slab floor According to position of the (Secton 6.142)
i) Floors of steel foist, flagstones and concrete
B)
i) Deck bridge
, dams ? Explain with
of dam.
neat
diagram anyseleonectontypeof [12)

6.141 May -2016

ii) Timber floor i) Through bridge (Section 6.14.2 and Fig. 0.
and Fig. 6.14.2) Sketch nd the
iv) Brick or conrete arch floor. iüi) Semi through
bridge
0.7
brdge. (Sectoeplatn
n 6.133) various parts of a deck
What are the types of roofs are used in building supports : May - 2015 Compare the brick and stone
0.7
C) According to the
construction ?
i) Simple supported
bridge
Compare the
brict
masonary with. stone
(Secton 6.19 (1) masonarie.
Ans. : Following types of roofs used in building bridge masonary
construction : ii) Continuous support (Section 6.19 (1)) Dec. -2016
iii) Cantilever bridge "un neat sketches, eplain the
i) Pitched or sloping roof Dec. - 2015 different types of
to the formation of bonds used tn brick work
iü) Flat roof D) According super Compare the brick maSonary with stone
(Secton 63.2) [18]
structure :
ii) Shells and domes 0.3 (Section 6.19 (1) masonary. May- 2017
i) Beam bridge
Q.8 Write the types of plasters
iü) Girder bridge What are the components of a bridge 2 Difjaentlate: Composle masonary and composite
Ans. : Following are the types of plasters based on (Section 6.13.3) structure (Secdon 6.19 (2) 5
iü) Truss bridge Q10 DIfrentlate : Sone and brlck masonary.
material used for plastering:
i) Cemernt plaster iü) Lime plaster iv) Arch bridge (Section 6.19 (1)
v) Suspension bridge
iü) Gypsunm plaster iv) Plaster of Paris (POP)
the material used for
v) Stucco plaster. E) According to
construction of bridge :
Q.9 Define following terms
i) Carpet area i) FSI (loor space index) i) Cement concrete bridge
iüi) Floor area iv) Built up area. ii) Prestressed concrete bridge
Ans. : ii) Steel bridge
i) Carpet area : It is actual usable area of floor.
It excudes kitchen, bathroom, Varandau, wall iv) Masanry bridge
thickness, open space. v) Timber bridges
ii) FSI Cfloor space, index : It is the ratio of vi) Composite bridges.
built up area to the plot area. Q.11 Gives classification of dams.

FSI =
Built up area Ans. : Following are the types of dams
Plot area
A) Based on the function of dam:
ii) Floor area : It is the usable covered area of i) Storage dam i)Diversion dam
the building at any floor level.
iü) Deterntion dam iv) Debris dam
Floor area = Plinth area - Walls
v) Coffer dam
iv) Built up area : It is the area covered by all B) Based on structure and design :
floor in the building. It includes everything
covered under roof. i) Rock fill dam ii) Gravity dam
iü) Earthen dam iv) Arch dam
Built up area = Carpet + Walls
v) Buttress dam vii) Steel dam
Q.10 Write the ypes of bridges.
viü) Timber dam
Ans. : Following are the types of bridges :
A)Accoding to flexibility of super structure :
lor koowledge
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