CHAPTER 1

APPLAI
- WESTERN MOUNTAIN PROVINCE WHICH IS COMPOSED OF THE
MUNICIPALITIES OF BESAO, SAGADA AND PARTS OF SABANGAN, BAUKO
AND TADIAN.
ACTIVITIES:
- WET FARMING
- SLASH
- BURN AGRICULTURE
- CAMOTE FARMING
- TRADE
- HANDICRAFT
- WEAVING
- BAMBOO BASKET
- POTTERY
- RAISE FRUITS AND VEGETABLES
- DOMESTIC ANIMALS
DIVISION:
1. DAP-AY or ABONG
- place to meet and settle disputes, hold meeting and also serves as the center of all religious
rites.
2. AMAM-A (COUNCIL OF ELDERS)
- forms the decision-making body for the dap-ay
TWO SOCIAL CLASSES
1. KADANGYAN (The rich)
2. KODO (The poor)
The old folks of good standing of the community serve as the master of the ceremony for the
weddings, death or other community related affairs.
KABUNYAN
Known as the supreme being of the Applai.

THE BADJAO: NOMADS OF THE SEA

- The traditional lifestyle of the nomadic Badjao people is under threat from modernization
and overfishing.
- The Badjao are a sea-dwelling tribe, often known as the “Sea Nomads”, who have been
floating off the shores of Southeast Asia for centuries. As a nomadic tribe living in stilt
 huts or boat houses on shallow waters, they make their living from traditional free diving
for fish and pearls.
- As they belong to no official state and possess no official nationality, they find the move
from sea to land a challenge. Because of their nomadic lifestyle, the Badjao are at a
disadvantage with no schooling, healthcare or access to government-provided social
service
- In the process of adapting to a land-based life, their unique skills in free-diving, along
with their in-depth knowledge and understanding of the ocean, becomes much less
relevant.
- The younger generations have forgotten their ability to dive to the bottom of the reef and
walk on the bottom of the ocean.
- Many Badjao communities on land live in squalid settlements.
- Some Badjao, however, have managed to maintain a sea-faring life and preserve their
traditions in the solitude and liberty of living freely and independently on the sea, away
from the rules and restrictions that bind those who live on land.
- Some Badjao families fish and live on their handmade houseboats.
- Because the Badjao are nomadic, most children do not receive a standard education.
- The Badjao live on floating villages built in the shallow waters off the coast.
- In a stilt house settlement, a young Badjao man takes a morning wash.
- The Badjao living at sea are a stateless people and have no nationality.
- Modern means of entertainment are starting to find their way into Badjao communities.
Young Badjao enjoy a game of pool.
- The Badjao divers are taught how to dive from a young age and can manoeuvre at the
bottom of the sea with ease.
- Badjao divers at the coral reefs of Pulau Peleng, Indonesia.
- Larger fishing operations from the mainland and overfishing are threatening the
livelihood of the Badjao tribes.
- Many Badjao fishermen free-dive less and have adopted some modern fishing techniques
to catch more fish to sell to traders or land dwellers.
- The floating villages typify the nomadic Badjao communities.
- A Badjao man enjoys the afternoon on the front porch of his hut.
- A group of typical Badjao huts sit on a tiny sandbank off the coast of Borneo, Malaysia.
- The younger generation of Badjao are choosing to settle on land more and more
frequently, leaving behind an ageing community.

BAGOBO TRIBE
● Scattered throughout the Southern Philippine Archipelago slowly disappearing tribes
untouched by neither time nor colonization still exist in present time. Along the desolate
eastern coast of the Davao Gulf, centuries ago, new migrants mixed with the native
population, forming a new community that was given the name Bagobo.
● This tribe traces its origin from the people who brought Hinduism to Mindanao, its name
was derived from the words bago meaning new and obo meaning growth. Throughout
centuries a strong social structure has enabled these native groups to blend well with the
original population, retaining their indigenous customs, beliefs and values.
 ● This tribe traces its origin from the people who brought Hinduism to Mindanao, its name
was derived from the words bago meaning new and obo meaning growth. Throughout
centuries a strong social structure has enabled these native groups to blend well with the
original population, retaining their indigenous customs, beliefs and values.
● The Bagobo are by origin a nomadic tribe, they travelled from one place to the other by
hacking their way through the virgin forests.
● The Bagobo also believe in a supreme being who inhabits the sky world, as well as a
deity, a supernatural immortal being who will brings sickness and death to incestuous
couples.4 Mar 2010
PLACE OF LOCATION
-Mountains south and east of Mount Apo East of Cotabato
RELIGION
-indigenous
-christian
LANGUAGE
-bagobo (maanobo family)
POPULATION
-58,601 (1994)
HISTORY
-"bagobo" comes from "bago" meaning "new" or "recent", and "obo/obbo/uvu" meaning
"growth" or "grow"
ALSO KNOWN AS
-kulamanen
-manobo
-Manuvu
-matigsaug
-obo/obbo
-Tigwa-salug
-Guingan
-jangan
PHYSICAL APPEARANCE
-light brown in complexion
-hair brown or brownish black, ranging from wavy to curly
-men stand about 158 cm tall, the women 147 cm
-wide face but the chickbone are not prominent
•Eyes are dark and widely set, the eye slits slanting.
•Eyebrows are deliberately shved to a thin line
by both male and female.
•The root of the nose is low, the ridge broad.
• The lips are full, the chin rounded.
BELIEFS
•Hierarchy of God
• Rituals
• Diwata or Gods
• Pantheon of demons
Offering Paghuaga (human sacrifice)
NORMS
*The daily activities are marked by rituals.
•Do the harvesting
Offer areca nuts, betel leaves, food, clothing, and
brass instruments, all placed on special altars for
the blessing
MARRIAGE
•Parental Decision
Friendly Accommodation
•Symbol of Obligation
•Wedding Feast
-Commitment and Privilege
-Dowry Practices
BIRTH PRACTICES
Summons "Mabalian".
•Midwife Tokens.
Kill the Triplets Babies.
APPAREL/ ACCESSORIES
Cloth are made from Abaca
Men wear a close-fitting undershirt
Men have a hemp cloth bag
Men keep their log hair
Women wear close-fitting jacket
Women have bangs
VALUES
• Friendly – traders
• Industrious
• Obedient
ECONOMY
• The primary means of subsistence is swidden agriculture. Rice and corn are rotated.
• Other products are: copra, coffee and cacao, fruits, and vegetables.
• Trade has opened intertribal and interracia relations.
• Both men and women strip hemp for the abaca trade and for domestic purposes.
• Blacksmithing, house building, and the making of kitchen utensils like rice mortars and
meat blocks are done by the men. • The money economy, while decreasing the level of self -
sufficiendy, has helped improve production, transportation, and communication.

• Basketry is done by both sexes.

POLITICAL SYSTEM
• Mayor
• Vice - mayor with the assistance of the municipal council
• Barangay captain of the poblacion
• Sangguniang Bayan members
• Municipal development officer
• Municipal planning and development coordinator
Republic of the Philippines
• Province of Davao del Sur – Governor
• Municipality of Santa Cruz – Mayor
• Barangay – Brgy. Chairman
RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRACTICES
• Sibulan
• Paghunga (human sacrifices)
• Matanom and mabahan
• Gimukod
• Pakakalangit
• Karonaronawan (hell)
• Balatik
• Gallat/gelat
• Gatok - biaan or pakakaro
• Bagkes
• Langis
• Buwis (monetary tribute)
• Saksi (witnessing)
• Pangulo (priest minister)
ARCHITECTURE AND COMMUNITY PLANNING
• Basag (hardwood planks) hewn from the palma brava tree trunk.
• Biga (taro leaves) or bulig (banana lieaves)
• Tinatang
• Rekkbong (elevated firebox)
• Sikado (bamboo water containers)
• Betill (clothesline)
• Roko goli (rice or corn granary)
VISUAL ARTSS AND CRAFTS
• Traditional clothes and jewelry.
• Bagobo tie - dye abaca fibers in deep red, maroon, and black.
PERFORMING ARTS
• Tagungguan
• Mountainous region between the upper Pulangi and Davao rivers.
PRESENT DAY SOCIO - ECONOMIC STATUS
• Sweet potato
• Corn
• Bananas
• Sago
• Coconut
• Cassava cake in a bamboo
• Chicken in coconut milk meal
• Green vegie salaf for breakfast
• Chicken in the bamboo
CHAPTER 2
BALANGAO
With a population of 29,107 (1990) head count are sometimes referred to as Boliwons and are
the settlers of the Eastern Mt. Province, specifically the towns of Barlig, Natonin and parts of
Paracelis. Oral historians of the tribe claim that in the 17th century when the Gaddangs of
Cagayan revolted and lost against the Spanish colonizers, the Gaddangs fled to the mountains
and established settlements there. Added to the original inhabitants of the mountain, slopes and
river banks were the Gaddangs and migrations from the neighboring communities-the Ifugaos,
Kalingas, and Bontocs. Culture blending for centuries resulted in the present Balangao/Boliwon
ethnolinguistic group of tribe.
The Balangao dialect has dominant “ch,” “r,” and “f” sounds like the Bontoc. They have
similarities in characteristics and physical features with their neighboring tribes but not in their
beliefs, rituals, songs, and dances.
Balangaos had always been farmers and make quality bamboo/rattan craft. Weaving and
blacksmithing are their other crafts, including hunting, because in their areas there are still virgin
forests.
Some Balangaos migrated to the cities and mines to seek greener pastures, but their hometown is
still ili where they go home from time to time to meet their obligations as true Balangao sons.

BANTOANON/B’LAAN
The name Bantoanon comes from the island of Banton, where they llive, but some Bantoanons
came from the islands of Simara and Sibale. The mode of livelihood among the Bantoanons are
fishing, upland and lowland agriculture, trade and business.
To the Bantoanons, education is a very important aspect of life. They find ways and means to
acquire better education for a better living and they believe that hard work, perseverance, and
dedication will give them a better education.
The Bantoanons are a health-conscious people and most of them consider that “health is wealth.”
In addition, the Bantoanons of Romblon province are easily identified by their last family names
which usually start with the letter “F”. the Bantoanons speak a local dialect called Asi.
The B’laans are another pro-Malayan indigenous group found mostly in Davao Del Sur and
South Cotabato. The B’laans adhere to sedentary form of agriculture and engage in other
economic endeavors their subsistence and development. Although many have adapted the ways
of the modern Filipino and have been integrated into main body politic, they still believe and
practice their indigenous rituals and customs.
The B’laans observe certain rituals in their planting cycle. These rituals, they make offerings to
their deities requesting for signs to know where to best make a clearing for a particular planting
season.
The B’laans practice swidden agriculture. They grow rice, corn, sugarcane, banana, papaya, and
other root crops. Some of their crops are used as barter commodities in exchange for tools and
other utensils that they need.

BONTOC
The Bontocs Igorots (population 157,876) are found in the mountain province of the Cordillera
ranges. Their lifew, cultures, and personalities are profoundly motivated by the religious
practices and rituals which have a historical depth of religious legends and supernatural
traditions. Kinship among them serves both as a unifying and satisfying factor as illustrated in
the performance of rituals.
The costume of the people is simple. The men wear long strips of handwoven loin cloth called
wanes. The women wear a kind of wrap-around skirt called lufid.
Men have more authority in matters of the beliefs and practices of the community than women.
From birth to death, the Bontoc is sustained, guided, and molded by a tightly knit kinship
structure, a community discipline exerted by the oldest men of high social status.
Among the Bontocs, the cycle of their existence revolves around the Ato. It is the place where
the council of elders hold various ceremonies, meetings, and events. The Ato is also a public
structure used as dormitory by the bachelors, young boys, widowers, and the visitors to the
village. It serves also as gathering place where all the men of the village spend the rest day called
Tengao. It is here where their unwritten code of ethics was formulated. The code urges Bontoc:
To respect the properties of others for people must lead good, honest lives.
To be brothers to all men.
In past generations, the Bontocs were known as fierce head hunters. This common practice was
both duty and honor. Although they no longer practice head hunting, they still do today to
avenge the death of a fellow tribesmen.

BUGKALOT/ILONGOT
The Bugkalots are found in the provinces of Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Quirino and Aurora,
occupying no less than 62 widely scattered village-communities. Records reveal that the
Bugkalots arrived during the early part of our history. Presently, they inhabit the easterly central
part of the Carabalio and Sierra Madre Mountain rangers.
The Bugkalots subsist on the kaingin system of agriculture with root crops as their main product.
Their main occupation is hunting wild game in the forest and Conwap rivers. At the head stream
of the mighty Casecnan river is another group known as Italon tribe whose members are of
regular built and with Mongolian features such as narrow slanting eyes and aquiline nose. The
same characteristics are observed among the other groups known as Abacas, Tamsis, Dakgans,
and Kadayakans. The Kadayakans are found in Ditale, Dipaculo and Bayanihan, Baler, Aurora
(now Quezon). The Kadayakans speak fluent Tagalog aside from their own dialect due to the
influence of Tagalogs who inhabit the Province the Province of Aurora. The Bugkalots found
along the rivers of Bua and Tubo and in some parts of Conwap speak Ilokano. This group is
found in Kasibu, Nueva Vizcaya.
Presently, no less than 5,000 Bugkalot head families reside in the aforementioned provinces.
Although they live far apart from one another, their linguistic name similarities, customs and arts
show that they belong to one distinct group.
The Bugkalots are known for their colorful attire, musical instruments, and artifacts which are
shown in their blow-up pictures in museums patronized by foreign tourist in eastern and western
Europe. Their popular festive dances is called baleleng. Their more hideous ritual which rallies
all Bugkalos, male and female, is seen in the Buayat, but this is not shown to the Christians.

DUMAGAT TRIBE
The term Dumagat may have been derived from the word gubat (forest) and hubad. The more
logical origin of its name is tagadagat which is referred to “sea gypsies”.
They typify the outstanding negrito physical traits of dark brown to black color and curly hair.
The few cases of straight hair and light complexion may be chiefly the result of mixture with
lowland Christians. They have beautifully proportioned bodies, arms, legs, and breasts especially
among women. Their stature compares to an average Filipino. The women stand at 4 feet 10
inches to 5 feet 4 inches and the men tower from 5 feet to 5 feet 9 inches.
The dumagats are found in the provinces of Nueva Ecija, Isabela, Nueva Vizcaya, Camarines
Sur, Camarins Norte Rizal and Bulacan. They live in single-pole make-shift nipa huts along river
banks during summertime and move to sturdier dwellings on the higher grounds during the
monsoon rains.
They live the life of hunters and rattans traders. Hunting is their basic occupation. Their weapons
consist of bow and arrow. Hunting with dogs is a favorite technique. They gather rattan palms
from the forest clearings and scrapes them until they are ready to be split into smaller pieces.
After these are ready, they deliver them to their tabong (market) in the lowlands and exchanges
them for rice, sugar, salt, and other commodities. They also use kaingin system of farming. They
also live by fishing with hooks, traps and spears.
Dumagats speak a language of their own among themselves. But as scholars have discovered,
they can also speak with facility the language of the region to which they have migrated. A
careful examination of the dumagats language today places its historical origin at the adaptation
of a mixed Palanan dialect around 1783 when different ethnic groups took refuge in the town in
their attempt to escape tobacco monopoly. The vocabulary consist largely of tagalog, ibanag,
Ilocano, and visayan terms.
For the dumagats, there is no wedding ceremony but a simple celebration to which the couple’s
relatives and guests are invited and at which the union is announced. As simply as the union is
made, so too is its dissolution. A dumagat couple separates simply by mutual consent.
The dumagats have no structured religion of their own although they claim to believe in
nameless, faceless god whom they invoke to protect them from danger. They are peace-loving
people. When they die, usually of sickness or old age, their remains are placed in simple coffins
of buho or bamboo and buried in silence. No prayers are offered over the graves, no sad songs
chanted. Relatives and friends of dead put aromatic herbs around their arms to serve as their
perfume.

GADDANG TRIBE
The term gadding means carabao hide or pelt. It is said that the gaddangs have already been
using carabao hide for making rope long before abaca was discovered for this purpose. The term
gadding has been used in referring to this indigenous group located in Nueva Vizcaya, Isabela,
Quirino, Cagayan.
The gaddangs have long been acculturated unlike their other brothers who still practice some of
their traditional ways. Most of them sport body tattoos.
The traditional pattern of economic activity is swidden agriculture in well-forested areas,
supplemented by the raising of crash crops such as maize and tobacco.
The gadding social organization illustrates the way in which a society adapt to a particular
habitat through swidden agriculture. The gaddangs has been using carabaos and plows for only
about 10 years. Because the gaddangs lack stable socio-political units, the dispersed settlements
are linked together through a formal or an informal network of social relations.
The household is the minimal social unit. Economically, the household stands alone, and
probably reflects the way in which the gaddangs have traditionally adapted to their environment.
CHAPTER 3

IBALOY
● Occupy the Southeast of Benguet (municipalities of Kabayan, Bokod, Tuba, Itogon,
Tublay, La Trinidad, Sablan, and Atok)
● They speak Nabaloy – linguistic sound nearer to the Pangasinanse. This maybe due to the
free movement and interaction of the natives of Pangasinan in the pre-spanish era.
● They are concentrated in Kabayan, Bokod, Tuba, Itogon, Tublay, La Trinidad, Sablan,
and Atok. All these municipalities are within the province of Benguet Cordillera Region
● They are peaceful, hardworking and hospitable tribesmen.
● Generally fair complexion and have well-developed bodies, usually standing 4 – 5 feet
above in height. They have medium and narrow noses and some have broad flat noses.
They have deep-seated brown and black eyes. Most of the women have straight and long
hair although some have curly hair.
● Not far apart in their customs, beliefs and traditions with the Kankanaeys, except that
they are linguistically dissimilar. Their belief systems are similar except with deviation in
methods of performance. The intent and purpose, however, do not change.
● They are predominantly farmers.
● With their fertile soil and temperate climate, they were abe to raise a variety of crops
● Rice is the main crop of Kabayan and other Ibaloy munipalities where irrigation waters
from rivers and streams to the rice fields through constructed canals allow two croppings
a year.
● They also raise livestock.
● Seldom does one come across a native who does not raise pigs, cows, carabaos, goats,
and chickens.
● They may also be gold panners (panejew)

IBANAG
● Population 335,780- National Council of Churches in the Philippines for Feb. 1988
● Also known as Ybanag, Ybanak or Ibanak
● Are concentrated in the provinces of Cagayan, Nueva Viscaya, and Isabela and are
among the minority of people that live along the banks of the Cagayan River.
● They are the most assimilable and adaptable among groups of the Filipino people.
● In Cagayan, Ibanags are often found in Tuguegarao, Abulug, Pamplona, Camalanuigan,
Lal-lo, Amulong, Iguig, Penablanca, and Aparri towns.
● They are agricultural and clanish people, so in a barrio, each one is a relative of someone.
● Being easily assimilated and adapted, they are easily influenced by people around them.
This is evident in their taste of food, clothing, and language.
● They are reputed to be the tallest of all the ethno-linguistic in the Philippines and are
often distinguish themselves by the color of their elbows.
● Marriage customs, to a great degree, have been made simple. Expenses are now borne by
both parties. Preparations may not be very lavish but the umena-ca presents and
maginterga are still parts of marriage customs, likewise the gala is, sine qua non
especially in rural wedding.
 ● Couples without children are deemed unlucky and are believed to be punished because
they place a great value on children.
● Lutung – a wooden container from a bark of a tree wherein a small piece is taken from it,
pulverized, burned and mixed with coffee and will be served to an expectant woman on a
full moon with chanting of prayers.
● The Ibanags still practice their traditions and customs especially in the far-flung barrios.
● Most of the Ibanags in towns no longer adhere to these customs because they are
economically rich and thus, initiating modification in their traditions and practices.
● Engaged in fishing and farming.
● Most of them are already educated and blended with the cultural majority.

IFUGAO
● Immortalized by their magnificent rice terraces, inhabit the rugged terrain of the
extensive Cordillera Mountain ranges, of Central Northern Luzon.
● Have developed and maintained a distinct culture which until recently has resisted
outside influences.
● Until modern times ended their isolation, the only world they knew was their
environment of towering mountain ranges, rolling hills, windy plateaus, warm valleys,
shallow but swift rivers, dense forests, innumerable rice paddies, and kaingin on the
mountainsides.
● About origins, an Ifugao will already repeat folklore handed down through generations.
He will vividly trace his first ancestors through a large body of myths, especially those
pertaining to the creation of the Ifugao world.
● The Ifugao will declare categorically that his ancestors were the direct descendants of the
deities of the sky world (lagud), which explains why none of their myths makes any
mention of migrations into Ifugao land.
● The descendants of the first wave of Malay immigrants to the country.
● Described as medium built, brawny and brown with black eyes, straight hair, and thin
lips.
● Industrious people who depend mostly on rice growing for their livelihood supplemented
by livestock and poultry raising.
● Have woven on looms and carved works of art from blocks of woods.
● The Rice Terraces is a symbol of their industry that will live through the ages.
● The major subgroups of ifugao are tuwali, ayangan, hanglulo, and kalanguya. The
subgrouping is based largely on the difference od dialects, partly on the variation of oral
traditions and customs, and slightly on the design and color of costumes.
● In ayangan, for instance, the sound -ch- is very common and prominent. This is the
equivalent of the -d- sound in Tuwali and Kalanguya. Hence, the Tuwali word “wada”
(there is) is pronounced “wacha” in Ayangan. The Ayangan has also the sound -f-
(pronounced in hard manner and resembles soft -v- . The Tuwali term “bale” (house) is
pronounced “fotoy” in Ayangan and “baley” in Kalanguya. The Tuwali sub-group
occupies major parts of Banaue, Hingyon, Hungduan, Lagawe, and Kiangan. The
Hanglulo tribes occupies Asipulo, the Angayan occupies Mayaoyao, of Kaingan and
Alfonso Lista, while the Kalanguya sub-groups are found in Tinoc and a small part of
Kiangan.
 ● The ifugaos practice a number of rituals.
● Hingot, the betrothal ritual which announces the union of two families (generally
marriages among the Ifugaos are pre-arranged);
● Amung, a sacrificial ritual wherein the gods and the family’s ancestors are asked to make
the body heathy, the mother well and strong, and the family’s wealthy
● Uya-uy, a ritual of feasting
● Hagabi, a ritual for those aspiring to attain the rank of the real “kadangayan”
● Ketema, a ritual intended to identify the spirit who caused a certain sickness
● Ayag,a ritual performed to identify the evil spirits who caused an illness
● Kolot, a ritual for the first cutting of child’s hair
● An Ifugao tribal elder priest (Mumbaki) perfoms a thanksgiving offering (baki) tro gods
for a meaningful, fruitful season of good harvest

IKALAHAN

● The term Ikalahan is derived from the world Kalahan which refers to the type of forest
trees growing in the area.
● Prefix “I” denotes residents.
● “people of the forest” number 30,000 (National Council of Churches in the Philippines
for Feb. 1988)
● They are concentrated in the boundary of Sta. Fe and Pangasinan, Kayapa (province of
nueva ecija, region II), and Baguias (province of benguet, CAR)
● They are short people, fair complexioned, black round eyes and black straight and silky
hair. Noses are fairly developed. They are shy and they live-in far-flung areas, unreached
by any type of transportation.
● Ikalahan economy is basically agricultural. The primary source of livelihood is Swidden
gardens planted with several varieties of camote and gabi. Other crashed crops like beans,
bananas, gingers, and few trees are also planted. Rice is grown mainly in a few terraced
fields; they also practice occasionally wet agriculture.
● Raising pigs and chickens is an important part of Ikalahan economy.
pigs, because of their importance in prestige feast, have been used as the primary index of
wealth in Ikalahan society.
● In recent times, because of the diminishing observance of the prestige feast, ownership of
cows has become a more important indicator of wealth.
● Handicrafts such as making brooms, baskets and backpacks are seasonal industries in
Ikalahan homes.
● Gongs, Gangsa, guitar or galdang, pakgong, and ko-lin (low harp) are the musical
instruments.
● Nangkaama- or the elders are the person in authority. Their decisions are well respected.
The ascendance to the elder status does not require any election nor is it received through
inheritance. It is an earned status through community recognition of one’s ability to
accomplish reconciliation. This leadership quality is most pronounced in the tongtongan
(conference), where all sorts of crimes and offenses are settled through the council of
elders. Tongtongan is the highest arbitration body in the ikalahan society. It is composed
 of elders acting as judges and counselors at the same time. It serves as the official venue
for the solution of problems, crimes, and other issues brought to its attention.

ILIANEN (Iranen)
● Manawen (people from the lake) is the original form of the name Ilianen.
● are very closely related culturally and linguistically to both the Maguindanaon and the
Maranaos. Sometimes the ilianens (especially those living in Lanao del sur) are counted
with maranao and sometimes with the maguindanaon.
● Have been a seoarate group, througha all three groups sprang from common ethic origins
long centuries ago.
● Concentrated along Iliana Bay coast, north of the mouth of Pulangi River all the way to
Sibugay Bay in Zamboanga River.
● They are all active traders and historically they were great buccaneers.
● They have their own datus but in the past they more or less acknowledged the overlord
ship of sultan of Maguindanao.
● Most of them engaged in fishing while the rest raise food crops.
● Men provide food for their families through subsistence fishing and farming. Women
help in food-gathering to augment their meager harvest.
● A "datu " heads the tribe and together with a council they form the timuay (governing
body" which is the highest class in their society. The other four are the walian or
"shaman" (spiritual leaders), the warrior, and the commoner. They still practice rituals
like the Samaya-an Festival, a thanksgiving celebration.
● Originally,they were animists but with the advent of Christian missionaries some of them
converted to different Christianity or other religions.

ISINAY
● are located in three (3) towns of Dupax, Bambang, and Aritao in the province of Nueva
Viscaya.
● They speak the same dialect with the same minor differences like the intonation
pronunciation of final consonants, and some verbal terms.
● Isinays are Malay blend but with a high percentage of short people, fair complexioned,
with rounded big eyes, natural hair, high cheek bones, well -shaped nose and widened
lips. Women are physically more buxom than men.
● They are known as religious people. Often they are religious leaders in the community,
observing the daily oracion and pasyon during the Holy Week.
● Many of the isinays social customs are quite distinctive.
● They are markedly conservative and adhere to the old practices. Evidence is the
disapproval of the intermarriages between members of their tribe and neighboring folk.
(especially the Ilocanos)
● Pansisipe – a meticulous care that is given to the woman during pregnancy to insure the
mother and the child’s welfare.
● Do’s and Don’ts are strictly followed after giving birth. (Example: a woman is advised
not to take a bath for ten days and carefully select the food she will eat lest the young
born child will be affected.
● They harvest twice a year and plants vegetables in between seasons
● 80% of their sustenance is derived from agriculture.
● 5% are fishermen who just rely on fishing in the river.
● Tabuu is fishing in the river using net and panipit using bamboo - is practiced by
fishermen which comprised 5% of the population.
● Another 5% are carpenters, laborers, and animal raisers.
● Middle class Isinay manage their own ranches and raises their carabaos for market.

ISNAG
● Small ethnolinguistic group in the mountains of Apayao.
● They are one of several mountain people who were never subdued in nearly 350 yrs
of spanish rule.
● Various names have been used to designate Isnay like los Apayaos and los
Mandayas – is an Isnag word meaning “upstream”.
● They live in settlements along the river, but move up to hills to tend their farms
during certain seasons of the year.
● Each village along the river is marked by tall coconut palms towering above it. Most
villages are quite small.
● Despite all the space at their disposal, the people still build their houses rather close
together, both for protection and companionship.
● Like most other Filipinos, the Isnags are malay type ancestry. Little is known about
where they came from before they settled in Apayao, or when they came. Various
names have been used to designate the Isnag.
● They are called los apayaos or Los mandayas in spanish references. Los apayaos
refer to the river along whose banks the people live, and mandayas is related to an
isnag word "upstream"
● The word isnag probably came from an ilocano word meaning "from tineg", a town
and a river in Abra. the word later came to mean "enemy" and was later discarded,
and this mountain people came to be known by their neighbors as isnag.
● Isnah and Apayao are alternative terms that refer to the inhabitants of Apayao in
what used to be a part of mountain province before it was partitioned into the 5
provinces of benguet, kalinga, apayao, mountain province, and bontoc.
● very little is known about how the isnags lived before the spaniards came to the
philippines. It is probable that they lived much as they do today - by hunting, fishing,
and kaingin farming. That there was direct or indirect trade with china is evidenced
by the chinese jars, plates, and beads that are prized possession of many isnag
families.
● Activities related to head-taking occupied a large part of the time of isnag men:
Learning the art of war, training the young men, making and repairing their weapons,
and protecting their homes and families from attack.
● Isnag – also called Isneg is their native language although most Isnag also speak
Ilocano.
● They are known for head-hunting activities because of the following reasons:
o For religious reasons
o For prestige
 o As a qualification for marriage
o For revenge
● After a number of battles before and after 1913, the isnags were convinced that their
spears were no match for the "thundersticks" of the American soldiers.
● From that time on, the isnags lived as a comparatively peaceful people.
● the religion of the isnags was animistic, their traditional religious beliefs were
concerned with their relationship with a great number and variety of spirits. 2
elements usually present in religions were largely lacking in that of the isnag: belief
in supreme being, and a serious attempt to explain the nature of thw universe.
● beauty seems to have very little premium, if at all, in isnag customs and traditions,
with respect to courtship and marriage. Consideration of beauty is not what propels
isnag swains toward the choice of mate but rather a woman's capacity to work.
● health and strength are considered more important.
● amazon-like women have a decided edge over the fragile ones in the contest for the
affections of man. Such seems to be the sad lot of tge isnag women to work in the
kaingins (swidden fields)
● a man who happens to own a largw kaingin is constrained to indulge in polygamy,
which is duly sanctioned by their traditions. However, it is rarely practiced as the
isnags resort to polygamy not for pleasure but to acquire additional help.
● the isnags generally abhor marriage between cousins or kin.
● however, such marriage occur at times, but only because of such factors as scarcity of
women, difficulty of travel, and enmity with other tribes.
● Divorce is not entirely alien to the isnags, which invariably reflects the flexibility of
their character. But the principal reason for divorce, as with the igorot, is failure to
bear children.
● Educated isnag women reject the custom of having them work on the farm. Thus,
they prefer to many into another ethnic group, preferably the ilocanos who are
reputed for their industriousness.
● Households consist of interrelated families living close to each other, and extended
families of three generations living together in their balay.
● The family is the key element in society, the larger the better, headed by the husband.
● The bravest, Kamenglan, is the overall leader.
● They are animistic and practice polygamy if a man happens to own a large kaingin
● Amazon-like women have a decided edge over the fragile ones in the contest of the
affection of man. Lots of Isnag women work in the kaingin (swidden fields).
● Marriage between cousins or kin occur at times, but only because of such factors as
scarcity of women, difficulty of travel and enmity with other tribes.
● Failure to have children is the principal reason for divorce

ITAWES PRIDE
The Itawes inhabit the territiry drained by the Chico and Matalog rivers as well as all of
Southern Cagayan from Nasiping to the Village of Cavug, now the town of Enrile.
 Except for certain nuances in their language and the flair among their women folk for
ornamentation and colorful attire, nothing basically differentiates them from Ibanags of
whom they really are ethnic subgroup. Thet got their name “tawid”.
The early natives of Cagayan never referred to one another by the group description of
Ibanags, or the I - rita (those from the south). Occasionally, I - Raya was also used.
The Itawes culture seems to be quite distinct from that of the Ibanags. The Itawes mode
of dressing appears to be likewise more colorful, red being a dominant color. The woman
used to wear beads on their heads, a practice still found among those in the remote areas.
Farming seems to be a leafing source of livelihood. Almost three-fouths (72.7%) of the
people of the province are engaged in agriculture, hunting, forestry, fishing, and related
occupation.
The average Itawes family family seems to be education - conscious, this being shown by
the good number of their children being sent to school.
Based on the dialect the people appear to be the most versatile group in the province.
They speak Ibanag and Ilocano. The Itawes dialect has also other peculiar characteristics
such as the frequent use of the double consonants like cc, kk, w.
The contemporary Itawes are a charming, friendly, and sociable group whose daily mode
of life is not markedly different from the rest of their countrymen, whether in the style of
their houses, their occupation and religious affilliation, all of which are signs of the
Itawes culture.
Death among the Itawes galvanizes not only the familly, but also the whole neighborhood
or community into action. The usual church rites for the wakes and burial are observed.

IVATAN TRIBE
The Ivatans are found chiefly in the Batanes group of small islands. Most of them
are on the islands of Batan, Sabtang, and Itbayat. There is solid evidence for
believing that the present Ivatans are the Christianized surviving group of an
ancient people who once occupied all the islands between Luzon and Taiwan, and
who are probably represented in the purest form of today by the natives of Botel
Tobago. However, there probably exists a fairy strong cultural element on Batan
derived from the Chinese contact which is absent on Botel Tobago.
The people call their language Chirin nu Ibatan, but its better known as Ivatan. Its
dialects are the norhern (Basco), Itbayat (Itbayat Island), the southern (Sabang
Island), and possibly Yami.
The dominant physical type is the Malay blend – short, squat, with a strong
mixture of the short Mongol type. There are some individuals who seem to have
some physical characteristics peculiar to the Ainus of Japan. Their general culture
is markedly different from the Spanish - Filipino culture, but their economic and
social life does show certain differences. The persistence of these cultural
survivals are most probably due to their geographical isolation. They have several
unique customs related to marriage due to marriage and death. Many ancient
beliefs have been preserved to this day.

IWAK TRIBE
The Iwak population as a whole is not homogenous, and they disperse themselves
among the ethnic groups. Thereafter, they are accultured into the characteristics of
these dominant groups creating a variation of technology language, and culture.
Their settlements tend to cluster or the higher slopes of the mountains near stream
sources. Hence, they are found in the watersheds of the drainage systems of the
Cordillera and Caraballao mountains.
Iwak subsistence technology ranges from the intensive of wet agriculture to slash
- and - burn cultivation of both grain and root crops. This is a manifestaion of the
culture of the dominant tribes around them. Significantly, however, taro is still
being cultivated; it is the preferred staple and ritually most prized. Recently, the
sweet potato has been supplanting taro on the Iwak’s daily diet in most areas, but,
indicatively, taro is still irreplaceable for ritual purposes.
The market sphere of Iwak produce is connected in handicraft manufacturing.
They are sold at outlets specifically at the town of Santa Fe, Nueva Viscaya,
which is the juncture of the Cordillera and Caraballao mountains. This production
is limited to two kinds: basket and brooming making. Basketry technique has
three classes: Kabang – all purpose back basket; Gipia – small shallow tray used
during meal time, and Dakilan – a large flat mostly used during rituals.
CHAPTER 4
KALAGAN
- Islamized Indigenous people in western Davao Gulf Area. Became muslim in the middle of 19 th
century.
-Kagan came from the word kaag which means to inform, to secure or secrecy.
-ka-allagan which means shining light referring from to the sun due as they are believed to be
more advanced in lifestyle and society than their neighbouring tribes which live on the Highlands
of the mountains of Davao.
-The Kagans lived in the communities called Banwa.
- Each Banwa has its own leader called Datu. The Datu is usually a man with a strong political
and physical leadership among the community folks.
- early kagans is believed to be an animist and they believed that there is a one supreme god
called Tagallang means Creator.
-They also believed that all of nature like trees, stone, mountains, river, and ocean has a spirit
they called Maguya and they respect it by performing ceremonial rituals as a sign of respect.
The ones who perform the rituals are priests called Balayans which means shaman or healer or
the one who can contact the spirits by asking cure for the sick, for the guidance and the security
of the tribe and even fortune telling.
-Those of Highest Rank in their society do not perform manual labor. Among the rest of the
population, male and female division of labor is not very pronounced. Generally, men do the
plowing, tilling, and other heavy farm work. The women do most of the domestic work, often
assisted by their older children.

KALINGA
- is both a tribal community and a landlocked province in the heart of the cordillera region in
northern luzon, the Philippines. Until recently Kalinga people could be identified from a distance
by their distinctive body art. Immersed in the magnificent mountains, kalinga people lived
modest but passionate lives in a world where your skin communicated your social status to the
local community.

Tattoo Artist: Whang Od

She also inked the skin of the women from the tribe, the tattoos are considered as a sign of
beauty and elegance. She is the living proof of the tribe/s batok (hand-tapping) culture. Covering
her body are tattoos with different meanings and designs.
Whang od never married, she lost her significant other during the Japanese occupation and since
then, she stayed single. She is training her grandniece Grace Palicas to continue the tribe’s tattoo
tradition. She believes that she can only pass it to her bloodline because if someone outside the
tribe were to continue the tradition, the tattoo would be infected.
-these head hunters were the warriors of their tribe, who protect their villages, to the extent of
killing their enemies. It is a symbol of bravery and courage.
-”an eye for an eye. A life for a life. Vengeance is a way of life for Kalinga people”
Killing the enemy in battle and defending the village was the only way a kalinga man could earn
his social stripes, henceforth giving him special privileges and lifelong respect.
-”Kalinga men don’t cheat” she said assertively, “they wouldn’t dare. Kalinga women are strong
and would kill their husbands if caught cheating.”

KANKANAEY
- are indigenous peoples of the northern Philippines. They are part of the collective group of
Indigenous people known as the Igorot People.
-The kankanaey differ in the way they dress. The soft-speaking kankanaey women’s dress has a
color combination of black, white and red. The design of the upper attire is a criss-crossed style
of black, white and red colors. The skirt or tapis is a combination of stripes of black, white and
red.
-They practice parental marriage. A wedding is celebrated with big feasts and many rituals done
before and during the wedding ceremony. Butchering of animals is a very important part of the
wedding. In the past there have been cases of intermarriages with the lowland people. But due to
unfavorable experiences, this practice is already declining. The kankanaey families believe that
husbands are the heads of the family and elders should be well-respected in the community.
-Having been reached by modern amenities, live in big communities and are aware of the
importance of education. Because of a high literacy rate among the group, they desire socio-
economic developments such as improvement of the road from towns to villages, protection of
remaining forest, and the improvement of the water system, and electrification of kankanaey
territory.
-hardworking people in the field of agriculture who are already reached by modern technologies.
-builds rice terraces which have become sufficient sources of food. The staple foods of the
kankanaey are camote, rice, potatoes, and other root crops like tugi and gabi.
- the kankanaey are some of the best vegetable growers in the philippines. They are innovative in
the fields and they practice proven technology like irrigation and the construction of rice
terraces. Most of their income comes from tilling the fields. They are also into mining since the
kankanaey territory yields lots of mineral, particularly gold.
The people have been christianized because of the long years of missionary presence in the
kankanaey ares. Many are now roman catholics and protestants. Some have joined the iglesia ni
cristo and other religious groups established within the kankanaey areas. Although many have
professed in Christ, most of them still engage in pagan practices as shown in many of their rituals
during weddings, rites of passage, planting and harvest, medicine and others.
MAJOR DANCES: Tayaw, pattong, and balangbang.
Tayaw- community dance that is usually performed at weddings.
Pattong- community dance from mountain province which every municipality has its own style.
Balangbang- is the modern word for pattong.
Other dances: sakkuting, pinanyuan (wedding dance) and bogi-bogi (courtship dance).
Houses: are built like the other igorot houses, which reflect their social status.

KARAO
The karao people live as small community in Bokod, Benguet, in the eastern regions of north
luzon. They can be distinguished from other local tribes by their unique culture that observes a
different form of their neighbors, such as kalanguyas and ibalois. However,they still share some
similarities with the other ethnic groups of the cordillera through their belief system and rituals.
- have a distinct belief system and set of rituals because of the way their people perform such.
Even though most of their ritual and the observance of their belief system are practiced under
each of their own languages, these serve the same purposes as those done by other ethnic tribes.
- as the years passed, the people gradually lost interest in the community’s rich practices and
cultural traditions. This is a sad reality that is slowly but painfully hitting the karao people.
-Karaos observe the following institutions:
The Family- the abo-nan (a community center)
The amang - (a sleeping quarter for boys, girls and newlyweds)
The cheng ngeg- ni baley (foundation house)
The Chelos- (rituals)
Their Pagan god is Kabunian. They focus on courtship, marriage, divorce, pregnancy, birth,
death and burial, harvest, and thanksgiving.
The Karaos are predominantly Farmers. Their main season crops are the kintoman (one kind of
rice) and the talon. They also produce vegetables and fruits, raise poultry, swine, cattle, and
gather oleoresin from benguet pine tree.

MAGAHAT
-the magahats are also know as the Ati-man and Bukidnon. There are concentrations of Magahats
found in southwestern Negros, Santa Catalina, Bayawan, ans Siation in Negros Oriental; and in
Negros Occidental. Their Language is a mixture of HIligaynon and Sugbuhanon.
- practice swidden agriculture because their settlements are in mountainous areas. They are food
gatherers and good hunters as well.

MANDAYA
Both non-Christian and non-Islamic, the mandaya are found in Davao Oriental and Davao Del
Norte, Mindanao.
Their name means “the first people upstream” derived from man (first) and daya (upstream or
upper portion of a river). Mandayas are said to be polygynous; divorce is also socially
acceptable.
Shifting cultivators who rely largely on swidden farming (also known as slash and burn) as a
means for survival. Their other means of livelihood include fishing, food gathering, hunting and
the planting of abaca as a cash crop.
Aesthetics and arts rank high among Mandaya. They are excellent metalsmiths, who can fashion
over silver ornaments and brass items (evidence of their contract with muslim groups) and
weapons. Music is also an important part of Mandaya culture, as they use various musical
intruments and dances for celebrations and rituals.
The Mansaka is a combination of man (first) and saka (to ascend), and is almost identical to the
meaning of Mandaya: ‘the first people to climb the mountains or go upstream” Mansaka can be
found in Davao Oriental.
The Mansaka’s Traditional clothing distinguishes them from other tribes. The cloth and its
patterns are handwoven. Jewelry is an important part of the attire of both genders.
CHAPTER 5
HIGAONON (Igaonen-Highlander)
● people of the wilderness
● bukidnon province but also hinterlands of Agusan del sur

Ethno legal aspect : Datu system

Principal headman rules over an entire community.
Datu is responsible for the administration of community.
Dying Datu passes his title to one of his children preferably son.

MATIGSALUG
● distinct subgroup of indi people w/in manok group.
● Central Mindanao
Orig settlement: mouth of salug river (davao)
● Called as splinter group of manobo, immigrants who jumped off area to mainland of sulu
archipelago.
● They practice hunting and gathering lifestyle w/ minimal agricultural efforts.
● Influence by migrant farmers and businessman.
● Shifted to sedentary land cultivation.
● Costume of bright colored mid rib blouses short skirts.
● Skillful hunting and gathering technique.

IRAYA (Man or Human Being)

● Mangyans of mindoro.
● Municipalities of abra de ilog, Paluan, mamburao.
● Family considered as basic unit of production and consumption.
Guraan - kindred system traced to both mother and father links.
Talnakan - nuclear family
 ● Eldest takes place as parents during their absence and consider as second parent
(intermediary)
● Leadership provided by puonbalayan.
● Local group referred to as sanguraan.
● Moral and legal problems referred to puonbalayan for decisions.
● Criminal act or offense done is corrected with pangaw or tige.
Pangaw - detention cell
Tige - punishment (suspect should immerse their right hand on a pot of boiling water and get the
white stone at the bottom, suspect who got burned will be judge guilty)

MANGUANGAN
● Cordillera sugut mindanao.
● Scattered to great lakes of buayan or maguindanao.
● They recognized bu jesuits and other as a distinct tribe.
● Considered as sort of people mixed descent that one might expect to find in a region
between the inhabitants of two tribes like manobo and mandaya.

KALANGAN
● One of the mangyan ethnic groups.
● Mt. Halcon occupying northern part of occidental and oriental mindoro.
● Found in lantuyan and paitan.
● Settlement near midstream of dulangan river.
● Medium built; round face w/ straight and long hair.
● Complexion is dark and their teeth are blackened by betel nut chewing.
● Upland agriculture of kaingin system, they cut open forest every year or two to make new
swidden sites.

ARUMANEN (Manobo)
● Province of north cotabato
● They belong to original proto philippines stock.
● Major means of subsistence is food gathering and swidden agriculture.
● Both men and women are take part in burden of work.
Timuey - head of arumanen who calls the people in meetings.
Social structure: Timuey (governance group)
Valian or Shaman (spiritual leader)
Warrior
Commoner
Slave
Samaya-an festival (thanksgiving to God and deities) celebrated annually on the last week of
December.
It is also celebrated to seek sign for what blessings and misfortune will bring to community.

HANUNUO (Mangyans)
● Marisalay and san pedro (Bulalacao)
● Southeastern Mindoro.
● Hanunuo means REAL, TRUE, GENUINE.
● Fairly tall in structure and their bodies are slim and well proportioned, oblique eyes, flat
nose, prominent cheekbones, flat forehead and olive skin.
● Men sporting a long-braided hair in upper part of their head with the rest of their hair cut
short, if not shaved.
● Women hang up their hair behind their heads breaded band serve as ornament.
● Long and wavy hair
● Small set of teeth caused by their common practice of filling their teeth while young.
● Houses are more permanent in structures made out of light materials elevated five or four
feet, supported by Bamboo, Nipa, Cogon.
● Houses are used for sleeping, eating and workroom.
● G-STRING WITH SHORT PANTS.
● Women-Rectangular piece of cloth both end sewn serve as skirt.

Tight Fitting Shirts

*Balukas -men
*Lambong -women
*Subon- short sleeved
*Nito- woven belt
System of writing:
Sanskirt alphabet
18 Characters vowels
15 characters combined with vowels
Siyaw- bolo shaped knife used for inscribing
Bamboo- for paper, either split or whole
Played instruments by Men: Gitgit, Kudyapi, kinaban
Played instruments by Women: Lantuy (bamboo flute)
Taghup or Tanghup (bamboo whistle)
Ambahan (Poem) with line of 7 syllables, tool for courting women.
They marry at an early age.
Subing - three strung guitar used for courting.
Dowry arranged by parents.
Magdadniw- a kind minister.
They have no written laws.
Hanunuos has two burial occasions:
*soon after death
*after a year or two years when the bones have to be exhumed.
Maha na Makaako - supreme being who watches over them and loves them.
Presidents - son of supreme being who executes his Fathers command.
They believe in evil and immorality.

BATANGAN
● Sub tribe of mangyan.
● Found in forest of mindoro, southern tip of western mindoro.
● They belong to ethnic stock called proto Malay.
● Bilingual in speaking: Batangan and Tagalog.
● They dont have personal names.
● Band level of social life.
● Both sexes wear loin cloth, married women cover their breasts.
● Houses are made of bamboo and cogon grass.
● Swidden agriculture produce camote, taro, and upland rice.
● Household is the smallest residential economic and ritual unit.
● The head of household is the father or husband.
● Material property is equally divided as inheritance among male and female offspring
alike.
● Folk medicines are taught to all male children.
● Amurit witchcraft is also taught to adult male through the old men in group.
● Fu:unan(priest) inherited by the male line from father to eldest son.
● Function of fu:unan : attend funerals, harvest ceremonies, medicine man, and cure
diseases.
CHAPTER 6

RATAGNON
- sometimes called Latagnon or Datagnon
- southernmost tip of Mindoro island facing the Sulu Sea
- estimated population of 17,562scattered in around 200Ratagnon settlements
- swidden agriculture
- villages not formally developed
- settlements of four to five houses per settlement are located apart from each other
- typical house made of indigenous materials mostly of wood, bamboo, and nipa
- some male members still wear their traditional dress which consist of loincloth as a lower garment -
women wear woven cotton used as wrap-around matched with an upper garment made of
handwoven nito just enough to cover the breasts

Gong is the most common musical instrument for all tribes.

Mangyan Indigenous Groups of Mindoro

- Iraya
- Alangan

- Tadyawan
- Tau-buid
- Bangon
- Buhid
- Hanunuo
- Ratagnon

BUKIDNON
- bukidnens speak the binukid dialect
- light brown complexion, straight black hair, average height of about five feet, nose bridge is not flat
- courtship and marriages are brought about by parental arrangements made since children were eleven
years old
- men practice polygamy but women are expected to be monogamous
- marriage done by exchanging betel with molded rice
- bukidnon art is best expressed in their dances, poetry and music, mat weaving, and basketry - musical
instruments consist of bamboo flutes, bamboo jew's harp, one-stringed violin, and the boatshaped
guitar
- handicraft consist of mats, hats, fishtraps, and cloth weaving
- tradional method of farming is still being practiced in upland areas
- agricultural products are palay, corn, sugarcane, pineapple, coffee, cassava, abaca, and vegetables -
power of bukidnen chieftain or datu is built on trust and the confidence of his constituents, it is a blend
of ascription and achievement and not governed by seniority or birth

MOLBOG
- molebugan or molebuganon
- concentrated in balabak island and are also found in other islands of the coast of palawan as the north
as panakan
- malubog means murky or turbid water
- probably migrant people from nearby north borneo
- they seem to be related to the orang tidung or tirum, an islamized indigenous group native to the
northeast coast of sabah
- some sama words and tausug words are found in the molbog dialect
- livelihood includes subsistence farming, fishing, and occasional barter trading with sulu bangsa moro
and nearby sabah market centers
- in the past both molbog and the palawanon muslims were ruled by sulu datus thus forming the outer
political periphery of the sulu sultanate
- intermarriage between tausug and the molbog hastened the islamization of the molbog
- offsprings of these intermarriages are known as kolibugan or "half-breed"

AETAS
- earliest inhabitants in the philippines
- one of the 110tribes scarttered around the philippines
- members number around 140,591individuals
- cetral luzon well in the pockets of mountains in the provinces of zambales, pampanga, tarlac, bataan,
and nueva ecija
- tribal in character thus they confine themselves to a very limited world of their own
- nomadic and build only temporary lean-to-shelters made of two folded sticks driven to the ground and
covered with palm of banana leaves
- more prosperous and modernized aetas have learned to live in villages or tablelands and mountain
clearings
- they live on houses made of bamboo and cogon grass
- senses are highly developed
- senses of direction and smell extraordinary
- can track down a snake by its smell and cab identify different kinds of plants and its flowering patterns
- entertainment are song and dances
- their musical instrument are highly developed

TIGWAHANON
- tigwa or tigwahanons
- scattered all over the municipality of san fernando in bukidnon close to the border of davao del norte
- tigwahanen may have been derived from guwa (scattered) or from the tigwa river where it banks and
watersheds sre inhabited by the tigwahanon

UMAYAMNON
- watershed of umayamnen river in bukidnon province
- proud and reserved people, firm in their decisions, and forest experts
- fair complexion, medium height, and prominent cheekbones
- engaged in beadworks for their body accessories such as the making of ginakit and inaboy
(necklaces), suning (men's bags), and binuklad (bracelets)

Mambucon

- "otit"
- two special awards during his graduation: dean's special award for research and the dean's special
award for advocacy, inclusiveness, and equity as first tigwahanon
- he never dreamed of becoming a doctor
- wanted to become a teacher because he idolize their teachers
- third of six siblings and grew up without any address
- only the one who finished college
- all finished highschool which was already considered a victory for the tribe
- they lived in the mountains in molinga, nakabuclad im san fernando town where thry had no neighbors
- the biggest problem they had as a child was the rainy season when they had to go home early because
they had to cross three rivers
- responsible brother
- son of a chieftain
-his father edgardo mambucon only finished first grade but was the tribal chieftain

- father is always busy attenting to problems of the whole tribe in san fernando, it was his mother julieta
"yuan" solin-ay mambucon who became they main provider
- father was killed in 2011
- served as nurse 1after passing the board exam in 2010
- finished bachelor of science in nursing at the university of mindanao in davao city
- missionary from the overseas missionary fellowship said they would look for a sponsor to get him into
a medical school but he declined the offer
- served as a nurse at the bukidnon provincial hospital in san fernando from 2011to 2015
- he served as the emergency room nurse, delivery room nurse, and ward nurse at the same time -
decided to take the national medical admission test, took it twice before introduced to the lasallian
brothers
- waiting for his internship at the dlsu-medical center which will start in august this year
- hopes to join the doctors to the barrios program and get his training as an emergency medicine
physician after three years
- he encourage fellow lumad to have an open mind and to dream big
CHAPTER 7

ABIANS

Abians are Philippines aborigines often called Negritos. They live in Barrio Igang of Batobalani,
Camarines Norte and in Camarines Sur. In 1987, they numbered 12,407. They are short and dark with
kinky hair.

When their homes were bulldozed for forest concessions, they again experienced being driven away
from the place by lowlanders. As a result, they have become nomadic and do not posses any material
property for fear of losing it whenever they suffer further confiscation.

The abian house is semi- permanent lean-to called butukan. They get their food by means of the kaingin
system, clearing portions of the forest and planting root crops and rice on the cleared area. They also
work for landlords for weeding the fields or helping during harvest time.

Many old customs have been retained by the Abians. The old women of village still assist mothers in
giving birth.

They have no marriage rites, or formal religion. They practice polygamy and do not believe in the
Christian God but they believe that there is a life after death. Some are known to put scars on their arms
to take away the bad blood.

When an abian dies, neighbors across the hills are called by shouts to announce patapusan, the death
rites which take place three months afterwards. At patapusan, there is dancing, chanting of the lidong,
and weeping and wailing over the passing of a loved one.

AGTA

The agtas are found in the Bicol Peninsula and on the slopes of Mt. Asog, Iriga City. The group
population was 11,078 in 1987. Like any other Aeta group, they call themselves and their language Agta.
They are dark-skinned, kinky-haired, pug-nosed, and thick lipped people with a height less than five feet
tall. They generally are bare footed. The men used G-strings but now they wear shorts. The women wear
clothes similar to lowlanders. They can speak varied languages such as Bicolano, Tagalog, and Agta
language. Indigenous materials such as wood, bamboo, cogon or talahib, abaca barks, and coconut
leaves are used in the house. Houses are built in clusters ranging from two to five families for economic
and security purposes. They get their food by means of the kaingin system. They also work for landlords
but receive a very minimal daily wage, not even enough to subsistence. They marry at an early age of
fourteen to their chosen partner but since they have no marriage rites, the couples simply live as
husband and wife. They practice polygamy and atpresent, the Agtas do not subscribe to family planning,
believing that marriage is to produce offspring and that only God determines the number of children a
couple will have. The Agtas believe in Anitos and the Spirits of the ancestors to whom they offer dances
during rituals. Some dances depict animal and hunting movements. There is no organized political
leadership. However, the older and more experienced males in the community are consulted for
arbitration purposes. Subsistence and Livelihood: The Agtas grow rootcrops, rice and vegetables in their
farms. Rice is often hard hard to come by and is readily substituted with a boiled root crop called dugma.
They also have a favorite drink concocted from the lakad bulan or sambong plant. The Agtas still observe
certain practices and beliefs for ensuring a good yield. For example, the presence of cumulus clouds at
the moment of planting is believed to enhance the size of the camote, while planting during high tide or
the full moon is said to result in a bountiful harvest. The camote should be planted in big earth mounds
by a man and not by a woman or else, the camote will form cracks. The ideal time of the day. The
camote should be planted in big earth mounds by a man and not by a woman or else, the camote will
form cracks. The ideal time of the day for planting is during late afternoon. The man first takes a bath so
that the camote crops will remain unspoiled and delicious. Camote vines are then planted together with
betel nuts and camias so that camote roots will multiply in each mound. The man must be naked so that
the camote skin would not thicken. He must also be in a sitting position with his feet astride the mound
and his penis pointed to it. It is also said that sugar placed near the mounds will produce sweet camotes.
During really hard times, some families dig for nami, a root crop with a milky poisonous sap but which
becomes edible after being soaked in running water for two days. Hunting is another means of
subsistence for the Agtas. They catch running game by spearing them with pointed sticks called galud or
by means of pit-traps. Birds are caught by using slingshots locally known aslabtik and bird traps made
from a gluelike sap called dikit. A successful hunt for animals or honey is assured by performing a ritual
at the grave of a skilful hunter. Fishing and catching crabs are also other means of livelihood for the
Agtas. Their gadgets include the baslay, a bow and arrow used for fishing: banwit consisting of a boro, a
slender bamboo with a few meters of nylon at one end that has a sima or hook where the paon or bait is
placed: soo, a small torch used to attract the fishes and crabs during the panghahapoy or night-time
fishing: agahid. a net used for catching fishes and crabs. Religion The Agtas believe in a Supreme Being
called Gugurang, a heaven called kamurawayan, and a hell called gogombon. The evil spirits are led by
the Aswong. They also believe that death is a journey to the afterlife and that the spirit of the dead may
either go to the kamurawayan or gogombon, depending on how he or she lived his life. The relatives of a
dying person must all be present when he gives his last wishes, so that he will guide and look after them.
Otherwise, he will haunt them. The Agtas in Camarines Norte perform long rituals to help their dead get
to their destination. A dead child will not find the journey difficult, for he has committed few
wrongdoings. But a strenuous trip awaits those who have reached adulthood and have lived their lives
unworthingly.

AGTA BURIAL AND DEATH RITUALS

When a child dies, a bamboo-slat coffin called sala-sala is made for him. While this is being done, he is
laid on his mother's lap and continues to be breast-fed. When the sala-sala is finished, a white cloth is
wrapped around him and the child is laid inside. Afterwards, it is placed on the mother's lap and can
only be removed in times of personal necessity. When the parents of the child decides to bury him, the
burial spot is usually along a pathway near the house under the roof. It is the task of any close relative to
dig the grave which is fumigated to drive away the evil spirits. After which, the mother sets the child
aside in the meantime and goes to the burial ground where she performs three rituals: crying, touching
the hole three times and dropping milk from her breasts into the hole. She now returns for her child and
asks a relative to carry him/her to the grave.. The mother again pours milk on its lips as baon for his
after-life journey. Afterwards, she bids goodbye to her child and prays that he or she doesn't begrudge
his/her family for they have done everything they could to prevent his or her death. Next, the mother
walks away without turning her back. Meanwhile, the father mourns loudly. Afterwhich, the child is
covered with soil and everybody leaves without turning their backs to avert another death. Upon
reaching the house, the oldest member of the family and the mother crawl and cry, pretending to look
for the child. The Agtas follow the same procedure when burying their adults. When an adult dies, his
clothes are changed and a piece of cloth is wrapped around his head. The lips are filled with nganga to
keep away the flies. The eyes are covered by a strip of cloth with two openings so that the spirit may be
able to see where it is going. The hands and legs are tied in front. The body is then laid in a bamboo
coffin. Like the dead child, it is also "fed" during mealtime. The food is wrapped with leaves and then
tied to the thumb. Sobbing is then loudly done to prevent strong winds and heavy rains from occuring.
There is no ceremony for the actual burial, whose usual site is between tall trees. The grave must exactly
match the size of the coffin, otherwise, another death might occur. The coffin is made from bamboo
slats laid side by side and tied with rattan.

ATI

The dark-skinned Ati group of Panay Island are probably the best known of the Filipino Negritos (Spanish
term of Ati) being the indigenous tribe credited with welcoming history's first Malay datus from Boreo in
the fourteenth century. The Atis have retained their dialect with traces of the ancient terms of "Kinaray-
a" and dialects of the present time "Hiligaynon". Ati is the local term for their "dark brown" to "sooty
black" skin color. They have wavy to kinky hair, pug nose, amd thick lips. They are short in stature and
generally below five feet tall. Their physical appearance is genetically carried up to the third or fourth
generation even with mixed marriages. When the Spanish colonizers came they called the indigenous
people of the island Negritoes because of their skin color. The colonizers also calles the island Negros.
The Atis were scattered in the provinces of Aklan, Capiz, Antique, Iloilo Guimara, Negros Occidental, and
Negros Oriental. The biggest population settled in Nagpana, barangay Lipata, Barutac Viejo (Iloilo). Other
bigger groups are found in Hanti (Antique), Malay (Aklan), and Lambunao (Iloilo). The total population is
63,654 (OSCC, 1987) For economic survival, they are adept at hunting, fishing, and food gathering.
Nowadays, they become less sendentary and constantly move in Panung (band). They became the
"Moutain People" in escaping the civilizing process of the colonists. They are perenially dependent on
the yields of the forest, since they practice no permanent agriculture. Until the moderm times, the Atis
have used the forest for idigenous medicine as it yields medicinal roots, woodships, shavings, gums,
wines, seeds, barks, and herbs for curing kinds of sickness. They apply such herb with corresponding
rituals. Because they are nomadic, the Atis put up their dwellings in the form of a lean-to or shack.
During the olden times, most of the Atis went about naked. The menfolk wore ubad to cover their
private part, while the women wrapped their lower torso with sahat leaving their breasts exposed. The
Atis have an animistic religion. They believe in the existence of kalosonin (spirit of the forest) and the
aswang (witch). They hold a unique wedding rite on top of a hill . The bride is made to run fast one
hundred meters away from the groom. Drums are sounded when the groom starts to pursue the
woman. The Ati, Aklan's indigenous people and original residents of Boracay Island. Aklan's Ati-Atihan
Festival, celebrated in January, literally means "to be like the Ati." The Ati face high unemployment
levels in addition to hotels' encroachment on their native land. Fr. Crisostomo estimates that of the 200
Ati in Boracay, fewer than 20 work in hotels; and they only get these jobs with the help of the church
and the non-profit organization Daughters of Charity. But even so, they experience discrimination from
their workmates because of their darker skin and eventually decide to leave. The less fortunate of the
Ati end up begging on the beaches.

CIMMARON

Cimmarons are found in Buhi, Isarog, Iriga, and Caranwan, all of Camarines Sur, Bicol Region numbering
9,187 (OSSC, 1987). They are dark brown in skin color being the offspring of intermarriages between
Aeta and the Malays (Bicolanos). Only a few of them have curly hairs. They are multi-lingual, being able
to speak their Cimmaron language, Bicol, and Tagalog. Their house are provided with items such as
coconut shells, bamboo implements, clay pots, and weapons. Their houses are protected from enimies
by means of mantraps or sharpened stakes which are carefully camouflaged and hidden in the paths
leading to their homes. They cultivative potatoes, gabi, mais, sugarcane, tobacco, etc. The men's attire is
limited to the G-string while the women wear a type of skirt which covers the hips down to a portion
just above the knees. Their weapons are bows and arrows, spears, round wooden shields, and a broad
sword. They have friendly relations with the Bicolanos with whiom they trade agricultural products
Polygamy is an accepted practice. The woman is sold or purchased at an average price of ten bushknives
to ten dollars in cash. During the marriage, the father of the bride gives a banquet during which coconut
palm wine is drunk. They believe in the existence of spirits, which they keep from doing harm by offering
them food and betel chew. Sometimes, a ritual practitioner goes into a trance to communicate with the
spirits.

ISAROG

The Isarog group is a class of Bicol Agta found in the vicinity of the Isarog volcano located in Iriga around
Buhi, near Mazaraga in the Cordillera of Caramuan, Camarines Sur and the neighborhood of Libon and
Tobaco, Albay, There are 7,711 of them scattered in those areas. Many do not have settlements but they
wander around like the Aetas or Negros. Others have houses that are scattered in the jungles. Those
who live in the vicinity of Marzaraga volcano are very friendly and live in peace with Christians, allowing
them to have some of their children baptized. Their physical appearance is like the other Agta groups
due to the intermarriage of Agta and lowlanders. They have deep seated eyes, brown skin color, curly
hair, and heighy of barely five feet tall. They have an ancient practice like that of the Dayaks of Borneo,
which is killing the first stranger that one meets upon the death of on of their relatives. They can speak
other languanges like Bicolano and Tagalog.
CHAPTER 8
PALANANUM
Consists of a mixed population whose members are nominal christians. Live in and around the
town of Palanan on the east coast of Isabela. The original settlement appears to have been
chiefly a Tagalog fishing village, founded by people on the east coast of Tayabas province or
thereabouts. Through intermarriage and close contact with the forest and seacoast of people of
that vicinity, coupled with relations with the people in Cagayan Valley, a mixed community
grew in which both a new culture and a new dialect gradually evolved. The Palananum culture
is similar to that of the coastal towns in northern Tayabas, but has some unique features.
Subsistence is partly from the sea, partly from agriculture, and partly from hunting and trade
with the Negritos and other forest people. The local economic life is almost self-sufficient and
depends little on imports, Substitutes for metal articles have been developed out of shell, horn,
bone, and wood. Like the Ivatan, the Palanan people are almost isolated from the rest of the
country for lack of communication facilities.

TAGBANUA
Inhabit the eastern and western coastal areas of central Palawan Island, living largely within the
municipalities of Aborlan, Quezon, and Puerto Princesa. They are also found in Coron Island,
North of Palawan, Northern Palawan, Busuanga Island and Baras coast. The estimated
population of Tagbanua is 129,691. They speak the Palawano language and several dialects like
Tandulanon, Silanganon, and Baras in each locality, while they can comprehend Tagalog, Batak,
Cuyonen, and Calawian languages. They dress just like the non-tribe lowlanders but some eld r
men prefer to use G-strong for comfort while tilling the field or fishing. For building their
houses, the forest provides them construction materials such as bamboo and wood for a strong
frame, anahaw leaves for roof and walls, and bamboo slats for the flooring. The basic social unit
of the Tagbanuas is their nuclear family composed of married couple and their children. They
are monogamous Five Facts about the Tagbanua Tribe The Tagbanua tribe is one of the oldest
tribes in the Philippines and has a rich cultural history. They are largely found in central and
northern Palawan - one of the southern islands of the Philippines.

Here are five awesome facts about the Tagbanua tribe.

1. The Tagbanua are some of the oldest people in the Philippines. The Tagbanua are considered
as one of the oldest ethnic groups in the Philippines. Research has found that the Tagbanua
people may be descendants of the Tabon Man - remains found in the Philippines dating from
more than 16,500 years ago - meaning they may be one of the original inhabitants of the
Philippines.
2. They have sovereignty over their own land. The Tagbanua tribe of Coron were given a
Certificate of Ancestral Domain Title for more than 22,000 hectares of both land and sea.
Therefore, the Tagbanua tribe has the right to manage their land and resources as they please,
which is important in maintaining their traditions that have sustained their people for centuries.
3. The Religion of the Tagbanua. While the majority of the Philippines follows Catholicism, the
Tagbanua maintain their own spiritual religion and devotion to their deities through ritual,
dance, and music. Since they maintain sovereignty over their own lands, many spiritual
landmarks in Coron island are protected from tourists. Only two lakes - Kayangan Lake and
Barracuda Lake - are open to the public.
4. The Tagbanua are a traditionally musical people. During many rituals and gatherings, the
Tagbanua use an assortment of instruments, many of which are traditional to their land and
history. For example, many instruments - such as the nose flute (babarak) or boat flute
(kudlung) - are made from trees that are native to the area. Today, the mouth flute (tipanu) and
traditional gongs (babandil) are still used, but in tandem with modern acoustic guitars and
ukulele.
5. The Tagbanua have their own language. There are between 120 and 175 languages and
dialects throughout the Philippines, and there are three main dialects within the Tagbanua
tribe: Aborian Tagbanua, Calamian Tagbanua, and Central Tagbanua. In addition to their own
language, the Tagbanua can also speak the different local dialects of Palawan. A portion of the
community may also understand Tagalog, Batak, and Cuyonon - other Filipino languages and
dialects. The Tagbanuas live in compact villages of 45 to 500 individuals. They cultivate rice in
swidden or kaingin field which is intercropped with sweet potato, corn, and cassava. Those in
the coastal areas indulge in fishing and exchange it with agricultural products for consumption.
They also gather forest products such as gum, rattan, and honey for cash. The highest potential
source of income for the Tagbanuas are handicrafts particularly woodworking, mat-making and
basketry, the raw materials for which are readily available to them.

TAU'T BATO
The Tau't Batu or Taw Batu means "people of the rock" They were found by a study team to be
still residing in their cave-homes although others had already moved out to the open slopes.
They occupy the Singnapan Basin, a bowl shaped valley situated in the southwestern part of
Palawan, bounded by Mt. Mantalingajan on the east and a coastal terrain on the west. On the
North lies the municipality of Quezon and on the south, the deeper hinterlands of southern
Palawan which are still unexplored. Their population is about 198 individuals. The Tau't Batu
are very articulate in Palawan, a language spoken by the different groups in the southern
portion of the island and the Tau't Batu language. Only two men could speak Tagalog, Lineas
and Ujir, both Palawans who married Tau't Batu women. The Tau't Batu are still primitive in
their life-style, even in the way of dressing. The men still wear G-strings made of bark and cloth
and the women wear a piece of cloth made into skirts to cover the lower body. Both of them
are half-naked but sometimes women wear a blouse which is not indigenous but obtained
through the market system. The Tau't Batu craftmanship is more cruder compared with other
Palawan group, except in exceptional cases involving basketry. Around cave-dwellings, for
example, they construct a light and sturdy lattice-work made of saplings lashed together and
anchored fast crevices in the walls to provide access to the caves. The construction does not
depend on any major framework to hold the unit against the walls. The anchorage is distributed
all along the framework such that the breakdown of one section can be compensated for by the
rest of the construction. With conditions varying in different caves, there are modifications and
elaborations on the basic datag or sleeping platform, paga or multi-purpose platforms, and
lagkaw or granary. There are two musical instruments known, the Kubing and Kudlong aside
from the gong. They are swidden cultivators, practicing multiple cropping with cassava as the
major source of carbohydrate. They also produce sweet potato, sugarcane, malunggay, garlic,
pepper, string beans, squash,tomato, pineapple, etc. Throughout the year, hunting and forging
is pursued to complement the carbohydrate diet of the people. Most of the wild pigs are caught
through spring traps. They also indulge in sambi or (barter) and dagang (monetary exchange).
The trade is specifically for marine fish which the people of Candawaga province in exchange
for horticultural products of the Tau't Batu. Dagang involves forest products like almaciga,
rattan, etc. The basic social unit among the Tau't Batu of Singnapan is the Ka-asawan or
marriage group. This extends from the basic couple, man and woman, to the more complex
arrangements of a compounded and extended family grouping. The Ka-asawan or household
units are further grouped into larger associations called bulun-bulun which literally means
gathering. These multi-household bands are physically bounded in the terms of habitation. Each
bulun-bulun ordinarily occupies a single cave for residence, or a single house complex in the
swidden area. One thing clear is that membership in a bulun-bulun is characterized by the
system of sharing through different types of social and material exchanges. A prominent
example being the sharing of food.

BATAK
Bataks are inhabitants of the North-eastern portion of Palawan Island, from the Babuyan river
on the south to the vicinity of Malcampo on the north. There are approximately 9,135 Batak
people. They are Malayo- Polynesian, with strong affinities to the Central Bisayan group of
Philippine Languages. Most men are bilingual in both Batak and Tagbanua. They practice
agriculture, fishing, hunting, and industrial arts and trade for economic subsistence. The levels
of social organization are the family, based on kin ties, the band based on subsistence activities
and the settlement based on geographic locality. In marriage, the Bataks are free to choose
their partner and have to offer the bride price. Bride service is not compulsory, except when the
father of the bride demands it. Mostly, they are monogamous, and polygamy is rarely
practiced. Intergenerational marriage is prohibited but divorce is allowed especially in cases
where there is severe marital conflict. They call their elder leaders Kapitan, and choose them
from among the best hunters and fighters. The local group expert on customary law is called
Masikampo, and conducts all important meetings of elders. They believe in the spirits of nature
and the supernaturals. They use intermediaries to these spirits called Babaylan.

PALAWANON
Also known as Palawani or Pinalawan are still in the stage of being Islamized. Many are recent
converts to Islam, while about half of their estimated number are animists. They are mostly
found inhabiting the southern interior of Palawan, particularly the areas south of Apu Rauan on
the west coast and south Abu-Abu on the east coast. Some are also distributed among the
other Bangsa Moro groups in the Balakbak Bugsuk Island group. The Palawanons closely
resemble the Tagbanua (literally "people of the village") and in the past they were doubtless
the same people. Some Tausug residents in Palawan call the Palawanons Traan "People in
Scuttered Places". Like the Yakan of Basilan, the Palawanons live in houses of sight of each
other, scattered among their plots of farm land. Their main occupation is subsistence farming,
cultivating mainly upland rice.

REMONTADO
No one knows exactly how the Remontados acquired their tribal names. According to the old
folks it was a name given to them by the Spaniards when confronted with their mountain
people's ways. It is estimated that there are 8,028 tribe members today in the provinces of Rizal
and Quezon. The Remontados are half-lowlanders for they are crosses between the offspring of
a Dumagat father and a lowlander mother. They have brown complexion, light curly hair, and
medium height. They are nomadic and practice swidden agriculture, producing camote,
cassava, gabi, ubi, and rice for daily consumption. Remontados women wear kimona (blouse)
and saya (skirt) and the men wear camiseta (shirt) and G-string if pants are not available. They
build fire outside their house using a bamboo called puyos. They cook their food in a bamboo
and leaves of tigbak which they call binunyog. They practice this when they are outside their
house. Their houses are of light material like bamboo, cogon grass, and rattan. They gather
forest products such as rattan, almaciga, and orchids. They also make charcoal in addition to
what they gather for money. They also hunt wild pigs and deer and sell the salted meat.
Remontados contract marriage at an early age as young as ten years old. No marriage rites are
held. The parents of the girl set the period of balaihan which is the wedding celebration and,
before the celebration ends, the elders of both parties give advice to the congregation that the
two are already married. They have no specific religion but they believe in God who created the
earth. They honor the spirits of their dead and give food offerings of which they partake after
the offering ritual, especially during a first harvest of crops.

SAMA
Within the Sulu sea basin alone, the majority of the coastal people belong to the Sama cultural
community. The term Sama is a derivative of the word "sama-sama" meaninDATUg
togetherness. Hence the 171,065 Sama members may be described as a cohesive and peace-
loving people. They express themselves through verbal discussion and less through physical
violence. Each Sama sub-group is identified geographically according to the name of their
coastal settlement. These include: Sama Simunul, Sama Balimbing, Sama Tawi-tawi, Sama
Sibutu, and Sama Ubian, Each of them have varied ancestral backgrounds, outlooks in life,
economic lifeways, and types of social upbringing. The Sama Simunuls claim to have descended
from a mixture of Arab and native blood. They point to the color of their skin and physical traits
as evidence of such descent. The Sama Tawi-Tawis are said to have come originally from
Johore. Their ancestors are believed to have crossed the ocean through small outriggers. Their
forefathers were powerful men, having their supernatural power to invite unseen spirits called
Jin to do things for them. This Sama group as belonging to the Datu class. Like the Sama Tawi-
Tawis, the Sama Sibutus also possess the limuh (knowledge) of Jinism or spiritism. The Sama
Ubians are Sea Dayak in Origin. Among the Sama tribes who are generally peace-loving, the
Sama Ubians are an exception. They are fierce fighters like the Tausugs. Their physical
appearance is stocky and short with brown complexion. Their well-built physique may be
attributed to their love of aquatic sports, swimming, and rowing. Sama houses usually built
along coastal settlements for two reasons. Sanitation, because of the natural movements of the
tide, and easy escape form enemies through ready vintas (boats). Sama society is composed of
the Barbangsa, of royal blood or nobility, and Mahardika, commoners who are free to exercise
their basic rights over their private properties and their own professed religion. Datuship carries
both social and political status to an individual. Socially, a datu is clothed with a sense of higher
maratapat (prestige). A headman sometimes claims to be a descendant of Kasalipan. He is
followed by the people because of his Sharif lineage, coupled with his extraordinary limuh
(wisdom) and personal traits of honesty, justice, and fairness. He acts as an arbiter of conflicts,
counsellor of marital problems, and even as a leader of religious celebrations. From the birth to
death, the lifecycle of the Sama is full of taboos emanating from folk religion and spiritism,
interwoven with those of other doctrines. The Samas have the notion that the occurrence of
luck and misfortune in the life of an individual is due to their belief in the concept of Kadar Iban
Janji or what has been willed and destined by the Divine. The Sama divide themselves into two
basic categories: the land-oriented Sama (sometimes called Sama Dilaya or Sama Diliya), who
are typically associated with a specific geographic location, and the nomadic or formerly
nomadic sea-based Sama Dilaut, often called “sea gypsies," who historically lack such
geographic ties.

CUYONON
Cuyonen or Cuyonon are mostly found in Cuyo Island, Palawan. They are engaged in swidden
farming and fishing. The conversion of the people in Cuyo Island to Christianity has led to the
merger of the animistic beliefs of the Cuyonen with the Christian elements to produce a folk
Christianity which is the prevailing belief of the Cuyonon. The Cuyonon are believed to be of
Malay origin They are of medium build with brown complexion, and with straight or curly hair.
The Cuyonon speak the Cuyono dialect.

CHAPTER 9
Jama Mapun, Samal, Sangil, Subanon, Sulod, Bukinon of Panay
Jama Mapun
-The Jama Mapun, on closer examination may not be a distinct ethnic group. The Jama Mapun
are rather another Sama sub-group. Their language, called Pullun Mapun, is just a dialect of the
Sama language. The Jama Mapuns inhabit the Cagayan de Sulu and Turtle (Taganak) Islands,
and are also found in Southern Palawan. The word Jama is a variation of the word Sama, and
denotes west, i.e., west of Jolo Island. The Jama Mapuns refer to Jolo Island as "East" and their
own Cagayan de Sulu as "West", a concept derived from the time when the Jama Mapun had a
strong client relationship with the Sultanate of Sulu centered in Jolo. The Jama Mapuns earn
thejr livelihood much like the other Sama groups except that also cultivate upland rice. The
latter activity is mainly done in Southern Palawan. The Jama Mapun tribe is often mistakenly
identified as Samal or Badjao, considering the fact that they mingle with these two tribes. The
only distribution of this ethnic group is that originally they occupied the overlapping jurisdiction
of the sultans of Sulu and Brunei and later on mixed with the Samals and Badjaos. The Jama
Mapuns primarily engage in dry rice agriculture, copra production, and trading. In the smaller
islands and islets, they engage in fishing. Jama Mapund are found in Cagayan de Tawi-Tawi and
in southern Palawan. Marriage among the Jama Mapuns normally involved the payment of a
bride price by the groom. Marriage among the first degree cousins is common to them. In
socio-political organization, their datu personifies the secular sector while the salip represents
the sacred order. They share between these the function of social control and justice.
Samal
-The Samal tribe is divided into two major branches traceable to their recent geographical
origin. The Western Samals predominate in the islands and Coastal regions to the west of Jolo.
The Eastern Samals trace their ancestry to the east of Jolo. The Eastern Samals were regarded
as pirates and slaves. They posed a serious threat in the area of present-day Malaysia and
Western Indonesia. Samal settlement is characterized as small compact communities of 100-
500 resident often organized as wards within villages and towns. Small houses generally consist
of one or more small, rectangular rooms and an attached kitchen located on a single level and
raised above the ground on wooden pilings. In Samal community, a couple is normally
recognized as married if they have established residence and a sexual relationship with one
another. Dowry to the bride's father is common to Samal marriage arrangement. On socio-
political organization, Panglima is recognized as a leader in Samal community. Social control
rest on him. Nowadays, a great number of Samals are found in Zamboanga City, Basilan and
even in Zamboanga del Norte and Zamboanga del Sur who have migrated in search of better
economic clout.

Sangil
-The Sangils inhabit the islands of Balut Sarangani and parts of the coastal area of South
Cotabato and Davao del Sur provinces. The word Sangil is derived from Sangihe, an archipelago
in eastern Indonesia located between Sulawesi (Celebes) and Mindanao which was the original
home of the Sangil. In the past, the Sangils were among the buccaneers who attacked Spanish
held teritorry in the Visayas and Luzon. The Sangils had been Muslim prior to their arrival in
Southern Mindanao. Their migration perhaps came about as a result of Dutch colonial pressure
and increasing Christianization of their homeland (Sangihe Archipelago) starting in the second
half of 18th century. Their language seems to show affinity with the Sama language in terms of
commonality of vocabularies, similarity of the manner of speaking, and the sound of the
utterances of words. The Sangils earn their livelihood by fishing and cultivating small quantities
of food crops. A fee of them engage in boat-building of vessels like vintas and pumpboats.

Subanon
-The Subanons are concentrated in the province of Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga del Norte,
and parts of Misamis Occidental. The Subanons have very strong kinship ties and still practice
hereditary succession and other traditions, customs, and beliefs. The Subanon society is said to
be patriarchal, with the family as the basic governmental unit. A person who is tasked to lead
the community is given the title of a Timuay. The Timuay is expected by the community to
settle disputes and to be concerned with all matters that are confronting the community.
Majority of the Subanons dwell sporadically in the Interlands of Zamboanga del Sur. They
depend on farming called Kaingin as their means of livelihood. Usually, after harvest, they
engage in hunting and fishing to augment their farm income. Male Subanons are dressed in
long pants called lambong and a long sleeved shirt called sinupa. The women wear skirts called
tapis and blouses called kasinupo same as that are worn by the men. Both men and women
wear turbans on their heads.

Sulod
The most numerous of the various cultural-linguistic group inhabiting the mountains of Central
Panay, Tapaz, Capiz, Lambunao, Iloilo, Valderama, Antique provinces are the Sulod who are
relatively unassimilated. Their estimated population is 13,814. The Sulod occupy the rugged
finger-like slopes along the banks of the river in the interior and higher mountain. It is because
of the sandwich-like location of their territory that the inhabitants are called by their neighbors
Sulod which literally means closet or room. They speak the Sulod dialect with the combination
of Kiniray-a and Ililigaynon. The Sulods live in small discrete settlements, called puru, which are
generally located near their Kaingin or swidden. Each settlement averages five tkt seven
houses. They look upon themselves as a social unit, being conscious of common interests and
loyalties and having a perfectly clear idea as to which families belong to the unit and which do
not. The standard house of the Sulods is a four-walled, one-room dwelling raised about three or
four meteres above the ground on bamboo or timber posts and supported on all sides by
several props called sulay. The roof is made of cogon thatch and the walls with flattened
bamboo or bark of trees. Bamboo slats are the materials for flooring. They are shifting
cultivators and do not stay in one place for more than two years. Hunting is another source of
subsistence. They also catch fish with the use of hook and line and fish traps. Aside from
hunting and fishing, gathering vegetable products and edible fungi is a way of securing
supplementary food. The ordinary attire of the Sulods is like that of the lowland Bisayans. The
women wear jackets with long narrow sleeves, usually made of silk and cotton with harmonious
color. A band of red cloth is worn by women to hold up the barrel skin. On special occasions,
the women wear a head dress of a narrow strip of cloth with silver coins seen on it with
necklaces made of colored glass beads and silver coins strung together. The young men wear
trousers and and a shirt but some elder prefer to wear the traditional G-string. Their headwear
is an ordinary buri hat during dry season and saduk during rainy days. The spear is the Sulod's
most indispensable weapon which he carries in work and in travel. They have very few
household utensils. Coconut shells are used for drinking cups. They do not have tables or chairs;
they sit or squat on the floor to eat. The musical instruments include the drum, gong, bamboo
violin, bamboo flute, bamboo percussion, and bamboo jew's harp. There are at least two
famous dances, the binanug and kuratsa. The leader of the group which regulates the political,
social, and economic affairs of the Sulod community is the Kahimataan. He participates in
marriage arrangements, in the performances of community rituals, in the settlement of family
feuds, in the payment of wergild, and in many other cooperative organization of the Sulod
social, economic, and ritual life which is beyond the capacity of the nuclear family to handle.
The Baylans are either men or women whose function is to communicate with major spirits
during the important seances, to interpret dreams and omens relative to the general welfare of
the communities, and to handle special magico-religious performances during ceremonies. The
Mirku is called upon to administer herb medicine to the sick.

Bukidnon of Panay
The Bukidnons are another group of mountain people in Panay. "Bukid" means mountain and
"non" is the Ililigaynon term usually connected to people. Their population is estimated to be
1,993. The basis of their economic subsistence is shifting agriculture called Kaingin,
supplemented by hunting, fishing, and gathering. Despite occasional contracts with the
Christian lowlanders, no dramatic social and cultural changes have occured except that
Bukidnons have adapted the lowlanders way of dressing. They retained traditional practices
within their customary laws on marriage and remarriage of the surviving spouse, showing the
importance of socio-religious activities and kinship. Rituals and ceremonies which are still being
practiced arose from beliefs that the relationship between the spirits of the dead continue, and
that thr environmental spirits have influence over the affairs of men. Leadership is assumed by
the oldest man in each settlement. He also settles disputes and leads annual social and religious
activities.