Detailed Notes on UNIT I: Fundamentals of Process Control
1. Components of Process Control Loop
A process control loop regulates a process to maintain desired conditions. Key components
are:
1. Sensor/Transducer: Measures the process variable (e.g., temperature, pressure).
2. Transmitter: Converts the sensor's output into a standardized signal (e.g., 4-20 mA or 0-
10 V).
3. Controller: Compares the measured value with the setpoint and generates a control
signal.
4. Final Control Element: Typically a valve or motor that adjusts the process based on the
controller's signal.
5. Process: The system or equipment being controlled (e.g., a chemical reactor).
2. Examples of Process Loops
- Temperature Control Loop: Used in furnaces or water heaters. A thermocouple measures
the temperature, and a PID controller adjusts the fuel flow to maintain the desired
temperature.
- Flow Control Loop: Controls the flow rate of liquids or gases. A flowmeter measures flow,
and a valve adjusts the flow.
- Level Control Loop: Maintains the level of a liquid in a tank using a level sensor and control
valve.
- Pressure Control Loop: Regulates system pressure using a pressure transmitter and a
control element like a valve.
3. Process Variables
These are the parameters controlled in a process:
- Measured Variable (MV): The parameter being measured (e.g., temperature).
- Manipulated Variable (MV): The parameter adjusted to control the process (e.g., valve
position).
- Setpoint (SP): Desired value of the measured variable.
- Disturbances: External factors that affect the process (e.g., heat loss).
4. Signal Line and Instrument Symbols
- Signal Line Symbols:
- Solid line: Mechanical connection.
- Dashed line: Electrical signal.
- Dotted line: Pneumatic signal.
- Instrument Symbols:
- Field Instruments: Circle with a tag (e.g., “T” for temperature, “F” for flow).
- Control Room Instruments: A circle inside a square or hexagon.
- Field and Control Room Areas:
- Field Area: Close to the process, where sensors and actuators are located.
- Control Room: Houses controllers, indicators, and displays for monitoring.
5. Standard Signals and Their Need
Standard signals ensure compatibility between devices:
- 4-20 mA: Commonly used because:
- 4 mA represents the minimum value (live zero).
- 20 mA represents the maximum value.
- 0-10 V: Voltage-based signal.
Live and Dead Zero:
- Live Zero: Non-zero minimum value (e.g., 4 mA) to detect faults like wire breaks.
- Dead Zero: Zero output represents the minimum value.
6. Process Characteristics
- Process Equation: Relates input and output variables of a process. Example:
Q = UA(Ti - To), where Q = heat transfer rate, U = heat transfer coefficient, A = surface area.
- Capacity: The ability of a system to store energy or material. Example: A tank's capacity
affects how quickly it responds to changes.
- Self-Regulation: The ability of a process to return to equilibrium without external control.
Example: A flow system with a constant pressure head.
- Control Lag: Time delay between a change in input and its effect on the output.
- Process Lag: Inherent delay due to the system's physical properties (e.g., thermal inertia in
heating).
7. Distance/Velocity Lag (Dead Time)
- Distance Lag: Time taken for a change in one part of the system to affect another. Example:
Time for heat to transfer through a pipe.
- Velocity Lag: Time taken due to the inertia of the system. Dead time can degrade control
system performance.
