111 •• 111 l!I Uhl I I 1t JI \ I UN 1HN •1111 111 '1!

ml '7
11 I N 11 : 1117 1111 ,, 111 ,1111 I l ll [Link]

~ Db,,J(.:r~
Roll• of Biomass for Sustainable Energ y ~ ~
Soluf ion in India ·

Ku11 tal J u11a, l'i11ukcswu r Mu hunlu a nd Sud i1>la De

Abstract lkfo11,; tlw mining or fossil fue ls, biomass was Lhc main source of energy mm
101 healing and cooking including hol fuel gas proclucliun. Wilh rapid induslrial-
ualion and use of fossi l fuels wilh high caloriric values, use of biomass decreased
,arid ly. I lowi;ver, in the. present context or both climate change and energy secu-

• y

I ll
II I ity, i111po1tanci; of biomass is regaining as a suslainablc energy solulion. Life cyck
or CO., 1..,lllission du1111g Lhe secondary energy production from biomass is lesser
Lhan lhal of Lhe fossil fuels. 1L is even negalivc, say for bioenerg} wilh cmbon
11 <.:apture. Biomass with good calorific value is abundantly available in countries ,,ith
ll rapidly i11cr1,;w,ing energy demands like lnclia, China, Brazil. Utilizalion or biomass
IJ lllay incrcas<.! energy access in rural i.u-eas and long-term energy securil} in India.
'~ I l ow1,;vt:r, propeI selection of biomass, their logistics, and conversion pathways will
JI play an impo1 lanl role. Sustainabi lily or the biomass-based energy system should be
11, .isscsscd for its rulure feasibi l ity. I n lhis chapter, ro le of biomass for sustainable
17 energy is ass<.!SS<.!d specifical ly for I ndia. Present challenges of energy generalion are
Ill reviewed. J\ vai lahility or different types of biomass and logislics are explored.
,, Tlwn. vw ious possible conversion lechnologies for Lhe conversion or biomass for
20 fut:ls, clcct1icity are discussed. Possible energy 'iystem design for biomass mputs
l I including direct Iii ing, co-firing, gasificalion and polygeneration arc discussed in
J1 this chaplc1. Sustainabili ty assessment of lhese energy systems is discu'iscd in this

• 21

,~
dwplc1. J<'inal ly, challenges and prospecls related lo biomass-based distributed
c11c1gy solution are prt:'icnted.

Kcyword8 Hiomass • B iofucls • Bioenergy · India · Susrninabilily

~~ - J;111a • I'. Malw111:1 (~ )

c c 11 11c for J:nl'igy, Indian J11stitu1c of Technology Guwahati , Guwahati 781039, India
e 1nnil ; p111al ((.'. 1i1g.c1m:[Link]

l'. Mah:111ta
l>cp,11I111ct1I ol M1.:ch:111ical Engincc, ing, Indian lns1i1u1c or Tech no log)' Guwahat 1,
< ,uwalwti 781 O'.l<J, India

S. IJe
I )cp;111111c111 ol Mcch:1111cal E11gi11cc1 ing, Jadavpm University, Kolkata 700032. India
207
' Splingcr N,1lurc Singapore Ptc Ltd. 20 l 8
A . <,uu1:u11 cl .ii. (eds.), S111wi11oblt! /;11crg1• and Tm111portalio11.
l·ncrgy. l:nvi1rn1111c111, and Su~tuim1hih1y,
1111 ps://doi .(It g/ I 0. I007 /978 -981 - l () . 7 5()9-4_ I 2
 -
1 Introduction

nd of India I [Link] n.e to mamta.m the prese

the energ~ demand and dean and afti rclab e e
pee fi ., m rura1 areas. are the maJor challences lo pol C}
ese challenges. global ,, amung due to climate chan=e I an ther en c
SOC1 ted \\ ith energ) sector. As energ} seclor of India i e
dependent on coal and oil. energ} supply is highl) carbon mten e He ce.
reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emis<::ion 1s a challengin= ta,k for India as
oommmed in Paris climate accord (COP2 l) (U NFCCC _ 5 . As India mo,tl~
depends on fossil re,ources in ::,pite of limited re,ene offo§iJ -.esources m ,tl) od
and gas). energJ securil) of India is \\eak in a longer ume frame. In case of
cransportation fuel. India i::, high)~ dependent on imported crude oil. In 1011-l~.
1mpon of crude oil ,,as 171.729 chou::iand tonnes. Hen .. e. ~igniiicant amount of
financial burden and insecurit) due to geopolitical i::isue::. become baniers to India·,
SU5tainable energ} future.
Biomass ma} pla} an imponant role in chi, regard. Plenl) of under-utilized or
e, en unuti]ized biomass is a, ailable in India. Utilization of biomas, as en~rg~
resource ma} be a sustainable energ) ,olucion •c:- I:--dia. In rural am. -e--:me ...rea,
v.-here grid connecti\ity is not economicaH} 1e...,1b:e or geographi .. ~... fr ..., .~ e.
energy S)Stems "ith locally available b1oma,, become, an effecth e --~ .... ~ ... n.
Hence, it increases energ) acce~~ leading co better energ) ,ecuri~ of tbe ,.._ --al ;r-.
A biomass is considered as carbon neutral fuel. energ) ,uppl) b) u,ing biomas, . ,
le carbon intensive than fos::iil [Link] :-.) ::item:). Apan from electricit~. l°'!c-m ......
also provides panial solution for transportation fuel need. Altemati\ e foe-~ , .... t: ...~
biodie~e], bioethanol, mixed alcohol. bioga-. can be prodt•ced from d;.:~.~n. b,0-
mass to replace conventional die~el and ga ... oline. This inc1e.1, ~-. e,en:: . , e~u:-ir, of
the country and simultaneously reduces the carbon footprint .J1 rr~.;1,;~~ , ;?ct~r.
1-rom lechnology develo pment 10 suppl) chain logbtic ... , there .t,e ,n .. ;i:. chal-
lenges assocrnted with successful deployment of bioenerg). Promotion o · , t, , ta:-i-
able bioenergy thmugh tethnology de, clopment and policy making 1e,h. !, to
long-term energy sustai nabili ty of a counll). 1l prO\ ides acce-.s to secured L',e.1n
n r 'Y for a sustaina ble future.

2 C'h a llcn~cs and Policies

l:-..co11or11y <J I India is g,owing last. As a ,esull, demand of second al) energy is
inc reasi ng rapi d ly 10 meet this economic grow th . D uring the }ear 20 15116, the
shortage of electrici ty was 2. 1% ~1nd th e peak defici t was 3.2% (CEA 2016). Hence.
f,J
capacity addition is required to m eet the enc rg} de mand . Inclu sive grow th and
b4
access to energy for all arc an o the r c hallenge to the po licy maker. More than 230
 Houk 10 J~50{tl I t n llook ISllN 97H-9HI-J0-750ll-7
~ l.J1}1,ul I I Stnndord
( >11Tc ff•I 1•2017 Time 9;.10 nm Pa&:C' 20?/BI
~ Ch 1r1cr No 12

for Sustainable Energy Solution in India 209

Role of 810111:.iss

million of
"~ million people have no access to electric ity in the India. Howev er, 841
cookin g (IEA 2015). As
<,6 popula tion of India rely on traditio nal use of biomas s for
g is needed
&7 cookin g by combu stion of biomas s is detrime ntal to health, clean cookin
burning of solid fuels.
oil through various options like LPG, electric ity or improv ed
depend s
&q Energy security is another signific ant challen ge for India. India strongl y
ed in the previou s
10 on importe d crude oi l. Domest ic product ion of oil and gas decreas
antly to
,1 year (i.e., 2015/1 6). On the other hand, import of crude oi I increas ed signific
needs to search for an
n 199 million tonnes in 2015/1 6 (MoPN G 2016). Hence, India
on importe d
,J altemat i ve option to replace the petrole um to reduce the depend ency
to replace impotte d oil.
;4 oi l. Fuel from biomas s may be a promis ing option
growin g
-5 Greenh ouse gas emissio n associa ted w ith energy sector is another
2016). As
76 concern regardi ng surviva l of life on earth due to global wam1in g (IPCC
sector is
n coal contrib utes to the maximu m power generat ion in India, Indian power
tion of
;5 highly carbon intensiv e (MoSP I 2015). On the other hand, due to combus
the coal is
19 foss il oil, transpo rt sector is also highly carbon intensiv e. Alterna te to
e eo possibl e by harness ing suitable renewa ble energy. Biofuel can be an
option to
81 reduce the carbon intensit y of transpo11 sector.
India has
ai To promot e renewa ble energy and bioener gy, the Govern ment of
ication and
51 adopted several policies for renewa ble energy, rural electrif
follows :
84 biomas s-based project s (TERI 20 I 6). Most signific ant of those are as
based
85 Nationa l Biofuel Policy: in this policy, focus for biofuel produc tion is
the resi-
86 on feedsto cks withou t affecti ng the food security , i.e. mainly from
s
87 dues of forest and agricul ture, molasse s, etc. ln this polic), farmers , landles
d..
88 laboure rs are encoura ged to underta ke plantati ons that provide the feetlsto
s.
89 for biofuel. Financi al incemi ves are also require d to promot e biofuel
90 Researc h, demons tration and develop ment will be support ed for all aspects
91 of biofuel through this policy.
is for
91 jJJ) Nationa l Biogas and Manure Manag ement ProgramtE,e: this scheme
rban
9J selling -up of family- type biogas plants, mainly for rural and semi-u
househ olds.

•
'H
d the
'IS (iii)Nationa l Biomas s Cooksr ove Program me: the govern ment launche
Nati onal Biomas s Cookst ove Program me for implem entation in the Twelfth
g are
97
Five-ye ar Plan period. In thi s policy, cooksto ves for clean cookin
98 develo ped and promot ed.
the electri-
9'1 (iv) The Govern ment of India has launche d vruious program mes for
Mantri
100
fication or rural areas in the country , includi ng the Pradha n
Program me
101
Gramo daya Yojana in 2001/0 2, Accele rated Rural Electrif ication
One
10J
in 2003/0 4 and Accele rated E lect1ification of One Lakh Village s and
HI) Crore Hou seholds in 200-l/05.
usage of
104 (v) Rural Electrif ication Polic), 2006: this policy promot es the
here central ized
105
renewa ble technol ogies for e lectrific ation in remote areas \\
g ritl connec tion is not technic ally or financia lly feasible.
 larwtard 11,1 Ill ll<W,I I I" /J,,,1: mm n ~-~ij , . J11-1<11~1

12 I) H-11 -1017 ftfJIC' ,, '41 lflll l'•t• l JJJ/23 1

2 10 K. fana et al.

l ahh• I Ccntr.1 1 fin. 111cial assi~1ancc and fi scal inccn1i vcs for biomass power project and bagasse
co gcner::i111111 prnJcds CMNRE 20 1(,,1, hJ

PmJCCt type
....-----------
Capital subsidy Capi tal subsidy
Spec ial cutcgory states (nor1h-cust Other stales
region , Sikkim, J&K, I IP :ind
Ullarnnchal)
--, ----,
Biomass po\\cr Rs. 2.5 million / (cupacity in MW) Rs. 2.0
(lffiJCCls (maximum support of Rs. 15 million million / (capucity
per project) in MW)
(maximu m support of

Bagasse co-gcnerat1<>11
by pnvate sugar rmll s
Rs. l .8 million / (capacity in MW)
(maximum support of Rs. 15 million
·I
15 mill ion x (capacity
Rs. 15 mill ion per
pmjectJ
Rs.

per project) in MW)

(max imum support of
Rs. I 5 mi ll ion per
L projec t)
/Jo a e co-gweraiirm proJel/1 by coopera1ive/public sec/Or r111-:ar mills ;;;,he mre r,fper MW
01 urpftu f)(JttPr (maximum 111ppor1 Rs. 60 million per pmjec1)
4
o bar a ~ vc / Rs. 4.0 mi~ _-_-........
~...._---......:._ _,..~4.0 mill ion
(iJ b;ir and abovc=if {s. 5.0 million _ ___ Rs. 5.0 million - - - -
U h;ir :ind .ibovc '{ 6 < • .
•· s. >. I mrllion ~ Rs. 6.0 milli on I
( v1) Remote Villaoe J·le ·t ·i· , • . . .
. . c ~ c n 1cat1on P1E&_rammc: this programme 1s Ior ba"i 1C
l1gh11n 0 lacdJlie,; ·
1
• . . - .
• . . in un-e 1ectnfied villages and hamlets that are not 111duded
m th e 1{.iJJV . C,andhi Gir,unecn
, v·tdyut1karan
· Yojana (RGGVY). Prc"ie ntl y, ·11
1 dH,C<JJ1t111ucd and . .
y 0 ,311 a (l)IJIU(' • a new scheme: 'Dccndayal Upadhyaya G1.11n Jyoti
J dY) has started.
Io pro,m,tc bio111a,s-h·1scd .
policy r,, 1 . • power and co-gcncralion the Govc111111cn1 or Indi a
, 111anc;1al ti~ [Link] . I . . , , . . ,
proJ t m Jill . cc .tn( rnccnllvcs. fhc amount of -;ulrnd y frn thest:
crcnr f'lwtcs rs • • . , • .
me tax IJoJ,da . . given rn the 1 ahlc I. Apart Jrom t11e"ic subs1d1cs,
ys £.:once1uoou 1111 · · I
th Govcmm •111 f .' excise duty , exernption in sales I.i x arc avad:1h c
Q Jm.1,a.

J
Biomass aR P,
I ,her~y l{csourcc

grctttcsr s11111cc•·' 11 I c11ergy 111

. till' fo11ns
. . I 1·1 . , ·t •
of food , Iuc , 1 Jlt: t.: c.
l:01) klltg Ill
I .
Inc I' iou~el,olds, as low-cost llrnh111g ,nale1 ials, cl c 111
re cutly th• , . , ,. · •
el frou b' ' c go,d 1s lo p1odt11.:c -;cconda1y ent:1gy, 1.c .
I ' al , roma , c..l lie• 10 Iowcr cw 1>011 emission compared to f O\S•.I I
(I ' , a gOO(J ou
1 et I 2
a IJl4J. rec of lucl 1·01• (tstn)Uted1· ·1 · ·1n 1u1.t•· I '·1r"•·1s 1
energy \Olutron '·
 I '1<1 ....

., l~l II \11 I 11111'1

I,, I nh1t11111 Ill 1!11h

l hh , I I I \ ro• 11111I H I 111 \ ( ~11[1

J''''"'""
l I 11,1 \Vorltl
North Arll I
I I tttl.t\
' ,_. fl ,

~~ e_:,!>1. J I 111npc
J\ D fl I 1ft
\i',R
\6 1l G.-

'l11cnrc11cnll) , 1he l"te111, ,,I ul luon1nss 1, h"1•e, thnu gli 'I u,,~fl rYon • the potcnl1 al
is d,O,cult due t" ,nany unswhle 11:u,u,icteos, Cnmplcx nature ,f lnoma proJuc
uon. w11u11lll« "I I'" ,111,·t in11. v:u yiII g p1"' lucll vi ty rate, wJde mn •e <>I con vcr u,n
tcdmnlngic,. ccolngical, sodul :uni ,na11y othc• par.11nc1i:r 1m1ke ti dtff1cult to
c,t i1na1c 1he I111 u, c pote111 ia I ol hirn nass ( Rosi l\o C'ul le ct aI. 2(107 J, Al o, depend, ng
on the ,.,c,n•«"'" uni<' com ht iun ol local people, av ailah IIi Iy may vary. In tl eory,
01~1 l!.I ol cnc1gy can he h:uvested lrom ag1icuHurnl lnml w11hout affe1.1mj1hc (i,od
''!EJ/1) ol tlicwo1ld (F:mij cl ai:'21102). Ua11c11 ct al. (21M'4) estima1cd ,he pntcnual of
residue, Im energy prmluc11m1 :is givc11 in 'l'uhlc 2. It " not«! that igniftcant
amounl of energy can he ohtaincd from hirnnuss residues. f lence, hiomas ha the
potential tn he a significant energy resource all over the world.
Min•"'Y of New and Renewable Energy CMNRb) of Government of India
assessed the potential ol biomass for energy production in India. About 32'1< of
country's primary energy demand is met by hiomas<. More than 70'% population of
India depcndscmmmnas~f<;.-CnCTgy nceus11minly for cooldn_g_ and" lieaOng.
According lO M~R-~. estimated production of hi~rnas"i in India i'i about~) mi.!!!£n
lnnne:. pl!r year. 1Iowcvcr out of this, 120-1 SO mil lion tones of biomass 1c; surplus.
Tliis'moma-:.s may bl!utili1cil for !.cconuary'cnergy production in thecountry. B~
utilizing [Link] biornas:., 18,000 MW power can be produced and 7000 MW of
CO•[Link] by ~,in)0sugITTCUOc h,;gasse is possible (MNRE ·2016a. b). siaU:-"i;,
4A
potenual of hUrplus biomas!( and haga.-.sc-based co-generation is ,;,hown in Fig. 1.
1-rom the figure, it is noted that 1hc maximum power and co-gener,tion can be
obtarne<l from the !.late of Punjab, [Link] and Uftar Pradesh. Thi.-. is due to
maximum, 11 avar·1 ab'I'
1 1ty o1· aitrn;ulturnl
· residue and ba,£._asse from~ugar mill'> in the..e
- --
!ales.
'loull\11,etheexit' .., mg potent1.1'•I o fh'1oencrgy MNRE• has targeted to comm1'is1on . .
m , :
around 10 {}()() MW 0 1 , . power genern11on. by 2022.
• The region•"'ise target is ,hov.n
fr 1 ig. 2· I he lll'IXIIOU ' m ,,,wer 'is to he generated Jrom , northern re•1on• and then
ener
om '[Link] re,· g,ou. A part [rum power, biogas may also be a good o ,;ource of
Manu,eIor M cool . mg 01 com • 1>US11on
. engme
. 1 he target of the National Bioga.s and
I""' hold,8nugemem l,,c [Link]
'. "to
. set up b1oga,
. plant for rural and sem1-uiban
.
lhe 111 ,ut to LI all7 availahle <ligc,lible binma,, like co" dung. kitchen waste is
pl illl\ 11 tset u,,11st h1oga, ill·ant for unaerobic dige!'-.tion. In this programme. biogas
may be use~ ai. of·provide fu c·I I or clean cooking and lightin° and dioested slurry
Ill en, [Link], A. lota I ?f 4.75 million hiogas plants
\all"'.'. ,.,1i 3Un.ini4
ac\iiev c have c::already t,een
crnenl as on M Ill lmlia. '11lc slate-wise potential and cumulative
arch 2015 0 I number of biogas plants are shown in Fig. 3.
 ·~

I II. I II I
 ·-
t:,;; ,

\\ h. ·" -' .- , I'

,.,_. , xh , ,'
' ,, ,,
,, l'h\
\h,, n
"' ,\¾ .'t
,\\ ,,\\th
u, ,,, .-,m ,,, u,., ,, ,, "'l''·", n. m ,, ,h, ,, I

l.,h,ht, \ I ,1 " · ' ' ' In \ "· , \. "'', \

l )qX'lh ' "'lll,'\' ph, st, \\ \lhl
I ,.uupl ~ p,, ,,t \,1,,m ''" "
nm,,, l~,,, ,\ ,'lh, , "' -..h'm ,I, l'•'li.b ,,n th,
,,m,h, lu I,,M. ,, 1h.-1 '"',"""'",,I p1\1\~ Hh, ,11
,\I\ ,\lh' I\I lh
, , 1th II\ ).\,\\~ \ l\'I'" ,,
I sll,\\\ l\l,~ l'\ ('l ,, HI lh, \ lh 1111\ll 11
l\l 'I' H\\lh ,1,,11,1t,,lth1t
e [Link].l)t: , 1 1, nt h1,lm ,,, , \f\ \\Ith th, 1-,,111, n '"'"'·'''
8
·1..~... [Link],J~, l.,-s
P.>.~I~')
 l~ I I I\ , I 11 !i1A11,, • .,,
'h I N 11
HI I 1W. I I I
~ II I '
1 I I

'1 4

~ Ru~~'S"· ~,'uf)S
- - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - '

•l ,11 d1111 I l\

. ,.. "i\gr\N,il\ifi,, Wi\~ll' 1

• H11..l 11 ,,1 \\ Ill II II 111 uiu,n\11 lillt I 11. hll k
~~ - - - - ~- - ~ - - - ------==-=-

M1ii\k\i)\\I !iollil ,,·,,st\!

--=- - -- - --=---==- - - - - . = - , - _- -_ ._ _

Fi~. 4 1 )-pl'S 111 hinmass 11.',11\11\:l''i n\ .11t.1hl,' 111 11111111

Tahh.• I h \.' l l\11 1 dt l.' 11111.:,11 \. " ·" ,l1..l l' II Sll1' 111 ,,•h, 1t.:,l l•111111,1ss ,\ \ 111\.,1, t-.1 d
Sug.11\.'illll' R1, ,, !i h ll\\
~, \li)\\I\

\\ h, " l1111hpms ,~h-1. \\l\111\

hagas..,.-

•
( \\ l'.llh\.'t~ , I) I I\\ 1111,\..
"'' \ll,.
ll igh\.'1
ca lrnih\.'
\ ,lltl\.'
11.n I I 'i<1 17 'Ii I 11) 4i \n l \' ~'
( t-. 1.1/kf)
I \) \\ ll ICI 2•1 '"I 7<1 I~ ,,
I <1 41>
'' '
I
' \.) 1\'
l,ll n11hl.!
, ah11.
( l\lJ kg )
ll' I
I '· ~ '
I l) :',
I X' '11) h,
\ C l\t 7 \7 ':'. <•LI I XI ,p (\11 ,:,; \\\
\ ,h 11 .27 24, 1() <,
C 44,°XO q (,
I\
,:1')1\ ,,,' ' •)' ' 'S,,
1\ ~\
II 5. ' 'i 1.,n ,.oo 'X
() '\\) Ill 4' \) '"'
·\ l)f\\ ,, ~,'
,,~, ,,
1', II <1I II ,,1 \\ 4,
n II
" ,,
I) 1\1 I) \\\ \

Cl ti 'X 11 I'\ 1\ li,; \

.\,h I 1 <11) H
I)
' \ 'S '

IR 5 A vailahility and 1 og1"tks of Bimnu,~

180
Hioma,, is ,m1.' ,)f the m1>st ab1111d,1n1h '" ,11l,1l 1k "''11\1\''\:' H\ ""'' \ \ ' ' ' \
long-nm <1th.'1at k,n , :\\ ail,1h1ht, ,111d 11,gP, th.::s 1 ll 111,,m.1,, ,\Ii,\\\,\\\\ \\ \\ \\ \\
l'litl Bionrnss fwl\l 1.11,p p1, ,du~1,,,11 ,, ,,Ill' ,,t lhv grc,1h.~\l ~, \ti\\~\, , \\ "-'" '" \'\,m,lH;,•
1•11
of bi1Hll,lss h., ... ~d p,,,jccl ., ... l l\l \ in r ,,hlc "I l\ •"'~' " ''' '""'' \lh '""' ,,
lfll
und eLillog 1c.1I h.1l ,1th.'C. 111\\\ 1. , , , tlh' ·11111\1111 1 ' 1 1 h. \\l\hh\'- \\i' 1 \h '
I'll
1.;,roppl'd :11~., and 11.•sid 11c ~ icld .1, "I"'" I\ 111 1 1 1 (I' \\ 1 11.\" hk \ \' 1 '' \'
l \!4
nf d1tfe~111 nop, i-. ,l\i l \\ n in h g. ~., . 11 1, 111111.: 1\ ihu, 11m , 1\\\\.\\\\ \\\ \\ '- \ '
 I I

I II
'"'
'J I

I
1/✓ l•!il
lflJill
f t1lilll
l(A II
I I
I

II

I ii;. 5 i• l' r 111.1 '"' of w l11r 1IIJ'I

J, Jir 11lu, )'I Id (f/lHIJ 111 lnom

p 1dd y aud wli •;11 I J1;nci;, enc, Lem d I II /Jlh H

.irn.l wheal ,,,, NIii he 11ahlc ,PIUW111 f
,1h,l1ty 111 due yield of Hl11:1JI
1cp1 • t.:llWI h1lw11 H1 I W ~
i rc1J1 h11111 y 11111:itcd

~ l<c 1du 1,r1,duc11 1 >11 l'c 1du y, Id/ '"' "ropped'

s,m lndrn
~I IIC 1,rodu"'' rnwm 11f Im
ll 4 , t , I(
t, J ll I r
lf1fllllfn I r,ro lu~ d p ·, y ,., 111d out of th· I H
If IJ11 ,11),l Ac'-'ord111, lo th M1111 try of
CMN l<L) of Jmh 1, 11111,11 d J u1c1111,1l ,,f hmm t f)( ,c