REVIEW OUTLINE

Digestion in
1. Digestion
a. Intracellular
b. Extracellular
Humans 2. Humans
a. Mechanical digestion
b. Chemical digestion
Digestion in Humans Bootcamp.com

Digestion

Breaking down large pieces of food down into smaller pieces

Preparation of food for nutrient absorption

 Digestion in Humans Bootcamp.com

Intracellular Digestion

Unicellular organisms and some human cells can digest food via phagocytosis

Phagocytosis: Cellular intake and breakdown of food or foreign agents

Amoeba: Unicellular organisms that utilize

pseudopods to engulf food and trap it in a vaccule

Pseudopods: Temporary, finger-like projections of the

amoeba plasma membrane
● Cell movement and eating
 Digestion in Humans Bootcamp.com

Extracellular Digestion

Digestion that occurs outside of individual cells

● Utilize tissues, organs, and muscles to digest food

Human Digestive System Accessory Organs:

● Pancreas
● Liver
● Gallbladder
 Digestion in Humans Bootcamp.com

Digestion in Humans
Mouth

Two Openings of the Human Digestive Tract:

● Mouth and Anus

Mechanical Digestion: Using tissues, muscles, and organs to

physically break down food

Chemical Digestion: Using enzymes to chemically break

down food

Anus
Digestion in Humans Bootcamp.com

Mini Quiz!
What is the name of the temporary projection that amoeba
use to engulf food from their environment?

A Pseudopod
B Pseudomonas
C Pancreas
D Flagella
REVIEW OUTLINE

Digestion in
1. Digestion is the breakdown of food into small
pieces prior to absorption

Humans 2. Intracellular digestion is when food is brought into

a single cell and broken down within its membrane
3. Extracellular digestion is when food is eaten by an
organism and is broken down using muscles,
organs, and tissues
4. The two openings of the human digestive system
are the mouth and the anus
5. Mechanical digestion is the physical breakdown of
food using structures like organs and muscles
6. Chemical digestion is the chemical breakdown of
food using enzymes
REVIEW OUTLINE

Mouth,
1. Mouth
a. Mechanical and chemical digestion begin
b. Creation of a bolus
Pharynx, and 2. Pharynx
a. Epiglottis

Esophagus 3. Esophagus
a. Peristalsis
 Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus Bootcamp.com

Mouth

Mechanical + Chemical Digestion

Mechanical Digestion: Occurs via chewing in the

mouth

Chemical Digestion: Occurs via salivary amylase

in the mouth
● Targets carbohydrates (starch breakdown
into maltose)
Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus Bootcamp.com

Mouth

● Contains the enzyme salivary amylase

● Lubricates food and creates a bolus
 Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus Bootcamp.com

Pharynx v. Esophagus v. Trachea

Pharynx: A cavity that is common to both the digestive and

respiratory systems
● Eventually splits into the esophagus and trachea via the
epiglottis

Esophagus: Muscular tube responsible for guiding food to

the stomach
● Upper third is skeletal muscle - lower third is smooth
muscle - middle third is a combination of both

Trachea: Cartilage reinforced tube responsible for guiding

air to the lungs
Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus Bootcamp.com

Peristalsis

The involuntary muscular function of the

esophagus
which allows it to guide food to the stomach
Mouth, Pharynx, and Esophagus Bootcamp.com

Mini Quiz!
What is the target of chemical digestion in the mouth?

A Proteins
B Fats
C Carbohydrates
D Nucleic acids
REVIEW OUTLINE

Mouth,
1. Mechanical digestion begins in the mouth with
chewing

Pharynx, and 2. Chemical digestion begins in the mouth by using

salivary amylase to target carbohydrates
Esophagus 3. Saliva in the mouth contains salivary amylase and
also helps to form a food bolus
4. The pharynx is a cavity that is common to both the
digestive and respiratory systems
5. The esophagus is a muscular tube that extend
from the pharynx and is responsible for guiding
food to the stomach via peristalsis
REVIEW OUTLINE

The Stomach
1. Digestion in the Stomach
a. Mechanical + Chemical Digestion
2. The Sphincters
a. Cardiac and Pyloric
b. Chyme
3. Cells of the gastric pits
a. Mucous cells
b. G cells
c. Parietal cells
d. Chief cells
4. Pathway overview
The Stomach Bootcamp.com

Digestion in the Stomach

Mechanical + Chemical Digestion

Mechanical Digestion: Via churning of certain

smooth muscle regions in the stomach
● Vigorous movement and agitation with the
intent of food processing

Chemical Digestion: Occurs via digestive

enzymes and highly acidic gastric juices

The appearance of food into the stomach causes distention

● Outward swelling of the stomach
 The Stomach Bootcamp.com

The Sphincters Cardiac

Sphincter

Cardiac Sphincter: Muscularized valve between the esophagus and

stomach
● Responsible for preventing backflow of food and gastric juices
into the esophagus

Pyloric Sphincter: Muscularized valve between the stomach and the

Stomach
small intestine
● Responsible for controlling the deposit of
chyme and gastric juice into the small
intestine
● Chyme: Acidic, semi-digested food

Pyloric
Sphincter
 The Stomach Bootcamp.com

Gastric Pits
Common indentations of the stomach lining which house various types of cells
● Mucous Cells
● G Cells
● Parietal Cells
● Chief Cells Distention of the stomach is the trigger
for gastric pit cells
 The Stomach Bootcamp.com

Cells of the Gastric Pits

Mucous Cells: Generate mucus that lubricates the
stomach lining and protects it from low pH acids

G Cells: Release the hormone gastrin in response to a

distended stomach
● Gastrin is the trigger for parietal cells and chief cells

Parietal Cells: Release HIGHLY ACIDIC gastric juice

● Made of hydrochloric acid HCL) with a pH of 2
 The Stomach Bootcamp.com

Cells of the Gastric Pits

Chief Cells: Releases gastric lipase and pepsinogen

Gastric Lipase
Stomach enzyme that hydrolyzes triglycerides (lipids/fats)

Pepsinogen
● Zymogen - inactive enzyme precursor
● Inactive pepsinogen + acid → active pepsin
○ Pepsin breaks down proteins in the
stomach
The Stomach Bootcamp.com

A Trip Through the Stomach

The Stomach Bootcamp.com

Mini Quiz!
What are chief cells responsible for in the stomach?

A Distending the stomach

B Releasing gastric lipase and a protein enzyme zymogen
C Releasing gastrin to trigger the parietal cells
D Releasing gastric juice with a pH of 2
REVIEW OUTLINE

1. Mechanical digestion in the stomach occurs via

The Stomach 2.
churning
Chemical digestion occurs in the stomach via highly
acidic gastric juices and enzymes
3. The cardiac sphincter is located at the entrance to the
stomach and prevents backflow into the esophagus
4. The pyloric sphincter is located at the exit of the
stomach and regulates deposits into the duodenum
5. Gastric pits house several cells that make chemical
digestion in the stomach possible
6. Mucous cells lubricate and protect the stomach lining
7. G cells release gastrin to trigger parietal and chief
cells
8. Parietal cells release highly acidic gastric juice
9. Chief cells release gastric lipase and pepsinogen
REVIEW OUTLINE

Small Intestine
1. Parts of the small intestine
a. Duodenum, jejunum, ileum
b. Digestion v. absorption
2. Goblet cells
3. Responses to chyme entering the duodenum
a. Small intestine
b. Pancreas
c. Gallbladder
d. Liver
4. Absorption
a. Peristalsis
b. Villi and microvilli
Small Intestine Bootcamp.com

Parts of the Small Intestine

Responsible for 90% of digestion and nutrient absorption

Three Main Regions of the Small Intestine:

● Duodenum
● Jejunum
● Ileum

Mnemonic: DJ Eye
● D - duodenum
● J - jejunum
● EYEI - ileum
Small Intestine Bootcamp.com

Parts of the Small Intestine

Digestion occurs in the Duodenum

Absorption occurs in the Jejunum and Ileum

 Small Intestine Bootcamp.com

Goblet Cells
Responsible for releasing a protective mucous to protect the small intestine epithelium
● Chyme is the harmful agent which goblet cell mucous must defend against

Goblet Cells
Small Intestine Bootcamp.com

Responses to Chyme Entering the Duodenum

The small intestine and digestive system accessory organs work together to properly
respond to and process acidic chyme from the stomach

Pancreas, gallbladder, and liver

Small Intestine Bootcamp.com

Small Intestine Responses to Chyme

● Releases the hormone Cholecystokinin CCK when proteins

and fats are recognized in the duodenum

○ Slows gastric emptying

○ Stimulates the pancreas to release digestive
enzymes
○ Stimulates the gallbladder to release bile

● Releases the hormone secretin

○ Stimulates the pancreas to release bicarbonate ion
Small Intestine Bootcamp.com

Pancreas Responses to Chyme

● Releases digestive enzymes due to stimulation by the hormone CCK

○ Pancreatic amylase: Digest carbohydrates (starch into maltose)

○ Trypsin and Chymotrypsin: Proteases (digest proteins)
■ Released as trypsinogen and chymotrypsinogen zymogens
■ Enteropeptidase converts trypsinogen to trypsin, trypsin
converts chymotrypsinogen to chymotrypsin
○ Secretes HCO3 (bicarbonate ion)
 Small Intestine Bootcamp.com

Liver and Gallbladder Responses to Chyme

Liver

● Produces bile (emulsified fats)

○ Important for absorption of fats

Gallbladder

● Stores and concentrates bile from the liver

● Releases bile into the duodenum when stimulated by CCK
Small Intestine Bootcamp.com

Cholecystokinin
(CCK)
Small Intestine Bootcamp.com

Digestion to Absorption
Digestion occurs in the Duodenum

Food moves from the duodenum to the jejunum

and ileum via peristalsis

Absorption occurs in the Jejunum and Ileum

Ileocecal Sphincter: Connects the small intestine to the large intestine

Small Intestine Bootcamp.com

Absorption
Enterocytes: Cells of the small intestine epithelium

Crypts: Invaginations in the intestinal cell wall containing cells which secrete enzymes
and produce new intestinal lining epithelial cells

Villi: Finger like projections of the enterocyte that

increase surface area for absorption
● Lined with microvilli (projections on the villi that
further increase surface area)
Small Intestine Bootcamp.com

Absorption in the Villi

Blood Capillaries: Responsible for absorption of glucose and amino acids

Lacteals: Small lymphatic vessels that take fat to the rest of the body
● Responsible for absorption of fatty acids
and glycerols
Small Intestine Bootcamp.com

Mini Quiz!
Which organ is associated with the digestive system and is
responsible for the production of Cholecystokinin CCK?

A Pancreas
B Small intestine
C Gallbladder
D Liver
REVIEW OUTLINE

1. 90% of digestion and absorption occurs in the small

Small Intestine 2.
intestine
The small intestine is made of the duodenum, the
jejunum, and the ileum
3. Goblet cells secrete mucous that projects the small
intestine epithelium from acidic chyme
4. The small intestine releases Cholecystokinin (CCK) in
response to chyme entering the duodenum
5. The pancreas releases digestive enzyme zymogens and
bicarbonate ions in response to chyme
6. The liver generates bile and the gallbladder releases it
into the duodenum in response to chyme
7. Absorption occurs via villi and microvilli in epithelial cells
of the jejunum and ileum
8. Blood capillaries in villi absorb glucose and amino acids
9. Lacteals in villi absorb fatty acids and glycerols
REVIEW OUTLINE

Liver and Large

1. The Liver
a. Functions of the liver
i. Blood maintenance
Intestine ii.
1. Filtering and detoxification
Glucose metabolism
1. Glycogenesis
2. Glycogenesis
3. Gluconeogenesis
iii. Protein Metabolism
2. The Large Intestine
a. Main Functions of the Large Intestine
b. Structures of the Large Intestine
i. Cecum, appendix, colon, rectum, anus
c. Structure - Function Relationships of the Large Intestine
i. Cecum, appendix, colon, rectum, anus
d. Bacteria and the Large Intestine
i. Microbiome
Liver and Large Intestine Bootcamp.com

Liver Functions
The liver is a multifunctional accessory organ to the digestive system

Mnemonic for liver functions - PUSH DoG

● Protein synthesis
● Urea synthesis
● Storage
● Hormone synthesis
● Detoxification
● Glucose and fat metabolism

Donʼt forget bile production!

Liver and Large Intestine Bootcamp.com

Liver Function: Blood Maintenance

● Hepatic Portal System: Filters and detoxifies blood that comes to the liver from
the digestive system
○ Processes the newly present nutrients in
the blood
● Metabolizes chemicals and drugs in the
blood in order to detoxify the body

Detoxification Byproducts

Bile Urea

Intestines Kidneys
Liver and Large Intestine Bootcamp.com

Liver Function: Blood Maintenance

Kupffer Cells: Phagocytes of the liver

● Target red blood cells

● Break down hemoglobin in the red blood cells
into bilirubin for bile
Liver and Large Intestine Bootcamp.com

Liver Function: Glucose Metabolism

1. Glycogenesis
2. Glycogenolysis
3. Gluconeogenesis
Liver and Large Intestine Bootcamp.com

Liver Function: Glucose Metabolism

Glycogenesis: The construction of glycogen polymer from many glucose monomers

● Method of carbohydrate storage in times of excess glucose

Glycogenesis
Liver and Large Intestine Bootcamp.com

Liver Function: Glucose Metabolism

Glycogenolysis: The breakdown of glycogen polymer into glucose monomers for use

● Method of carbohydrate release in times low glucose levels

Liver and Large Intestine Bootcamp.com

Liver Function: Glucose Metabolism

Gluconeogenesis: Creation of new glucose by the
liver

● Glycerol and amino acids get converted into

glucose
Liver and Large Intestine Bootcamp.com

Liver Function: Protein Metabolism

● Synthesis of plasma proteins from amino acids
○ Creation of albumin and blood clotting factors

● Conversion of ammonia into urea

○ Converting the dangerous byproduct
of protein metabolism into a safer version
for excretion
Liver and Large Intestine Bootcamp.com

The Large Intestine

Main Functions:

1. Water absorption
2. Mineral (salt) absorption
3. Vitamin production and absorption
a. Reliant on a mutualistic relationship with
certain bacterial species
Liver and Large Intestine Bootcamp.com

Structures of the Large Intestine

Transverse Colon

Ascending Colon Descending Colon

Cecum

Rectum
Appendix
Anus
 Liver and Large Intestine Bootcamp.com

Structure - Function Relationships of the Large Intestine

Cecum: The initial structure of the large intestine
● Site of water and mineral absorption in the large intestine

Appendix: Vestigial structure of the large intestine

● Appendicitis - inflammation of the appendix

Colon: Completion of water absorption and feces hardening

● Split into the ascending, transverse, and descending
colons
 Liver and Large Intestine Bootcamp.com

Structure - Function Relationships of the Large Intestine

Rectum: Site of feces storage in the large intestine

Anus: Site of feces expulsion from the large intestine

Liver and Large Intestine Bootcamp.com

Bacteria and the Large Intestine

Microbiome: The range of bacterial species which coexist in the human large intestine and
aid digestion
● 99% obligate anaerobes

Helpful Functions:
● Production of B and K vitamins
● Metabolism of bile acid
○ Key indication of healthy intestinal microbiome
● Fermentation of fiber
Liver and Large Intestine Bootcamp.com

Mini Quiz!
Which of the following is not a function of the liver?

A Detoxification of blood
B Hormone synthesis
C Fat metabolism
D Water reabsorption
REVIEW OUTLINE

1. Liver functions include: protein synthesis,urea synthesis,

Liver and Large storage, hormone synthesis, detoxification, glucose and
fat metabolism
Intestine 2. The liver processes blood by filtration and detoxification
3. The liver maintains glucose levels via three mechanisms:
glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, and gluconeogenesis
4. Protein metabolism occurs in the liver
5. Large intestine functions include water absorption,
mineral absorption, and vitamin production
6. The cecum absorbs water and minerals
7. The appendix is a vestigial structure of the large intestine
8. The colon completes water absorption
9. The rectum stores feces and the anus expels feces
10. Coexisting intestinal bacteria make up the microbiome
11. The microbiome is responsible for vitamin production,
bile acid metabolism, and fiber fermentation
 Digestive System Bootcamp.com

References

Slides 1,7, “Stomach Logo”: Created with BioRender.com

Slide 2, “Amoeba and Digestive System”: Created with BioRender
Slide 3, “Amoeba”: Created with BioRender
Slide 4, “Digestive System”: Created with BioRender
Slide 5, “Digestive System with a Person”: Created with BioRender
Slides 8,14, “Upper Digestive System”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 9, “Giraffe Chewing”, Kevinsphotos, https://pixabay.com/photos/giraffe-chewing-wildlife-animal-1575099/
Slide 10, “Bolus Highlighted in Yellow”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 11, <a
href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Drawing_and_CT_Scan_of_Normal_Epiglottis_and_Surrounding_
Structures.png">Carl Ernest Bock (1809-1874) and Mikael Häggström</a>, Public domain, via Wikimedia
Commons
Slides 15,23, “The Stomach”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 16, “Digestion in the Stomach”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 17, “The Sphincters”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 18, “Cells of the gastric pit in the mucosa”, Cenveo,
https://pressbooks.ccconline.org/bio106/chapter/digestive-levels-of-organization/
Slide 21, “Basic Stomach”: Created with BioRender.com
 Digestive System Bootcamp.com

References

Slides 24,37, “The Small Intestine”: Created with BioRender.com

Slide 25,26,33, <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2417_Small_IntestineN.jpg">OpenStax
College</a>, <a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0">CC BY 3.0</a>, via Wikimedia Commons
Slide 27, “Goblet Cells”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 28, “Pancreas, Gallbladder, Liver, and Digestive System”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 29, “Small Intestine”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 30, “Pancreas”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 31, “Gallbladder and Liver”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 34, <a
href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Villi_%26_microvilli_of_small_intestine.svg">BallenaBlanca</a>,
<a href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0">CC BY-SA 4.0</a>, via Wikimedia Commons
Slides 48,53, “Liver + Large Intestine Logo”: Created with BioRender.com
Slides 39,40,41,46, “Liver and Digestive System”: created with BioRender.com
Slide 42, “Glucose Face”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 47, “The Large Intestine but Blue”: Created with BioRender.com
Slides 48,49,50, “Large Intestine Diagram”: Created with BioRender.com
Slide 51, “Intestinal Microbiome”, OpenClipart-Vectors / 27376 images,
https://pixabay.com/vectors/anatomy-bacteria-bacterium-bowels-160524/