AERODYNAMICS 1

CHAPTER 2
FUNDAMENTAL EQUATIONS

The main part of the material presented herein is taken from J., D., Anderson “Fundamental of Aerodynamics” CURRAO
VECTOR CALCULUS

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VECTOR ALGEBRA

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 VECTOR FIELD
A vector (field) such as Velocity,
Often written as 𝑉(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), or 𝑽(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)
In every point you have 2 information:
length of vector (scalar) and direction (vector)
𝑛
 The length of a vector 𝑉 is
𝑉= 𝑉 = 𝑉 + 𝑉 + 𝑉 = 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟
This operation is called module/norm/length of the vector 𝑉

 The direction of a vector 𝑉 is

𝑉
𝑛= = 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝑉
This is a vector parallel to 𝑉 but with length = 1, so

𝑉=𝑉𝑛

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VECTOR OPERATIONS
B is a vector parallel
to B with same
length and opposite
direction

𝑨+𝑩=𝑪 𝑨−𝑩=𝑪
Or 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵 = 𝐶⃗ Or 𝐴⃗ − 𝐵 = 𝐶⃗

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 SCALAR PRODUCT

The scalar product between two vectors is a SCALAR, is the length of a

vector times the “shadow” of this vector on the other vector
Projection of B on A =
𝑩 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝑨 𝑩 = 𝐿𝐸𝑁𝐺𝑇𝐻 𝑂𝐹 𝑉𝐸𝐶𝑇𝑂𝑅 𝑨 × 𝑃𝑅𝑂𝐽𝐸𝐶𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁 𝑂𝐹 𝑩 𝑂𝑁 𝑨
= 𝐿𝐸𝑁𝐺𝑇𝐻 𝑂𝐹 𝑉𝐸𝐶𝑇𝑂𝑅 𝑩 × 𝑃𝑅𝑂𝐽𝐸𝐶𝑇𝐼𝑂𝑁 𝑂𝐹 𝑨 𝑂𝑁 𝑩 =

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 VECTOR PRODUCT
The scalar product is a vector G, also called
“Area vector” because:

 Length of G = Area parallelepiped formed of

A and B
Every pair of vectors with a
A A sin𝜃 length ≠ 0 define a plane
𝜃

 Direction of G = normal to plane of A and B

Area of this parallelepiped

is 𝐺 = 𝐴 𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

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 RIGHT HAND RULE
𝑨×𝑩=𝑮
A
𝑩 × 𝑨 = −𝑮

Order important, help yourself with

the right-hand rule
B

Using the right-hand rule, please

confirm that this is the right
direction of the vector 𝑨 × 𝑩

A×B

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VECTOR ALGEBRA

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 ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEM
Projection
of A on 𝒋

Projection
of A on 𝒙
𝒌 =𝑘=1 Projection
of A on 𝐤

Any vector can be obtained as a linear

combination of 𝒊, 𝒋, 𝒌. For example:

The vectors 𝒊, 𝒋, 𝒌 form an orthogonal coordinate systems 𝐴 = 𝐴 𝒊+𝐴 𝒋+𝐴 𝒌

because their mutual scalar product (i.e., the projection of
one vector on the other) is zero and their length is 1. They This means that any vector in space can be
are also called PHYSICAL COORDINATES obtained by multiplying 𝒊, 𝒋, 𝒌 by some
constants and summing them.
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CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE
y
SYSTEM
One coordinate is normal
to the radius
𝒆𝜽

𝒆𝒓
𝑟
θ One coordinate is
aligned with the
x
radius

Top view
N.B. Now the x and y
x
components are coupled
through r and 𝜃. Z is purely The vertical components
independent. z
coincides with the z axis of
a Cartesian system
It is convenient only for z
problems with cylindrical
symmetry, for example flow side view
through a tube

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CYLINDRICAL COORDINATE SYSTEM

Again, any vector can be obtained as a linear combination

of the vectors 𝒆𝜽 , 𝒆𝒓 , 𝒆𝒛 . For example:
N.B. Now the x and y
components are coupled 𝑨 = 𝐴 𝒆𝒓 + 𝐴 𝒆𝜽 + 𝐴 𝒆𝒛
through r and 𝜃. Z is purely
independent. This means that any vector in space can be obtained by
multiplying the three unit vectors 𝒆𝜽 , 𝒆𝒓 , 𝒆𝒛 by some
It is convenient only for constants.
problems with cylindrical
symmetry, for example flow Note however, that the orientation of 𝒆𝜽 , 𝒆𝒓 is different
through a tube for every point! This will have some consequences…
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SPHERICAL COORDINATES SYSTEM
Tangent to radius
direction

Normal to radius

Again, any vector can be obtained as a linear combination of

the vectors 𝒆𝜽 , 𝒆𝒓 , 𝒆𝝓 . For example:

𝑨 = 𝐴 𝒆𝒓 + 𝐴 𝒆𝜽 + 𝐴 𝒆𝝓

This means that any vector in space can be obtained by

multiplying the three unit vectors 𝒆𝒓 , 𝒆𝜽 , 𝒆𝝓 by some constants.
This time, their orientation is different for every point in space.

Useful for problem with spherical symmetry

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 OPERATIONS BETWEEN VECTORS
 Scalar product: i.e., the
projection of one vector times  Vector product: The area vector with the
its projection on the other one. orientation given by the right-hand rule. To
It is more practical to calculate calculate it you can simply use the determinant:
it as follows

Exactly the same holds for the other

two coordinates system

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 NABLA OPERATOR

It is a vector operator, and it behaves exactly as a vector. It is only defined in the physical coordinate
system .

 For example, 𝛁 times a scalar such as pressure p is like a product of a vector and a scalar, thus it is a
vector. The vector is called “Nabla p” or GRADIENT OF p:

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝 𝜕𝑝
GRADIENT of 𝑝 = 𝛁 ∗ 𝑝 = 𝛁𝒑 = 𝑝= = 𝑉𝐸𝐶𝑇𝑂𝑅
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

For example, 𝛁 times a vector such as velocity V is like a product of a vector times a vector, thus it is a
scalar. The scalar is called “Nabla V” or DIVERGENCE OF V:

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑤
DIVERGENCE of V = 𝛁 ∗ 𝑽 = 𝛁𝑽 = 𝑢 𝑣 𝑤 = + + = 𝑆𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐴𝑅
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

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 GRADIENT (OF A SCALAR)
PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION:

𝑝 = 52 kPa

Iso-surface (in 2D is an iso-line)

Here the pressure is 𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦) = 52 kPa

∇𝑝(𝑥, 𝑦), is always pointing

towards increasing values of
pressure

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DIRECTIONAL DERIVATIVE (OF A SCALAR)
Simply the projection of the
gradient along a direction

The direction is simply given

𝒏 by a unit vector 𝒏

𝑑𝑝
= ∇𝑝 𝒏 = 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑎𝑟
𝑑𝑠

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 GRADIENT
Remember that even if you
change the coordinates, the
expression of ∇ remains the same,
CARTESIAN COORDINATES namely:

𝜕 𝜕 𝜕
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧

CYLINDRICAL COORDINATES That’s the reason why in

cylindrical and spherical
coordinates the expression is
more complicated.

SPHERICAL COORDINATES

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 DIVERGENCE
PHYSICAL MEANING: if the divergence
changes along a streamline, for example is
decreasing

∇𝑉 > 0

it means that the volume of that particle of

fluid is increasing (density is decreasing
along the streamline).
For incompressible flows:

∇𝑉 = 0
See better later…

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 CURL OF A VECTOR
PHYSICAL MEANING: if the curl is different
from zero the flow is called rotational. In the
presence of a vortex or turning streamlines,
The vorticity:

1
𝜔 = ∇×𝑽≠𝟎
2

See later…

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LINE INTEGRAL OF A VECTOR ALONG A CURVE
Unit vector tangent 𝒕(𝑠)
locally to C 𝐿𝐼𝑁𝐸 𝐼𝑁𝑇𝐸𝐺𝑅𝐴𝐿 = 𝑽𝒅𝒔 = 𝑽 𝒕𝑑𝑠

It is the projection of the velocity on the tangent vector

𝑽(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) integrated along the whole curve. If the curve is closed:

𝑠 𝐶𝐿𝑂𝑆𝐸𝐷 𝐿𝐼𝑁𝐸 𝐼𝑁𝑇𝐸𝐺𝑅𝐴𝐿 = 𝑽 𝒅𝒔 = 𝑽𝒕 𝑑𝑠

𝑠 𝑽(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

Vector field

This is the conventional direction of 𝑠, that is:

the internal area has to be on your left

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𝒏 is the local normal
vector to the surface S
SURFACE INTEGRALS
𝒅𝑺 = 𝒏 𝑑𝑆
Scalar (pressure, temperature..)
Isolines on the
surface, here p is  The surface integral of a scalar is a vector. For
constant example, pressure distribution over a surface will
result on a resultant force with magnitude and
direction:

𝑝 𝒅𝑺 = 𝑆𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐴𝑅 ∗ 𝒏 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑽𝑬𝑪𝑻𝑶𝑹
This is a 3D open surface 𝑆
delimited by a closed curve 𝐶.  Surface integral of a vector on a surface (i.e., how
much V is flowing through the surface)

𝑽 𝒅𝑺 = 𝑽𝑬𝑪𝑻𝑶𝑹 ∗ 𝒏 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑆𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐴𝑅
For closed surfaces:

𝛁 × 𝑽 𝒅𝑺 = 𝑽𝑬𝑪𝑻𝑶𝑹 ∗ 𝒏 𝑑𝑆 = 𝑆𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐴𝑅

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 VOLUME INTEGRALS

 The volume integral of a scalar is a scalar. For

example, the amount of mass within a volume is a
scalar:

𝜌 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 𝑆𝐶𝐴𝐿𝐴𝑅

 The volume integral of a vector is a vector:

This is a volume enclosed
by a closed surface 𝑆
𝑽 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 𝑽𝑬𝑪𝑻𝑶𝑹

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 STOKES THEOREM
Here there is a vorticose region, so
likely the curl of the velocity over
this 2D surface is ≠ 0
Called Circulation
(it is a scalar) if the Integral over the Integral over surface
vector is velocity as in curve enclosing the
this case surface
𝒕

∇×𝑽 𝒅𝑺 = 𝒏 𝑑𝑆
𝑽
𝒏
𝒅𝑠 = 𝒕 𝑑𝑠

𝑆 𝐶

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SOURCE FLOW:
This is a typical case where DIVERGENCE THEOREM SINK FLOW:
∇𝑉 > 0 globally within Vol, This is a typical case where
which results in a velocity ∇𝑉 < 0 globally within Vol,
flow through the boundary which results in a velocity
𝑺 𝑽𝒐𝒍 flow through the boundary
(we will study it much later)
(we will study it much later)
OUTFLOW of V VOLUME CHANGE RATE

PHYSICAL INTUITIVE MEANING

The velocity flow through the boundary of the volume is
related to the compression (squeezing) of the fluid elements
within the volume Vol.

If in average ∇𝑉 > 0 within the open fixed volume, i.e.,

Surface S particles tend to diverge from each other, some particles have
enclosing the to leave the volume and vice versa. Surface S
volume 𝑉𝑜𝑙 enclosing the
Intuitively ∇𝑉 < 0 = 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑛𝑔, ∇𝑉 > 0 = 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑎𝑤𝑎𝑦 of volume 𝑉𝑜𝑙
fluid particles
https://www.khanacademy.org/math/multivariable-calculus/multivariable-derivatives/divergence-grant-videos/v/divergence-intuition-part-1 CURRAO
 GRADIENT THEOREM

𝑺 𝑽
Vector
F = 1 atm × 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
RESULTANT PRESSURE GRADIENT
FORCE INTGRATED OVER THE
VOLUME 𝒏

Iso-p It is the divergence theorem applied to a scalar,

surfaces pressure in this case 2 atm
𝒏 𝒏
The pressure gradient distribution
within the volume is such to 1 atm
𝒏
balance the pressure distribution
Vol on the surface.
1 𝑎𝑡𝑚 𝒏
∇𝑝 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∗ 𝑉𝑜𝑙 = ∗ ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 ∗ 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒
ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

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MODELS OF THE FLUID

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 CONTROL VOLUME

It is easier to use because you don’t Used mainly for theoretical

have to track the motion of the considerations. The “bubble” has always
“bubble” to contain the same fluid element

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 INFINITESIMAL FLUID ELEMENT
Properties within the infinitesimal volume are uniform, in every
volume at a given time you can define p, T, V

This approach is used in CFD (computational

fluid-dynamics)
This time the very tiny bubble has only one
velocity value. This model is easier to use

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PHYSICAL MEANING OF
DIVERGENCE

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 PHYSICAL MEANING OF DIVERGENCE
Integrating on the control surface we get
the whole change in volume!

= infinitesimal change in volume due to the TOTAL Δ𝑉𝑂𝐿 = 𝑽Δ𝑡 𝒅𝑺 =

displacement of an infinitesimal surface dS along in the
direction of V.
Δ𝑉𝑂𝐿
𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐸 𝑂𝐹 𝐶𝐻𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸 = 𝑽 𝒅𝑺 =
Δ𝑡

DIVERGENCE THEOREM

Model used: CLOSED VOLUME Δ𝑉𝑂𝐿

= ∇𝑉 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙
MOVING WITH THE FLOW Δ𝑡

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 PHYSICAL MEANING OF DIVERGENCE
Now assume that this volume is small. So
small that the properties within this . i.e Δ𝑉𝑂𝐿
we are passing from = ∇𝑉 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙
Δ𝑡

Now 𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 𝛿𝑉𝑜𝑙 is very small (infinitesimal) so the quantity in the

integral is constant within the volume.

Δ(𝛿𝑉𝑂𝐿)
= ∇𝑉 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 =
Δ𝑡

To a fluid element Δ(𝛿𝑉𝑂𝐿)

= = ∇𝑉 𝛿𝑉𝑜𝑙
Δ𝑡

% change in volume of a fluid element = Δ(𝛿𝑉𝑂𝐿)/𝛿𝑉𝑂𝐿 × 100

𝑉𝑂𝐿𝑈𝑀𝐸 𝐶𝐻𝐴𝑁𝐺𝐸 𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐸 𝑂𝐹 𝐴 𝐹𝐿𝑈𝐼𝐷 𝐸𝐿𝐸𝑀𝐸𝑁𝑇 = ∇𝑉

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STEADY/TRANSIENT

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 STEADY/UNSTEADY
 Steady flow:
 Transient or unsteady flow,
The flow has reached an equilibrium. It
does not change (so much) with time What you see is a picture at an
anymore instant t.

𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
𝑝 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡
𝑇 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
𝑢(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑽 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡 = 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
𝑽 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 = 𝑣(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) 𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧, 𝑡)
𝑤(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧)

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CONTINUITY EQUATION

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 CONTINUITY EQUATION
NET MASS FLOW OUT THROUGH TIME RATE DECREASE OF MASS TIME RATE INCREASE OF MASS
= = −
CONTROL SURFACE WITHIN THE CONTROL VOLUME WITHIN THE CONTROL VOLUME

DIVERGENCE THEOREM

𝑁𝐸𝑇 𝑀𝐴𝑆𝑆 𝐹𝐿𝑂𝑊 𝑂𝑈𝑇 = 𝜌𝑽 𝒅𝑺 = ∇ 𝜌𝑽 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙

𝜕
𝑇𝐼𝑀𝐸 𝑅𝐴𝑇𝐸 𝐼𝑁𝐶𝑅𝐸𝐴𝑆𝐸 𝑂𝐹 𝑀𝐴𝑆𝑆 = 𝜌 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙
𝜕𝑡

FLUID MODEL:
Open volume of fluid

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 CONTINUITY EQUATION
NET MASS FLOW OUT THROUGH TIME RATE DECREASE OF MASS TIME RATE INCREASE OF MASS
= = −
CONTROL SURFACE WITHIN THE CONTROL VOLUME WITHIN THE CONTROL VOLUME

ALL TOGETHER

𝜕𝜌
+ ∇(𝜌𝑽) 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 0
𝜕𝑡

Where the time derivative has been brought inside the integration because
the volume is fixed in space (doesn’t change with time).

FLUID MODEL:
Open volume of fluid

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 CONTINUITY EQUATION
Vol1 INTEGRAL FORM:

𝜕𝜌
+ ∇(𝜌𝑽) 𝑑𝑉𝑜𝑙 = 0
𝜕𝑡
Vol2
But this equation has to hold also for any volume of any shape. For
example, for both Vol 1 and Vol2. The only way this can be true is that the
equation is true for any infinitesimal fluid element dVol. So the equation
becomes:

𝜕𝜌
+ ∇(𝜌𝑽) = 0
𝜕𝑡

Which is the continuity equation in its DIFFERENTIAL FORM

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