CHAPTER 1

Integration

1.1 Antiderivatives

We have studied how to find the derivative of a function. However, many problems require that we
recover a function from its known derivative (from its known rate of change). For instance, we may
know the velocity function of an object falling from an initial height and need to know its height at
any time. More generally, we want to find a function F from its derivative f. If such a function F
exists, it is called an antiderivative of f. We will see in the next chapter that antiderivatives are
the link connecting the two major elements of calculus: derivatives and definite integrals.
Finding Antiderivatives

Definition 1.1.1 A function F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I if F 0 (x) = f (x) for all

x in I.

The process of recovering a function F(x) from its derivative f(x) is called antidifferentiation.
We use capital letters such as F to represent an antiderivative of a function f, G to represent an
antiderivative of g, and so forth.

Example 1.1.1 Find an antiderivative for each of the following functions.

1
(a) f (x) = 2x (b) g(x) = cos x (c) g(x) = + 2e2x
x
The function F (x) = x2 is not the only function whose derivative is 2x. The function x2 + 1 has
the same derivative. So does for any constant C. Note that any two antiderivatives of a function
differ by a constant. So the functions x2 + C, where C is an arbitrary constant, form all the
antiderivatives of f (x) = 2x. More generally, we have the following result.

Theorem 1.1.1 If F is an antiderivative of f on an interval I, then the most general antiderivative

of f on I is F (x) + C where C is an arbitrary constant.

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2 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

Table 1.1 gives an antiderivative formulas for a number of important functions

Function General Antiderivative
1
1. xn xn+1 + C, n , −1
n+1
1
2. sin kx − cos kx + C
k
1
3. cos kx sin kx + C
k
1
4. sec2 kx tan kx + C
k
1
5. csc2 kx − cot kx + C
k
1
6. sec kx tan kx sec kx + C
k
1
7. csc kx cot kx − csc kx + C
k
1 kx
8. ekx e +C
k
1
9. ln |x| + C, x , 0
x
1 1
10. √ sin−1 kx + C
1 − k 2 x2 k
1 1
11. tan−1 kx + C
1 + k 2 x2 k
1
12. √ sec−1 kx + C, kx > 1
x k x2 − 1
2
1
 
13. akx akx + C, a > 0, a , 0.
k ln a

Table 1.1: Antiderivative formulas, k a nonzero constant

Example 1.1.2 Find an antiderivative of f (x) = 3x2 that satisfies F (1) = −1.

Example 1.1.3 Find the general antiderivative of each of the following functions.
1
(i.) f (x) = x5 (ii.) g(x) = √ (iii.) h(x) = sin 2x
x
x
(iv.) i(x) = cos (v.) j(x) = e−3x (vi.) k(x) = 2x
2
We can add and subtract antiderivatives and multiply them by constants.

Function General Antiderivative

1. Constant Multiple Rule: kf x kF x + C, k a constant
2. Negative Rule: −f x −F x + C, k a constant
3. Sum or Difference Rule: f (x) ± g(x) F (x) ± G(x) + C

Table 1.2: Antiderivative Linearity Rules

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3 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

Example 1.1.4 Find the general antiderivative of

3
f (x) = √ + sin 2x.
x
Indefinite Integrals
A special symbol is used to denote the collection of all antiderivatives of a function f.

Definition 1.1.2 The collection of all antiderivatives of f is called indefinite integral of f with
respect to x, and is denoted by Z
f (x) dx
Z
The symbol is an integral sign. The function f is the integrand of the integral, and x is the
variable of integration.

After the integral sign in the notation we just defined, the integrand function is always followed by
a differential to indicate the variable of integration. We will have more to say about why this is
important in the next section.

Example 1.1.5 Use the integral notation to restate the solutions of Example 1.1.1
Z  
Example 1.1.6 Evaluate x2 − 2x + 5 dx.

Example 1.1.7 Find the initial value problems

dy
(a) = 10 − x, y(0) = −1
dx
ds
(b) = cos t + sin t, s(π) = 1
dt
d2 r 2 dr
(c) 2
= 3 , |t=1 = 1, r(1) = 1
dt t dt
d3 θ 1 √
(d) 3
= 0, θ00 (0) = −2, θ0 (0) = − , θ(0) = 2
dt 2
5 √ 1
Test yourself 1.1 1. Find an antiderivative for each function (a.) 2 − (b.) x + √ (c.)
x2 x
√
3 1 2 1
x+ √ (d.) csc x cot x (e.) √ (f.)
3
x 1−x2 1 + 4x2
t
Z Z  
2. Find the most general antiderivative or indefinite integral. (a.) (x + 1) dx (b.) 3t2 + dt
2
Z
√ √
Z
5
Z
2θ
Z Z  
(c.) x + 3 x dx (d.) x− 4 dx (e.) 7 sin dθ (f.)
sec θ tan θ dθ (g.) 4 sec x tan x − 2 sec2 x d
53 !
2 1
Z   Z   Z
2 2
(h.) 4 sec x tan x − 2 sec x dx (i.) sin 2x − csc x dx (j.) p
2
− 1 dy
1 − y y4
csc θ
Z Z  
(k.) cos θ (tan θ + sec θ) dθ (l.) dθ
csc θ − sin θ

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4 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

3. Find the initial value problem

dy 2 dy
(a) = 3x− 3 , y(−1) = −5 (b) = 9x2 − 4x + 5, y(−1) = 0
dx dx
1 dr
(c) √ = 2x − 7, y(4) = 0 (d) = cos πθ, r(0) = 1
2 x dθ
dv 8 d2 y
(e) = + sec 2
t, t(0) = 1 (f) = 0, y 0 (0) = 2, y(0) = 0
dt 1 + t2 dx2
d3 y
(g) = 6, y 00 (0) = −8, y 0 (0) = 0, y(0) = 5
dx3

1.2 Area and Estimating with Finite Sums

The definite integral is the key tool in calculus for defining and calculating quantities important
to mathematics and science, such as areas, volumes, lengths of curved paths, probabilities, and
the weights of various objects, just to mention a few. The idea behind the integral is that we
can effectively compute such quantities by breaking them into small pieces and then summing the
contributions from each piece. We then consider what happens when more and more, smaller and
smaller pieces are taken in the summation process. Finally, if the number of terms contributing to
the sum approaches infinity and we take the limit of these sums in the way described in Section 1.3,
the result is a definite integral. The basis for formulating definite integrals is the construction
of appropriate finite sums. Although we need to define precisely what we mean by the area of a
general region in the plane, or the average value of a function over a closed interval, we do have
intuitive ideas of what these notions mean. So in this section we begin our approach to integration
by approximating these quantities with finite sums. We also consider what happens when we take
more and more terms in the summation process.
Area
Suppose we want to find the area of the shaded region R that lies above the x-axis, below the graph
of y = 1 − x2 , and between the vertical lines and (Figure (1.1))

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5 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

Figure 1.1: The area of the region R cannot be found by a simple formula.

While we do not yet have a method for determining the exact area of R, we can approximate
it in a simple way. Figure (1.2) shows two rectangles that together contain the region R. Each
1 3
rectangle has width 2 and they have heights 1 and 4 moving from left to right. The height of each
rectangle is the maximum value of the function f, obtained by evaluating f at the left endpoint of
the subinterval of [0, 1] forming the base of the rectangle.

Figure 1.2: (a) We get an upper estimate of the area of R by using two rectangles containing R. (b)
Four rectangles give a better upper estimate. Both estimates overshoot the true value for the area
by the amount shaded in light red.

Total area
The total area of the two rectangles approximates the area A of the region R as follows:

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6 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

Figure(a)
1 3 1 7
L2 ≈ 1 · + · = = 0.875 (Upper Sum)
2 4 2 8
Figure(b)

1 15 1 3 1 7 1 25
L4 ≈ 1 · + · + · + · = = 0.78125, (Upper Sum)
4 16 4 4 4 16 4 32

Since the two Figures (a) and (b) contain R, the two areas are greater than A.
Suppose instead we use four rectangles contained inside the region R to estimate the area of the
function f, obtained by evaluating f at the right endpoint of the subinterval of [0, 1] forming the
base of the rectangle, as in Figure (1.3).

Figure 1.3

Total area
Figure(c)

15 1 3 1 7 1 1 17
R4 ≈ · + · + · +0· = = 0.53125, (Lower Sum)
16 4 4 4 16 4 4 32

This estimate is smaller than the area A since the rectangles all lie inside of the region R. The true
value of A lies somewhere between these lower and upper sums:

0.53125 < A < 0.78125

By considering both lower and upper sum approximations we get not only estimates for the
area, but also a bound on the size of the possible error in these estimates since the true value
of the area lies somewhere between them. Here the error cannot be greater than the difference
0.78125 − 0.53125 = 0.25.

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7 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

Yet another estimate can be obtained by using rectangles whose heights are the values of f at
the midpoints of their bases (Figure 1.4). This method of estimation is called the midpoint rule
for approximating the area. The midpoint rule gives an estimate that is between a lower sum and
an upper sum, as shown in Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: d.

Total area
Figure(d)
But it is not quite so clear whether it overestimates or underestimates the true area. With four
1
rectangles of width 4 as before, the midpoint rule estimates the area of R to be

63 1 55 1 39 1 15 1 172 1
A≈ · + · + · + · = · = 0.671875.
64 4 64 4 64 4 64 4 64 4

By taking more and more rectangles, with each rectangle thinner than before, it appears that these
finite sums give better and better approximations to the true area of the region R. Here are two
examples shown in Figures 1.5 and 1.6 .

1
Figure 1.5: A lower sum using 16 rectangles of equal width ∆x = 16

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8 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

Figure 1.6: An upper sum using 16 rectangles.

Figure1.5 shows a lower sum approximation for the area of R using 16 rectangles of equal width.
The sum of their areas is 0.634765625, which appears close to the true area, but is still smaller since
the rectangles lie inside R. Figure 1.6 shows an upper sum approximation using 16 rectangles of
equal width. The sum of their areas is 0.697265625, which is somewhat larger than the true area
because the rectangles taken together contain R. The midpoint rule for 16 rectangles gives a total
area approximation of 0.6669921875, but it is not immediately clear whether this estimate is larger
or smaller than the true area.
Summary
The area under the graph of a positive function, the distance traveled by a moving object that
doesn’t change direction, and the average value of a nonnegative function over an interval can all
be approximated by finite sums. First we subdivide the interval into subintervals, treating the
appropriate function f as if it were constant over each particular subinterval. Then we multiply the
width of each subinterval by the value of f at some point within it, and add these products together.
(b − a)
If the interval [a, b] is subdivided into n subintervals of equal widths ∆x = , and if f (ck ) is
n
the value of f at the chosen point ck in the kth subinterval, this process gives a finite sum of the form

f (c1 )∆x + f (c2 )∆x + f (c3 )∆x + · · · + f (cn )∆x.

The choices for the ck could maximize or minimize the value of f in the kth subinterval, or give some
value in between. The true value lies somewhere between the approximations given by upper sums
and lower sums. The finite sum approximations we looked at improved as we took more subintervals
of thinner width.

Test yourself 1.2 Use finite approximations to estimate the area under the graph of the function
using (a) a lower sum with two rectangles of equal width. (b) a lower sum with four rectangles of
equal width.

8
9 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

(c) an upper sum with two rectangles of equal width. (d) an upper sum with four rectangles of equal
width.
(e) the midpoint rule with two rectangles of equal width. (f) the midpoint rule with four rectangles of
equal width.
1. f (x) = x2 between x = 0 and x = 1. 2. f (x) = x3 between x = 0 and x = 1.
1
3. f (x) = x between x = 1 and x = 5. 4. f (x) = 4 − x2 between x = −2 and x = 2.

1.3 Sigma Notation and Limits of Finite Sums

In this section, we introduce a more convenient notation for sums with a large number of terms.
After describing the notation and stating several of its properties, we look at what happens to a
finite sum approximation as the number of terms approaches infinity.
Finite Sums and Sigma Notation
Sigma notation enables us to write a sum with many terms in the compact form
n
X
ak = a1 + a2 + a3 + · · · + an−1 + an .
k=1
P
The Greek (Capital sigma, corresponding to our letter S), stands for "sum."
P
The index of summation k tells us where the sum begins (at the number below the symbol)
P
and where it ends (at the number above ).

Remark 1.3.1 Any letter can can be used to denote index, but the letters i, j, and k are custom-
ary.Here, we shall make use of the letter k.

Thus we can write

11
X
12 + 22 + 32 + 42 + 52 + 62 + 72 + 82 + 92 + 102 + 112 = k2 ,
k=1

and
100
X
f (1) + f (2) + f (3) + · · · + f (100) = f (k).
i=1
Algebra Rules for Finite Sums

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10 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

n
X n
X n
X
1. Sum Rule: (ak + bk ) = ak + bk
k=1 k=1 k=1
n
X n
X n
X
2. Difference Rule: (ak − bk ) = ak − bk
k=1 k=1 k=1
n
X n
X
3. Constant Multiple Rule: cak = c ak (Any number c)
k=1 k=1
n
X
4. Constant Value Rule: c = n · c (c is any constant value)
k=1

EVALUATING INTEGRALS
When we use a limit to evaluate a definite integral, we need to know how to work with sums. The
following three equations give formulas for sums of powers of positive integers.
n
X n(n + 1)
1. k=
k=1
2
n
X n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
2. k2 =
k=1
6
n 2
n(n + 1)
X 
3. k3 =
k=1
2

Definition 1.3.1 The area A of the region S that lies under the graph of the continuous function f
is the limit of the sum of the areas of approximating rectangles:
n
X
1. A = lim Rn = lim [f (x1 )∆x + f (x2 )∆x + · · · + f (xn )∆x+] = lim f (xk )∆x (Right
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
k=1
endpoints)
n
X
2. A = lim Ln = lim [f (x0 )∆x + f (x1 )∆x + · · · + f (xn−1 )∆x+] = lim f (xk−1 )∆x (Left
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
k=1
endpoints)
n
3. A = lim Mn = lim [f (x∗1 )∆x + f (x∗2 )∆x + · · · + f (x∗n )∆x+] = lim f (x∗k )∆x
X
(Mid-
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞
k=1
points)
(b − a)
If all n subintervals have equal width, then the common width ∆x = .
n

Example 1.3.1 Let A be the area of the region that lies under the graph of f (x) = e−x between
x = 0 and x = 2.

(a) Using right endpoints, find an expression for A as a limit.

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11 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

(b) Estimate the area by taking the sample points to be midpoints and using four subintervals and
then ten subintervals.

Example 1.3.2 Let R be the region that lies above the x-axis, below the graph of y = 1 − x2 , and
between the vertical lines x = 0, and x = 1.
Estimate the area by taking the sample points to be left endpoints.

Test yourself 1.3 Find a formula for the Riemann sum obtained by diving the interval [a,b] into
n equal subintervals and using the (i) right endpoint (ii) left endpoint (iii) mid endpoint for each ck .
Then take a limit of these sums n → ∞ to calculate the area under the curve over [a, b].

1. f (x) = 1 − x2 over the interval [0, 1].

2. f (x) = x2 + 1 over the interval [0, 3].

3. f (x) = x2 − x3 over the interval [-1, 0].

1.4 The Definite Integral

In this section we consider the limit of more general Riemann sums as the norm of the partitions of
[a, b] approaches zero.
The limiting process then leads to the definition of the definite integral of a function over a closed
interval [a, b].

Definition 1.4.1 If f is a function defined for a ≤ x ≤ b, we divide the interval [a, b] into n
b−a
subintervals of equal width ∆x = .
n
We let x0 (= a), x1 , x2 , . . . , xn (= b) be the endpoints of these subintervals and we let x∗1 , x∗2 , . . . , x∗n
be any sample points in these subintervals, so x∗k lies in the kth subinterval [xk−1 , xk ]. Then the
definite integral of f from a to b is

Z b
f (x) dx = lim f (x∗k )∆x
a n→∞

provided that the limit exists. If it does exists, we say that f is integrable on [a, b].

The precise meaning of the limit that defines the integral is as follows:
For every number  > 0 there is an integer N such that
Z b n
X
f (x) dx − f (xk ∗)∆x < 
a k=1

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12 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

for every integer n > N and for every choice x∗k in [xk−1 , xk ].
Leibniz introduced a notation for the definite integral that captures its construction as a limit of
n
X
Riemann sums. He envisioned the finite sums f (xk )∆xk becoming an infinite sum of functions
k=1 P
values f (x) multiplied by "infinitesimal" subinterval widths dx. The sum symbol is replaced in
R
the limit by the interval symbol , whose origin is in the letter "S."
The function values f (xk ) are replaced by a continuous selection of function values f(x). The
subinterval width, ∆xk become the differential dx. It is as if we are summing all products of the
form f (x) · dx as x goes from a to b. Hence is an illustration.

Theorem 1.4.1 When f and g are integral over the interval [a, b], the definite integral satisfies the
rules in Table1.3

Z b Z b
1. Order of Integration: f (x) dx = − f (x) dx
Z aa a
2. Zero Width Interval: f (x) dx = 0
Z ba Z b
3. Constant Multiple: kf (x) dx = k f (x) dx
aZ a
b Z b Z b
4. Sum and Difference: (f (x) ± g(x)) dx = f (x) dx ± g(x) dx
Z b a Z c Z c a a

5. Additivity: f (x) dx + f (x) dx = f (x) dx

a b a
6. Max-Min Inequality: If f has maximum max f and minimum value min f on [a, b], then
Z b
minf · (b − a) ≤ f (x) dx ≤ maxf · (b − a).
a Z b Z b Z b
7. Domination: f (x) ≥ g(x) on [a, b] ⇒ f (x) dx ≥ g(x) dx and f (x) ≥ 0 on [a, b] ⇒ f (x) dx ≥ 0
a a a

Table 1.3: Rules Satisfied by Definite Integrals

Z −1 Z 4 Z 1
Example 1.4.1 Suppose that f (x) dx = 5, f (x) dx = −2, and h(x) dx = 7.
Z 1 Z 1 1 1 Z 4 −1

Find: (i.) f (x) dx (ii.) [2f (x) + 3h(x)] dx (iii.) f (x) dx

4 −1 −1

Definition 1.4.2 If y = f (x) is non negative and integrable over a closed interval [a, b], then the

12
13 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION
Z b
area under the curve y = f (x) over [a, b] is the integral of f from a to b, A = f (x) dx.
a
Z b
c dx = c(b − a), c any constant (1.4.1)
a

b2 a2
Z b
x dx = − ,a < b (1.4.2)
a 2 2
b3 a3
Z b
x2 dx = − ,a < b (1.4.3)
a 3 3

Test Zyourself 1.4 1.Z Suppose that f and h are integrable and that
9 9 R9
f (x) dx = −1, f (x) dx = 5, 7 h(x) dx = 4. Use the rules in Table 1.3 to find
1 Z 9 7 Z 9 Z 9 Z 7
a. −2f (x) dx b. [f (x) + h(x)] dx c. [2f (x) − 3h(x)] dx d. f (x) dx
1 7 7 1
Z 1 Z 2 Z 0 Z 2
2. Evaluate (i.) 7 dx (ii.) 5x dx (iii.) (2z − 3) dz (iv) (3x2 + x − 5) dx (v.)
Z 0 3 0 3 0

(3x2 + x − 5) dx
1

1.5 The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 1

Z x
If f is continuous on [a ,b], then F (x) = f (t) dt is continuous on [a, b] and differentiable on (a, b)
a
and its derivative is f(x):

Z x
d
F 0 (x) = f (t) dt = f (x).
dx a

dy
Example 1.5.1 Use the Fundamental Theorem to find dx if:

Z x
i. y = (t3 + 1) dt
a
Z 5
ii. y = 3t sin t dt
x
Z x2
iii. y = cos t dt
1
Z 4
1
iv. y = dt
1+3x2 2 + et

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14 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus, Part 2

If f is continuous on every point in [a ,b] and F is any antiderivative of f on [a, b], then

Z b
f (x) dx = F (b) − F (a).
a

The Evaluation Theorem is important because it says that to calculate the definite integral of f
over an interval [a, b] we need to do only two things:

1. Find an antiderivative F of f, and

Z
2. Calculate the number F (b) − F (a), which is equal to f (x) dx.

Example 1.5.2 We calculate several definite integrals using the Evaluation Theorem, rather than
by taking limits of Riemann sums.
Z π
i. cos x dx
0
Z 0
ii. sec x tan x dx
− π4

3√
Z 4
4

iii. x− dx
1 2 x2
Z 1
1
iv. dx
0 x+1
Z 1
1
v. dx
0 x2 +1
Total Area
To find the area between the graph of y = f (x) and the x-axis over the interval [a, b]:

1. Subdivide [a, b] at the zeros of f.

2. Integrate f over each subinterval.

3. Add the absolute values of the integrals.

Example 1.5.3 The figure below shows the graph of the function f (x) = sin x between x = 0 and
x = 2π.

14
15 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

Compute:

(a) the definite integral of f(x) over [0, 2π].

(b) the area between the graph of f(x) and the x-axis over [0, 2π].

Example 1.5.4 Find the area of the region between the x-axis and the graph of
f (x) = x3 − x2 − 2x, −1 ≤ x ≤ 2.

Z 0 Z 4
x
Z 1
√
Test yourself 1.5 1. Evaluate (a) (2x + 5) dx (b) (5 − ) dx (c) (x2 − x) dx
−2 −3 2 0
Z π Z 3π Z 0
4 1 + cos 2t
(d) (1 + cos x) dx (e) csc θ cot θ dθ (f) dt
0 π
4
π
2
2
Z π Z π
6 sin 2x
(g) (sec x + tan x)2 dx (h) dx
π 2 sin x
0 2

2. Find the derivatives in the following

15
16 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

(a) by evaluating the integral and differentiating the result.

(b) by differentiating the integral directly.

Z √x
d d sin x 2
Z
(i.) cos t dt (ii.) 3t dt
dx 0 dx 1√
Z 3
d x −t
Z t
d 3

(iii.) e dt (iv.) x4 + √ dx
dx 0 dt 0 1 − x2
dy
3. Find dx in the following
Z x2
t2 t2
Z x p Z x Z x
i. y = 1 + t2 dt ii. y = x sin t3 dt iii. y = dt − dt
0 2 −1 t2 + 4 3 t2 + 4
Z 0 Z x π1
1
iv. y = dt (v.) y = sin−1 t dt
tan x 1 + t2 −1

4. Find the total area between the region and the x-axis.
(i.) y = −x2 − 2x, −3 ≤ x ≤ 2 (ii.) y = 3x2 − 3, −2 ≤ x ≤ 2 (iii.) y = x3 − 3x2 + 2x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 2

1.6 Integration by Substitution

Power Rule for Integration

If u is any differentiable function of x, then

un+1
Z
un du = + C, n , −1.
n+1

Theorem 1.6.1 (The Substitution Rule) If u = g(x) is a differentiable function whose range
is an interval I, and f is continuous on I, then
Z Z
f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx = f (u) du.

The substitution Rule provides the following substitution method to evaluate the integral
Z
f (g(x))g 0 (x) dx,

when f and g’ are continuous functions:

du
Z
1. Substitute u = g(x) and du = dx = g 0 (x) to obtain the integral f (u) du.
dx
2. Integrate with respect to u.

3. Replace u by g(x) in the result.

Z    Z √
3 2
Example 1.6.1 Find the integral (i.) x +x 3x + 1 dx (ii.) 2x + 1 dx

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17 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

Trigonometric Integrands
When u is a differentiable function of x, the six trigonometric functions of u are also differentiable
functions of x.
Trigonometric Integral Formulas
If uZ is differentiable function Zof x, then Z
1. cos u du = sin u + C. 2. sin u du = − cos u + C. 3. sec2 u du = tan u + C.
Z Z Z
4. csc2 u du = − cot u + C. 5. sec u tan u du = sec u + C. 6. csc u cot u du = − csc u + C.
Z Z Z
2
Example 1.6.2 Find the following integrals (a) sec (5t+1)·5 dt (b) cos(7θ+3) dθ (c) tan x dx

Some Algebraic Manipulation Before Substitution

1
Z Z Z
3
Example 1.6.3 Integrate the following (i) x2 ex dx (ii) dx (iii) sec x dx
Z √ e + e−x
x
2z
Z
(iv) x 2x + 1 dx (v) √3 dz
z2 + 1
Integrals of sin2 x and cos2 x
Sometimes we can use trigonometric identities to transform integrals we do not know how to evaluate
into ones we can evaluate using substitution rule.

Remark 1.6.1 1. sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x

2. cos 2x = 1 − 2 sin2 x

3. cos2 x + sin2 x = 1
1
4. sin2 x = (1 − cos 2x)
2
1
5. cos2 x = (1 + cos 2x)
2
Z Z
2
Example 1.6.4 (a) sin x dx (b) cos2 x dx

Test yourself 1.6 1. Evaluate using the given substitution

4x3
Z Z
5
(a) 2 (2x + 4) dx, u = 2x + 4 (b) dx, u = x4 + 1
(x4 + 1)2
√ 1
1 + x) 3 √ 9r2
Z Z
(c) √ dx, u = 1 + x (d) √ dx, u = 1 − r3
x 1 − r3
!5
r3 sin(2t + 1)
Z Z Z Z
4
p
2 2 2
2. Evaluate (a) θ 1− θ2 dθ (b) tan x sec x dx (c) r −1 dr (d) dt
18 cos2 (2t + 1)

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18 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

1.7 Substitution and Area Between Curves

There are two methods for evaluating a definite integral by substitution. One method is to find
an antiderivative using substitution and then to evaluate the definite integral by applying the
Evaluation Theorem. The other method extends the process of substitution directly to definite
integrals by changing the limits of integration. We apply the new formula introduced here to the
problem of computing the area between two curves.
The Substitution Formula
The following formula shows how the limits of integration change when the variable of integration is
changed by substitution.

Theorem 1.7.1 (Substitution in Definite Integrals) If g 0 is continuous on the interval [a, b]

and f is continuous on the range of g(x) = u, then
Z b Z g(b)
f (g(x)) · g 0 (x) dx = f (u) du.
a g(a)

Z 1 p
Example 1.7.1 Evaluate 3x2 x3 + 1 dx.
−1

Example
Z π
1.7.2 We use Ztheπ method of transforming the limits of integration.
2 4
(a) cot θ csc2 θ dθ (b) −π tan x dx.
π
4 4

Definite Integrals of Symmetric Functions

The Substitution Formula in Theorem 1.7.1 simplifies the calculation of definite integrals of even
and odd functions over a symmetric interval [-a, a].

Theorem 1.7.2 Let f be continuous on the symmetric interval [-a, a].

Z a Z a
(a) If f is even, then f (x) dx = 2 f (x) dx.
−a 0
Z a
(b) If f is odd, then f (x) dx = 0.
−a
Z 2  
Example 1.7.3 Evaluate x4 − 4x2 + 6 dx
−2

Areas Between Curves

Definition 1.7.1 If f and g are continuous with f (x) ≥ g(x) throughout [a, b], then the area of
the region between the curves y = f (x) and y = g(x) from a to b is the integral of (f-g) from a to b:
Z b
A= [f (x) − g(x)] dx.
a

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19 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION

Remark 1.7.1 When applying this definition it is helpful to graph the curves. The graph reveals
which curve is the upper curve f and which is the lower curve g. If also helps you find the limits of
integration if they are not given. You may need to find where the curves intersect to determine the
limits of integration, and this may involve solving the equation f (x) = g(x) for values of x. Then
you can integrate the function f − g for the area between the intersections.

Example 1.7.4 Find the area of the region bounded above by the curve y = 2e−x + x, below by the
ex
curve y = , on the left by x = 0, and on the right by x = 1.
2
Example 1.7.5 Find the area of the region enclosed by the parabola y = 2 − x2 and the line y = −x.
ex
y = , on the left by x = 0, and on the right by x = 1.
2
Integration with Respect to y
If a region’s bounding curves are described by functions of y, the approximating rectangles are
horizontal instead of vertical and the basic formula has y in place of x.

Use the formula Z d

A= [f (y) − g(y)] dy.
c
In this equation f always denotes the right-hand curve and g the left-hand curve, so f (y) − g(y) is
nonnegative.
√
Example 1.7.6 Find the area of the region in the first quadrant that is bounded above by y = x
and below by the x-axis and the line y = x − 2.

Test yourself 1.7 1. Evaluate the following Z π

Z 1 p Z 1 p
4
(a) r 1 − r2 dr (b) r 1 − r2 dr (c) tan x sec2 x dx
0 −1 0

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20 CHAPTER 1. INTEGRATION
Z 0 Z 1
2 5r
(d) tan x sec x dx (e) 2 2
dr
− π4 −1 (4 + r )
x3
Z 1 Z 2π
cos z
(f) √ dx (g) √ dz
−1 4
x +9 0 4 + 3 sin z
2. Find the area of the propeller-shaped region enclosed by the curve x − y 3 = 0 and the line
x − y = 0.

3. Find the areas of the regions enclosed by the lines and curves of the following
(a) y = x2 − 2 and y = 2 (b) y = x2 − 2x and y = x
(c) y = x2 and y = −x2 + 4x (d) y = 7 − 2x2 and y = x2 + 4.

20