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Life Cycle of Plasmodium in Mosquito

Systemic Position
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Protozoa
Class: Sporozoa
Order: Haemosporidia
Genus: Plasmodium
Species: Vivax
Malaria is one of the most widely known diseases since time immemorial. It is caused by a
pathogenic protozoan of blood, Plasmodium.

Four species of Plasmodium, viz., P. vivax, P. falciparum, P. malariae and P. ovale are so far
known to infect human beings causing different types of malaria. Female Anopheles mosquito
serves as the carrier or vector hosts and transmits plasmodium from person to person.
Plasmodium is an intracellular parasite in RBCs of man.

It is also reported from birds, reptiles and various mammals. Plasmodium is widely distributed
in tropical and temperate countries the world over. Plasmodium vivax requires two hosts to
complete its life cycle- a primary or definite host and a secondary or intermediate host. Such a
two host life cycle is digenetic. Intermediate host is female Anopheles. In human body the
parasite multiplies asexually while in female anopheles it undergoes a sexual cycle followed
by an asexual multiplication called sporogony.

Asexual cycle in man:

The normal adult or trophozoite phase of plasmodium occurs in RBCs of human beings. The
parasite first invades the liver cells for asexual multiplication.

The life cycle of plasmodium in man is can be studied under the following heads:
(i) Exoerythrocytic cycle:
When an Anopheles mosquito bites a human to suck blood. Plasmodium is inoculated into
human blood in the form of a minute infective stage called Sporozoites (fig. 9.3). The injected
sporozoites invade the hepatocyte cells in the liver. In the liver cell, a sporozoite actively feeds
on its cytoplasm and grows into a large (about 45 in diameter) and spherical adult like form
called cryptozoite.

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This form multiply into thousands of cryptomerozoites by multiple fission called schizogony
(exoerythrocytic schizogony). In such a multiplication repeated nuclear divisions first result
into multinucleate organism, and then divides by cytoplasmic segregation around the tiny
daughter nuclei. Due to the pressure of cryptomerozoites, the body of cryptozoites as well as
the host liver cell ruptures liberating the cryptomerozoites into liver sinusoids. Some of these
invade fresh liver cells to continue exo-erythrocytic schizogony, while others remain in blood
sream and invade erythrocytes (RBC) to initiate erythrocytic cycle.
(ii) Erythrocyic cycle:
This cycle takes place in RBCs after the RBCs are invaded by cryptomeromerozoites. After
invading an erythrocyte, a cryptomeromerozoite soon becomes a rounded, disc like structure
called trophozoites (fig. 9.4). As it grows, a contractile vacuole appears in its centre, pushing
the cytoplasm and nucleus to a thin peripheral layer and the parasite attains a ring Ike
appearance to represent the signet ring stage.

After some time, the vacuole disappears and the parasite assumes an amoeboid shape. The
trophzoites actively feed upon the haemoglobin of RBCs and increases in size till the entire
corpuscle gets filled with it. This forms the schizont stage and its cytoplasm contain yellowish-
brown pigment granules, the haemozoin. It is formed by the decomposition of haemoglobin.
The schizont undergoes asexual multiplication termed as schizogony or merogony.

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(iii) Schizogony or merogony:

The nucleus or the schizont divides by multiple fission to from 6-24 daughter nuclei which
migrate towards the periphery. After some time the totally exhausted erythrocyte bursts
liberating the merozoites and the toxic waste (haemozoin granules) into the plasma of blood.
These attack the fresh R.B. Cs. And repeat the erythrocytic schozogony. One erythrocytic cycle
is completed within 48-72 hours.

As the parasite continues to destroy the R.B.Cs. of the host, the host becomes anemic and its
toxin accumulates in the plasma. After about 5 successive erythrocytic cycles the malarial
symptoms develop for the first time and the host suffers from paroxysm of chill and fever
which are now repeated at the end of each schizogony. Thus the parasite passes a latent period
of about 10 to 15 days since its inoculation in the body of host. This period is known as
incubation period.

(iv) Formation of gametocytes:

As a result of repeated schizogony in the blood stream, the parasite becomes so potential that
its existence is threatened due to lack of fresh R.B.Cs. and the resistance of the host.
Consequently, the parasite prepares to enter the new host by the formation of gametocytes.
Some of the meozoites, after entering the R.B.Cs. neither form trophozoites nor multiply by
binary fission but grow slowly and become compact bodies, the gametocytes. These are of two
types:

The more numerous, but small in size and with a large centrally placed nucleus, are the
microgametocytes, potentially male. The less numerous but larger in size and with a greater
amount of dense cytoplasm and a small nucleus are the macro or mega gametocytes, potentially
female. The mature gametocytes are unable to develop further in the body of primary host and
can survive only for two days. They reach the superficial blood vessels and wait for the bite of
female Anopheles.

Sexual Life-Cycle in Anopheles:

When Anopheles sucks the blood of a diseased man, the parasite under different stages of
development enters its alimentary canal. But only the gametocytes are able to survive, while

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others are digested. The gametocytes are set free by the rupture of R.B.Cs. and develop further
to form gametes.

(i) Development of male gametes:

The nucleus of microgametocyte divides repeatedly to form 6 to 8 haploid nuclei, as one of
these divisions is a reduction division. Each nucleus is surrounded by a little of cytoplasm and
metamorphoses into a male gamete. Each has a small body with a nucleus and a cytoplasmic
flagellum. By the lashing movement of their flagella the male gametes swim in the stomach
fluid.

(ii) Development of female gametes or microgamete’s:

The nucleus of the macrogametocyte undergoes reduction divisions forming two nuclei. One
of them protrudes out as a polar body and the other comes to lie in a protuberance which is
known as reception cone. Thus the macrogamete is formed.

(iii) Syngamy or fertilization:

The actively moving male gamete is attracted by the macrogamete and penetrates it through
the reception cone. The nuclei of the two fuses together forming the synkaryon. Syngamy is
anisogamous and the zygote thus formed is inert and round.

(iv) Ookinete:
Soon the rounded zygote elongates and assumes the vermiform appearance and becomes
motile. It is now known as vermicule or ookinete (fig. 9.5). Its anterior en4 is pointed and with
this it penetrates the stomach wall to come to lie in the sub-epithelial tissue underneath the
outer limiting membrane. It becomes rounded, secretes a thin membranous cyst and is known
as sporont or oocysty. It feeds by absorption and increases in size.

Sporogony:
The nucleolus of the fully mature oocyst undergoes multiple fission by mitosis producing a
large number of daughter nuclei. These get surrounded by fragments of cytoplasm. The
irregular uni-nucleate bodies thus formed are known as sporoblasts. The nucleus in each
sporoblast divides repeatedly by mitosis.

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The nuclei form spindle-shaped sporozoites. These are liberated in the haemocoel or body
cavity by the repture of cyst wall. The sporozoites now move to different body organs and also
the salivary gland (fig. 9.6). With the entrance of parasite in the salivary glands the female
Anopheles becomes infective and is able to inoculate the parasite into the blood-stream of
healthy persons.

The Structure and Life Cycle of Entamoeba

Systematic Position:
Phylum: Protozoa
Subphylum: Sarcomastigophora
Class: Rhizopodea
Subclass: Lobosia
Order: Amoebida
Genus: Entamoeba
Species: histolytica
Entamoeba histolytica is a pathogenic parasite in the intestine of human beings and many other
primates. It inhabits the mucous and sub-mucous layers of the large intestine. It feeds mainly
on the tissues of the intestinal wall and often produces severe ulcers and abscesses. In chronic
cases, it may enter the blood circulation to reach the liver, lung, brain and other organs. It
causes a serious and often fatal disease known as amoebic dysentery or amoebiasis. E.
histolytica exists in two distict forms: the magna Trophozoite or form and the minuta or
precystic form, (fig.9.1).

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Trophozoites:
The adult trophic form of Entamoeba is known as Trophozoite or Magna. It inhabits anterior
part of large intestine, i.e. colon of human beings. It resembles amoeba in structure but differs
in parasitic mode of life. Its body is covered by plasma lemma and cytoplasm is differentiated
into ectoplasm and endoplasm. There is a single large, broad and blunt pseudopodium formed
of ectoplasm. Endoplasm contains single spherical nucleus and food vacuoles. Nucleus has
peripheral crown of chromatin blocks and a centrally located nucleolus.

The trophozoites multiply by repeated binary fission in the intestinal wall of host. Some of the
daughter entamoebae grow into normal adults while others stop growing. These are distinctly
smaller than the normal trophozoites and are called Minuta forms.

Precystic (minuta Form):

It is smaller, spherical and non- pathogenic stage. Normally, it lives in the lumen of the intestine
and rarely found in tissues. It undergoes encystations and helps in transmission of parasites
from one host to other.

Life cycle:
Entamoeba histolytica is monogenetic, i.e., its life cycle is completed on one host only; the
man.

Its life cycle is completed as follows:

Encystment:
In the precystic forms, entamoeba remains only in the intestinal lumen. They undergo
encystment but before encystment, the parasites round up, eliminate food vacuoles and
accumulate considerable amount of food materials in the form of glycogen and black rod-like
chromatoid granules. Each parasite secretes a thin, rounded, resistant, colourless and
transparent cyst wall around it.

The cysts of Entamoeba histolytica vary in size. Its cytoplasm is clear and each cyst is
mononucleate at this stage. Presence of chromatoid bodies is the characteristic of the cysts of
Entamoeba histolytica. They occur either singly or in the multiples of two or more. The nucleus

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of the cysts divides twice so that each cyst now becomes tetra nucleate (fig. 9.2). At this stage,
the cyst is infective to a new host. Encysted forms pass out with the faecal matter of the host.

Transfer to new host:

The infective cysts remain viable for a considerable length of time outside the human intestine,
if environmental conditions are favourable. Infection of fresh human host takes place by
swallowing the infective cysts with contaminated food and drinks.

Excystment:
The metacystic trophozites feed on the contents of the intestine and grow in size to form the
trophozites of the next generation. The trophozoites stay in the lumen of the intestine for a
particular period when they may attack the wall of the intestine and start the life cycle again.
Entamoeba histolytica causes amoebic dysentery, abscesses in liver, lungs and brain and non-
dysenteric infections.

Following measures may be helpful in protecting ourselves against the disease:

1. Sanitary disposal of faecal matter

2. Perfect sanitation and protection of water and vegetables from pollution.

3. Washing of hands with antiseptic soap and water before touching the food.

4. Cleanliness in preparing the food.

5. Protection of foods and drinks from houseflies, cockroaches, etc.

6. Raw and improperly washed and cooked vegetables should be avoided.

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Polymorphism: Definition, Causes and Significance | Cnidarians

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In this article we will discuss about Polymorphism in Cnidarians:- 1. Definition of

Polymorphism 2. Causes of Polymorphism 3. Basic Units 4. Origin 5. Significance.
Definition of Polymorphism:
Polymorphism may be defined as the “phenomenon of existence of different physiological and
morphological forms represented by an extensive range of variation within a single species”.

It may be defined in another way, polymorphism means “the existence of individuals (zooids)
of a single species in more than one forms and functions.”
Causes of Polymorphism:
Polymorphism is due to the division of labour, diversification of forms and specialization. Two
general types of interactions, viz., co-operation and disoperation are exhibited by the members
of an animal association.

In the colonial forms, disoperation ceases gradually and is replaced by co-operation. Finally
the whole colony appears as a single individual, and the zooids function collectively for the
interest of the colony (Barrington 1979).

Basic Units of Polymorphism:

All forms of zooids can be divided into two fundamental forms which can be derived from each
other.

(A) Polyp form (L. Polypus = polyp) (Fig. 12.32A):

(i) Sedentary tubular form with one end closed.

(ii) Free conical end (preoral end) bearing hypostome, mouth and tentacles.

(iii) Aboral end fixed.

(iv) Mouth situated on hypostome leading to coelenteron.

(v) Un-branched elongated tentacles surrounding the mouth.

(vi) The polyp may be encased by a transparent covering, the hydrotheca (e.g., Hydra).

(B) Medusoid form (Gk. Medousa = one who rules) (Fig. 12.32B):
(i) Umbrella-shaped with convex exumbrella and ventral concave subumbrellar surface.

(ii) Subumbrellar surface with mouth and manubrium.

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(iii) Radial and circular canals present.

(iv) Marginal tentacles are present.

(v) Presence of gonads.

(vi) A velum is often present.

(vii) Free-swimming forms.

Polyps and medusae are considered as homologous structures and can be theoretically derived
from a sac-like body. Possessing of manubrium and mouth points to the basic similarity
(Hyman, 1940).

These two forms alternate with each other in the life history of a typical cnidarian—the polyp
producing medusa asexually and the medusa producing polyp sexually.

Origin of Polymorphism:
Polymorphism in cnidarians is virtually regarded to be the division of labour, where different
zooids perform diverse functions.

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As regards the origin of polymorphism in cnidarians, the following theories have been
advanced:
I. Poly-organ theory:
The main supporters of the theory are Huxley, Metschnikoff and Eschscholtz. They regard that
each polymorphic colony is an individual and the polyps or medusae, which are budded off
from it, are the organs.

II. Poly-person theory:

The supporters of this theory are Vogt, Leuckart, Gegenbaur, Cuhn and Kukenthal. This theory
suggests that cnidarian colony is constituted of independent and separate individuals which
remain in organic connection with one another. According to this view each zooid is a separate
individual, where some portions may be either lost or obliterated in course of time.

III. Medusa theory:

This theory is forwarded by Haeckel, Balfour and Sedgwick. The theory advocates that the
primitive zooid of polymorphic colony was, with all probabilities, a medusa which produced
other medusae by the process of budding.

These medusae possess the power of locomotion as well as the power of reproduction. In this
view many organs of the colony are nothing more than the parts of such medusoid individuals
which have subsequently shifted their attachments from the original medusa.

Remarks:
This concept makes a compromise between the two previously described theories. It agrees
with the second theory in asserting the colonial nature and also admits that asexual reproduction
and specialisation of certain parts of the colony, as advocated in the first theory.

IV. Theory of neoteny (supported by A. C. Hardy):

Garstang first postulated the idea of the neotenous retention of larval characters and the
members of Siphonophora giving rise to polymorphism.

Significance of Polymorphism:
1. Polymorphism is intimately associated with life-history. The life cycle is simple in the
monomorphic forms (e.g., Hydra). With the advent of polymorphism reproductive powers are
divided. The polyp is capable only of asexual reproduction while sexual reproduction is
confined to the gonophores. Thus arises the alternation of generation or metagenesis.

2. Polymorphism is also concerned with the division of labour. So polyp are mainly associated
with the function of feeding, testing, protection and also asexual reproduction while medusa is
concerned with sexual reproduction.

Habit and Habitat of Wuchereria Bancrofti:

Wuchereria bancrofti is a dreadful endoparasite of man; adults harbouring the lymphatic
vessels and lymph nodes.

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Its life history is digenetic, as it involves a secondary host, the bloodsucking insects, i.e., the
female mosquitoes of the genus Culex, Aedes or Anopheles; the secondary host for W.
bancrofti in India and China is Culex pipiens, in Pacific Islands (except Fiji and New
Caledonia) is Anopheles punctatus and in Polynesian Islands is Aedes polynesiensis.

Wuchereria bancrofti is viviparous or to say ovo-viviparous; its larvae are referred to as

microfilariae which/harbour the blood of human beings.
Geographic Distribution of Wuchereria Bancrofti:
Wuchereria bancrofti is largely confined to the tropical and sub-tropical countries of the world.

However, it occurs in India, West Indies, Puerto Rico, Southern China, Japan, Pacific Islands,
West and Central Africa and South America. In India, the parasite is chiefly distributed along
the sea coast and along the banks of big rivers (except Indus); it has also been reported from
Rajasthan. Punjab, Delhi and from various vicinities of Uttar Pradesh.
Structure of Wuchereria Bancrofti:
The adult worms are long, hair-like, transparent and often creamy-white in colour.

They are filiform in shape having tapering ends; the head end terminating in a slightly rounded
swelling. Sexes are separate and sexual dimorphism is distinct. The male worm measures 2.5
to 4 cm in length and 0.1 mm in diameter having a ventrally curved tail-end containing a
number of genital papillae and two spicules of unequal copulatory spicules.

The female worm measures 8 to 10 cm in length and 0.2 to 0.3 mm in diameter having a narrow
and abruptly pointed tail. The female genital pore or vulva is located ventrally in the pharyngeal
region and is characteristically provided with a pyriform ovijector.

The male and female worms remain coiled together; females are usually more in number than
the males. Its mouth is simple without lips, pharynx is divisible into an anterior muscular and
a posterior glandular parts, the oesophageal bulb is not found and the intestine is like those of
other nematodes.

The microfilariae are very active and can move both with and against the blood stream. They
have colourless and transparent bodies with blunt anterior ends and rather pointed tails. A
microfilaria measures about 290 pm in length and 6 to 7 pm in diameter.

The body of a microfilaria is covered in a hyaline sheath followed by cuticula being lined by
flattened subcuticular cells or epidermis and an inner column of cytoplasm containing nuclei.
However, various structures from anterior end downwards are future mouth or oral stylet, nerve
ring band, nephridiopore, renette cells and a dark coloured inner mass and four cells of future
anus.

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The microfilariae do not undergo further development in the human body unless they are taken
up by their suitable secondary host (mosquito). If these microfilariae are not sucked up by the
mosquito, they die in course of time. Their life span in human body is probably 70 days.

Periodicity of Microfilariae:
The microfilariae of oriental countries like India and China exhibit nocturnal periodicity, as
they appear in peripheral circulation periodically at night only generally between 10 pm and 4
am, but disappear inside during the rest of the day. It is believed that during daytime they retire
inside the deeper blood vessels.

In fact, the nocturnal periodicity of microfilariae is said to be related with the nocturnal feeding
habit of their secondary host, Culex pipiens.

Life History of Wuchereria Bancrofti:

We know that Wucheria bancrofti is digenetic, i.e., its life history is completed in two hosts;
man is the main host, while female mosquito, usually Culex pipiens, is the secondary host.
Mature male and female worms copulate in the lymph glands of man where they usually live.
Since female worm is viviparous or ovoviviparous, it delivers numerous larvae called
microfilariae. The microfilariae are born in very immature stage.

However, microfilariae find their way into the blood stream where they can live for a
considerable time without undergoing any developmental changes. As referred to, due to their

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nocturnal periodicity they are sucked up by the secondary host when it comes to take its blood-
meal from the human body.

The microfilariae, after reaching in the body of the secondary host, undergo further
development to become infective to man. In fact, immediately after their entry in the stomach
of mosquito, the sheaths around their bodies are shed off and then they penetrate the gut wall
within an hour or two and migrate to the thoracic muscles.

Here they become short and thick like sausages within 2 days having short spiky tails and
measure 124 to 250 µm in length and 10 to 17 pm in diameter, they also possess rudimentary
digestive tract. These are first stage larvae. Within next 3 to 7 days they grow rapidly and moult
once or twice to become the second stage larvae; they measure 225 to 330 µm in length and 15
to 30 pm in diameter.

Finally, by 10th or 11th day they become fully grown and are referred to as third stage larvae;
they measure about 1500 to 2000 pm in length and 18 to 23 µm in diameter. This stage is
infective to man. These larvae are inactive and come to lie in the labium of the mosquito.

When the mosquito bites the warm and moist skin of man, the larvae creep out of the labium
to the human skin, then they penetrate into the skin and finally come to settle down in the
lymphatic’s. Here, they grow and become fully adult and sexually mature within a period of 5
to 18 months.

These sexually mature worms start reproduction to repeat the life history again. The life span
of adult worms is very long, probably ranging from 5 to 10 years.
Diagnosis and Disease of Wuchereria Bancrofti:
The infection of Wuchereria bancrofti is diagnosed by the presence of microfilariae in stained
blood smear and by the biopsy of lymph nodes. The disease caused by the infection of W.
bancrofti is, in general, referred to as wuchereriasis or filariasis.

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Pathogenicity of Wuchereria Bancrofti:

In fact, the pathogenic effects seen during filariasis are caused by living or dead adult worms.

A light infection does not produce serious effects; it causes filarial fever, headache and mental
depression, etc. But, during heavy infection a large number of pathological effects are
observed; in this condition they block the lymphatic vessels and glands causing lymphatic
obstruction so that lymph cannot get back to the circulatory system.

Hence, there occurs accumulation of lymph in the affected organs due to which they swell
fantastically, a condition called lymphoedema. When they infect lymph nodes then they cause
lymphadenitis, in lymph vessels they cause lymphangitis and after infecting epididymis and
related areas they cause hydrocele.

However, the affected organs sometimes become enormously enlarged, producing a tumour-
like ugly look, this condition is called elephantiasis; the elephantiasis of feet, hands, scrotum,
etc., are of common occurrence in the areas where W. bancrofti is prevalent.
Treatment and Prevention of Disease Caused by Wuchereria Bancrofti:
So far, no satisfactory treatment has been reported. However, heterazan and compounds of
antimony and arsenic are used to reduce or eradicate microfilariae from the circulatory system.
The only way of prevention is to protect our bodies from mosquito bite.

1. Habit and Habitat of Fasciola Hepatica:

Fasciola hepatica (L., fasciola = small bandage; Gr., hepar = liver), the sheep liver fluke, lives
as an endoparasite in the bile passages of sheep.

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Its life cycle is digenetic, i.e., completed in two hosts (a primary vertebrate host, the sheep and
a secondary or intermediate invertebrate host, the gastropod mollusc). The adult parasite is
found in the primary host, while a part of its life cycle as larval stages are found in the
invertebrate host.

Fasciola hepatica, in addition to sheep, also infects other vertebrates like goat, deer, horse, dog,
ass, ox and occasionally man. Its secondary hosts are either Planorbis sps, Bulinus sps., or
Limnaea truncatula, all being freshwater gastropod molluscs. Fasciola hepatica is worldwide
in distribution, particularly sheep and cattle raising areas are the primary zones where human
beings are also infected.

Its other Indian species, F. gigantica (= indica) is found in the bile passages of buffaloes, cow,
goats and pigs.

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2. Structure of Fasciola Hepatica:

(i) Shape, Size and Colour:
F. hepatica has a thin, dorsoventrally flattened, leaf-shaped, elongated and oval body. It
measures about 25 to 30 mm in length and 4 to 12 mm in breadth.

The maximum width is at about anterior third of the body from where the body tapers anteriorly
as well as posteriorly, however, the anterior end is somewhat rounded, while it is bluntly
pointed posteriorly. F. indica has its greatest width at about the middle of the body, and the
posterior end is rounded. It is usually pinkish in colour but it appears brownish due to ingested
bile of the host.

(ii) External Morphology:

The anterior end of the body is distinguished into a triangular oral cone or head lobe giving it
a shouldered appearance. The head lobe, at its tip, bears a somewhat triangular aperture called
mouth. There are two muscular suckers an oral sucker at the anterior end encircling the mouth,
and a large ventral sucker or acetabulum situated mid-ventrally about 3 to 4 mm behind the
oral sucker.

The suckers are cup-like muscular organs meant for attachment to the host by vacuum. In
addition to mouth aperture, there are two permanent apertures on the body; one situated mid-
ventrally in front of the ventral sucker is the common genital aperture or gonopore, and the
other is situated at the posterior end of the body called the excretory pore.

In addition to these apertures, a temporary opening of Laurer’s canal appears during the
breeding season on the dorsal surface just anterior to the middle of the body. Anus is wanting
because alimentary canal is incomplete.

3. Body Wall of Fasciola Hepatica:

The body wall of F. hepatica lacks a cellular layer of epidermis, unlike those of the
turbellarians. However, it consists of a thick layer of cuticle followed by a thin basement
membrane and underlying muscle layers surrounding the mesenchyma.

(i) Cuticle:
A tough resistant cuticle, made of a homogeneous layer of scleroprotein, covers the fluke and
protects it from the juices of the host. It bears small spines, spinules or scales. The spinules
anchor the fluke to the bile duct of the host, provide protection and facilitate locomotion.

The cuticle of F. indica has broad, stout, and blunt scales. The epidermis has been lost during
development of the cercaria stage. However, the cuticle is secreted by special mesenchymal
cells situated below muscle layers. These cuticle secreting cells were believed to be sunken
epidermal cells (Hein, 1904 and Roewer, 1906).

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(ii) Basement Membrane:

The lowest layer of the cuticle is a thin, delicate basement membrane. It demarcates the
boundary between cuticle and muscle layers.

(iii) Muscle Layer:

The basement membrane is followed by a sub-cuticular musculature. It consists of an outer
layer of circular muscle fibres, middle layer of longitudinal muscle fibres and an inner layer of
diagonal muscle fibres which are more developed in the anterior half of the body. All muscles
are smooth. The muscles form stout bundles of radial fibres in the suckers.

(iv) Mesenchyme:
Below the muscles is parenchyma (mesenchyme) having numerous loosely arranged
uninucleate and bi-nucleate cells with syncytial network of fibres having fluid-filled spaces.

Some of these cells are large and provided with large processes extending up to the base of the
cuticle to which they are said to secrete. In fact, the mesenchyme forms a packing material
between the muscle layer and internal organs. It helps in the transport of nutrients and waste
substances.

The body wall plays a significant role in the physiology of fluke. It provides protection, it is
the site of gaseous exchange, various nitrogenous wastes are diffused out through it and it also
helps in the absorption of amino acids to some extent.

(v) Structure of Body Wall Under Electron Microscope:

The electron microscopic studies of the body wall of F. hepatica by Threadgold (1963), Bils
and Martin (1966) have clearly revealed that cuticle is a syncytial layer of protoplasm having
mitochondria, endoplasmic canals, vacuoles and pinocytic vesicles. Hence, cuticle is now
referred to as the integument because it is metabolically active. The tegument is continuous
with tegument secreting cells lying in the mesenchyme.

The outer integumental surface is thrown out into many fine projections which increase its area
to facilitate the absorption of host’s fluid. The tegument is also provided with many fine pore
canals through which dissolved substances in the form of solution are absorbed into the
mesenchyme.

4. Digestive System of Fasciola Hepatica:

(i) Alimentary Canal:
The oral sucker encloses a ventral mouth which leads into a funnel- shaped mouth cavity,
followed by a round muscular pharynx with thick walls, and a small lumen. The pharynx has
pharyngeal glands. F. indica has a short muscular pharynx from which arises an oral pouch
which is about half the size of the pharynx.

There is a short narrow oesophagus leading into an intestine which divides into two branches
or intestinal caeca or crura each running on one side to the posterior end, and ending blindly.

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The intestinal caeca give out a number of branching diverticula in order to carry food to all
parts of the body since there is no circulatory system. The median diverticula are short and
lateral ones are long and branching. There is no anus.

The interior part of the alimentary canal up to the oesophagus is lined with cuticle and serves
as a suctorial fore gut; the intestine is lined with endodermal columnar epithelial cells. The
caceal epithelium has secretory gland cells.

(ii) Food, Feeding and Digestion:

It feeds on bile, blood, lymph and cell debris. The oral sucker and pharynx together constitute
an effective suctorial apparatus. Digestion is extracellular, occurs in intestine. The digested
food material is distributed by branching diverticula of intestine to all parts of the body as the
circulatory system is not found in this animal. Thus, the digestive system functions as a gastro
vascular system.

In fact, the digested nutrients are passed into the parenchyma through intestinal diverticula;
from parenchyma they are diffused into the various organs of the body.

Reserve food, mostly in the form of glycogen and fats is stored in the parenchyma. However,
monosaccharide sugars like glucose, fructose, etc., are directly diffused into the body of the
fluke through general body surface from the surrounding fluid of the host. The indigestible
remains of the food, if any, are probably said to be ejected through the mouth.

5. Respiration of Fasciola Hepatica:

Mode of respiration is anaerobic or anoxybiotic. In fact, glycogen is metabolised to carbon
dioxide and fatty acids releasing energy in the form of heat.

The process is completed in following steps:

(i) The glycogen undergoes anaerobic glycolysis to form pyruvic acid,

(ii) The pyruvic acid is decarboxylated to form carbon dioxide and an acetyl group,

(iii) The acetyl group then combines with coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A, and

(iv) The acetyl coenzyme A is then finally condensed and reduces to form fatty acids.

The carbon dioxide, thus, produced is diffused out through general body surface and the fatty
acids are excreted through the excretory system.

6. Excretory System of Fasciola Hepatica:

The excretory system of Fasciola hepatica is concerned with excretion as well as
osmoregulation. It consists of a large number of flame cells or flame bulbs or protonephridia
connected with a system of excretory ducts.

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(i) Flame Cells:

The flame cells, supposed to be modified mesenchymal cells, are numerous, irregular in shape
bulb-like bodies found distributed in the mesenchyma throughout the body of Fasciola. The
distribution pattern of flame cells follows a specific pattern referred to as ‘the flame cell
pattern’ (Faust, 1919).
The flame cells are characteristic, each has a thin elastic wall with pseudopodia-like processes,
a nucleus and an intracellular cavity having many long cilia arising from basal granules. In
living condition, the cilia vibrate like a flickering flame, hence, the name flame cell.

(ii) Excretory Ducts:

There is an excretory pore at the posterior end from which arises a longitudinal excretory canal,
from this arise four main branches, two dorsal and two ventral, which subdivide into numerous
small capillaries which anastomose; the capillaries are continued into the intracellular cavity
of flame cells. The longitudinal excretory canal is non-ciliated but the capillaries are lined with
cilia.

(iii) Process of Excretion:

The excretory wastes, generally fatty acids and ammonia, are diffused from surrounding
mesenchyma into the flame cells and finally collected into their intracellular cavities. The
vibrating movement of the cilia causes the flow of wastes from the intracellular cavities of
flame cells into the excretory ducts and then into the main excretory canal and finally to the
exterior through excretory pore by hydrostatic pressure.

Such an excretory system of flame cells and canals or ducts of various orders with no internal
opening and leading to an excretory pore which opens to the exterior is spoken of as a
protonephridial system which is excretory but its main function is to regulate the amount of
fluid in the animal’s body.

7. Nervous System of Fasciola Hepatica:

A nerve ring surrounds the oesophagus, it has a pair of cerebral ganglia dorsolaterally, and a
ventral ganglion below the oesophagus. Small nerves are given out anteriorly from the ganglia.
Posteriorly three pairs of longitudinal nerve cords arise from the ganglia, a dorsal, a lateral, and
a ventral pair of nerve cords.

The lateral nerve cords are best developed and they run to the posterior end. Nerve cords are
connected by transverse commissures and they give out many small branches, some of which
form plexuses. The nerve cells are mostly bipolar. Due to parasitic life, sense organs are lost in
adult Fasciola.

8. Reproductive System of Fasciola Hepatica:

Fasciola hepatica is hermaphrodite but usually cross fertilisation takes place. The reproductive
organs are well developed and complex.

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(i) Male Reproductive System of Fasciola Hepatica:

The male reproductive system consists of testes, vasa deferentia, seminal vesicle, ejaculatory
duct, cirrus or penis, prostate glands and genital atrium.

(a) Testes:
These are two in number, much ramified tubular and placed one behind the other (i.e., with
tandem arrangement) in the posterior middle part of the body. In fact, they occupy major space
from behind the middle part of the body of Fasciola. The cells lining the wall of testes give rise
to spermatozoa.

(b) Vasa Deferentia:

A narrow and slender vas deferens or sperm duct arises from each testis and runs forwards.

(c) Seminal Vesicle:

The two vasa deferentia unite together near the acetabulum (ventral sucker) and become dilated
to form a muscular, elongated, broad, bag-like seminal vesicle or vesicula seminalis. It serves
the purpose of storing sperms.

(d) Ejaculatory Duct:

The seminal vesicle continues anteriorly into a very narrow and coiled duct called ejaculatory
duct.

(e) Cirrus:
The cirrus (penis) is a muscular and elongated structure into which ejaculatory duct opens. The
cirrus opens by male genital aperture in a common genital atrium. The cirrus of F. indica is
covered with small spines.

(f) Prostate Glands:

The ejaculatory duct is surrounded by numerous unicellular prostate glands. These glands open
into the ejaculatory duct and their secretion (alkaline) helps in free movement of sperms during
copulation.

(g) Genital Atrium:

The genital atrium is a common chamber for male and female genital apertures, it opens
externally by a gonopore lying ventrally in front of the acetabulum. The cirrus can be everted
through the gonopore during copulation. The cirrus or penis, seminal vesicle and prostatic
glands are surrounded in a common cirrus sheath or cirrus sac.

(ii) Female Reproductive System of Fasciola Hepatica:

The female reproductive system consists of ovary, oviduct, uterus, vitelline glands, Mehlis’s
glands and Laurer’s canal.

(a) Ovary:

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The ovary is single, tubular, highly branched and situated to the anterior of testes at the right
side in anterior one-third of the body.

(b) Oviduct:
All the branches of ovary open into a short and narrow tube called oviduct. The oviduct travels
down obliquely and opens into the median vitelline duct.

(c) Uterus:
From the junction of oviduct and median vitelline duct arises a wide convoluted uterus having
fertilised shelled eggs or capsules. The uterus opens by female genital aperture into the
common genital atrium on the left side of male genital aperture. The uterus is comparatively
small and it lies in front of the gonads.

The terminal part of uterus has muscular walls, referred to as metraterm which ejects the eggs
and also sometimes receives the cirrus during copulation.

(d) Vitelline Glands:

On both lateral sides and also behind the testes are numerous follicles constituting the vilellaria,
yolk glands or vitelline glands which produce albuminous yolk and shell material for the eggs.
The vitelline glands open by means of minute ducts into a longitudinal vitelline duct on each
side.

The two longitudinal ducts are connected together by a transverse vitelline duct placed above
the middle of the body. The transverse vitelline duct is swollen in the centre to form the yolk
reservoir or vitelline reservoir. From the yolk reservoir a median vitelline duct starts and runs
forward to join the oviduct.

(e) Mehlis’s Glands:

A mass of numerous unicellular Mehlis’s glands is found situated around the junction of
median vitelline duct, oviduct and uterus. The secretion of Mehlis’s glands lubricates the
passage of eggs in the uterus and probably hardens the egg shells, it probably also activates
spermatozoa.

The junction of oviduct and median vitelline duct is swollen to form ootype in certain flukes
like F. indica, in which the parts of an egg are assembled and the eggs are shaped, but an ootype
is lacking in F. hepatica (according to some authorities).

(f) Laurer’s Canal:

From the oviduct arises a narrow Laurer’s canal, it runs vertically upwards. This canal opens
on the dorsal side temporarily during breeding season and acts as vestigial vagina to serve as
copulation canal.

9. Life History of Fasciola Hepatica:

(i) Copulation and Fertilization of Fasciola Hepatica:

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Though F. hepatica is hermaphrodite even then cross- fertilisation is of common occurrence.

Hence, before fertilisation copulation occurs; during copulation, which occurs in the bile duct
of the sheep, the Cirrus of one Fasciola is inserted into the Laurer’s canal of other Fasciola and
the sperms are deposited into the oviduct, so that cross-fertilisation takes place.

During self- fertilisation, which occurs only when cross-fertilisation does not take place, the
sperms from the same Fasciola enter the female genital aperture and pass down the uterus to
fertilize the eggs in the oviduct.

(ii) Formation of Egg Capsules in Fasciola Hepatica:

The eggs are brownish in colour, oval in shape and measure about 130 to 150 µ in length and
63 to 90 µ in width.

As referred to, the eggs are fertilised in the oviduct, the fertilised eggs receive yolk cells from
vitelline glands and they get enclosed in a chitinous shell formed by granules in the yolk cells
giving out droplets, the shell hardens and becomes brownish yellow; the shell has an operculum
or lid. Mehlis’s glands play no role in the formation of the shell.

The completed ‘eggs’ are called capsules which are large in size and they pass into the uterus
where development starts. Capsules come out of the gonopore into the bile duct of the sheep,
they reach the intestine and are passed out with the faeces. The capsules which fall in water or
damp places will develop at about 75°F. Capsules are produced throughout the year, and one
fluke may produce 500,000 capsules.
(iii) Development of Fasciola Hepatica:
Development starts in the uterus and is continued on the ground. The fertilised egg divides into
a small propagatory cell and a larger somatic cell. The somatic cell divides and forms the
ectoderm of the larva. Later the propagatory cell divides into two cells, one of which forms the
endoderm and mesoderm of the larva, and the other forms a mass of germ cells at the posterior
end of the larva.

This method of development takes place in the formation of all larval stages during the life
history. In two weeks time, a small ciliated miracidium larva is formed and it comes out of the
shell by forcing the operculum. The miracidium produces a proteolytic enzyme which erodes
the lower surface of the operculum.

(iv) Miracidium Larva:

Miracidium larva is a minute, oval and elongated, free-swimming stage, it is covered with 18
to 21 flat ciliated epidermal cells lying in five rings.

The first ring is made of six plates (two dorsal, two lateral and two ventral), second ring has
again six plates (three dorsal and three ventral), third ring has three plates (one dorsal and two
ventrolateral), fourth ring has four plates (two right and two left) and fifth ring has two plates
(one left and one right).

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A sub-epidermal musculature, consisting of outer circular and inner longitudinal fibres, is

situated beneath the epidermal cells. The sub-epidermal musculature is followed by a layer of
cells constituting the sub-epithelium. All these, i.e., epidermal cells, sub-musculature and sub-
epithelium, together form the body wall of miracidium.

Anteriorly it has a conical apical papilla, and attached to it is a glandular sac with an opening
called apical gland.

On each side of the apical gland is a bag-like penetration gland. There are two pigmented X-
shaped eye spots and a nervous system. There is a pair of protonephridia, each with two flame
cells. The flame cells open to the exterior by two separate excretory pores or nephridiopores
situated laterally in the posterior half of the body.

Towards the posterior side are some propagatory cells (germ cells), some of which may have
divided to form germ balls which are developing embryos. The miracidium does not feed, it
swims about in water or moisture film, but it dies in eight hours unless it can reach a suitable
intermediate host, which is some species of amphibious snail of genus Limnaea or even Bulinus
or Planorbis.

After getting a suitable host the miracidium adheres to it by its apical papilla and enters the
pulmonary sac of the snail, from where it penetrates into the body tissues with the aid of
penetration glands and finally reaches to snail’s digestive gland. In the tissues the miracidium
casts off its ciliated epidermis, loses its sense organs and it swells up and changes in shape to
form a sporocyst.

(v) Sporocyst:
The sporocyst is an elongated germinal sac about 0.7 mm long and covered with a thin cuticle,
below which are mesenchyme cells and some muscles.

The glands, nerve tissue, apical papilla and eye spots of miracidium disappear. The hollow
interior of sporocyst has a pair of protonephridia each with two flame cells it has germ cells
and germ balls. The germ cells have descended in a direct line from the original ovum from the
miracidium developed.

The sporocyst moves about in the host tissues and its germ cells develop into a third type of
larva called redia larva. A sporocyst forms 5 to 8 rediae. The rediae larvae pass out of the
sporocyst by rupture of its body wall into the snail tissues with the aid of the muscular collar
and ventral processes, then the rediae migrate to the liver of the snail.

(vi) Redia:
The redia is elongated about 1.3 mm to 1.6 mm in length with two ventral processes called
lappets or procruscula near the posterior end and a birth pore near the anterior end.

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Body wall has cuticle, mesenchyme and muscles, and near the anterior end, just in front of the
birth pore, the muscles form a circular ridge, the collar used for locomotion. Redia has an
anterior mouth, pharynx in which numerous pharyngeal glands open, sac-like intestine and
there is a pair of protonephridia with two pairs of flame cells. Its cavity has germ cells and
germ balls.

The germ cells of redia give rise during summer months to a second generation of daughter
rediae, but in winter they produce the fourth larval stage, the cercaria larva. Thus, either the
primary redia or daughter redia produce cercaria larvae which escape from the birth pore of the
redia into the snail tissues. Each redia forms about 14 to 20 cercariae.

(vii) Cercaria:
The cercaria (Fig. 41.19) has an oval body about 0.25 mm to 0.35 mm long and a simple long
tail. Its epidermis is soon shed and replaced by cuticle; below the cuticle are muscles and
cystogenous glands. It has rudiments of organs of an adult; there are two suckers (oral sucker
and ventral sucker) and an alimentary canal consisting of mouth, buccal cavity, pharynx,
oesophagus and a bifurcated intestine.

There is an excretory bladder with a pair of protonephridial canals (excretory tubules) with a
number of flame cells. An excretory duct originates from the bladder, travels through the tail
and bifurcates to open out through a pair of nephridiopores.

There are two large penetration glands, but they are non-functional in the cercaria of Fasciola.

It also has the rudiments of reproductive organs formed from germ cells. The cercariae escape
from the birth pore of the redia, then migrate from the digestive gland of the snail into the
pulmonary sac from where they pass out into surrounding water. The time taken in snail from
the entry of miracidia to the exit of cercariae is five to six weeks.

(viii) Metacercaria:
The cercariae swim about in water for 2 to 3 days; they then lose their tails and get enclosed in
a cyst secreted by cystogenous glands.

The encysted cercaria is called a metacercaria (Fig. 41.20) which is about 0.2 mm in diameter
and it is in fact a juvenile fluke. If the metacercariae are formed in water they can live for a
year, but if they are formed on grass or vegetation then they survive only for a few weeks, they
can withstand short periods of drying.

The various larval stages (the miracidium, sporocyst, redia, and cercaria) are all formed in the
same way from germ cells which are set aside at the first division. There is, thus, a distinction
between germ cells and somatic cells, and germ cells alone form the various larval stages.

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Infection of the primary host (Sheep):

Further development of the metacercaria takes place only if it is swallowed by the final host,
the sheep.

Metacercariae can also infect man if they are swallowed by eating water cress on which
cercariae encyst, but such cases are rare. But the metacercarie are not infective until 12 hours
after encystment. In the alimentary canal of a sheep, the cyst wall is digested and a young fluke
emerges and bores through the wall of the intestine to enter the body of the host.

After about two to six days they enter the liver and their movements in the liver may cause
serious injuries.

The young flukes stay in the liver for seven or eight weeks feeding mainly on blood and then
they enter the bile duct and bile passages. The young flukes have been growing in the liver and
after several weeks in the bile duct they become sexually mature adults. The period of
incubation in the sheep takes 3 to 4 months.

However, the life history of Fasciola hepatica (Fig. 41.21) can be summarised as under:

Adult flukes in liver → copulation and fertilisation → laying of capsules in the bile ducts →
capsules in the intestine (stages in sheep’s body) → capsules out in faeces → miracidia escape
from capsules (stages in open) → miracidia → sporocysts → rediae → cercariae → (stages in
snail’s body) → cercariae → metacercariae (stages in open) → metacercariae young flukes →
adult flukes (stages in a fresh sheep’s body).

Characteristic Features of Life History of Fasciola Hepatica:

Life history of Fasciola Hepatica is complicated because of parasitism. A sheep harbours about
200 flukes which will produce about 100 million eggs. The miracidium larva is free living and
is structurally adapted to seek out an intermediate host, a snail Limnaea, which is found
conveniently in water and damp places in grass in wide areas where sheep graze.

The sporocyst forms 5 to 8 rediae, each of which produces 8 to 12 daughter rediae, each
daughter redia forms 14 to 20 cercariae; so that about a thousand cercaria larvae are produced
from each egg. From this large number some cercariae are bound to infect a new sheep, thus,
ensuring a continuance of the race.

Life history of Fasciola Hepatica affords an example of alternation of generations. The fluke is
the sexual generation and it alternates, not with an asexual generation, but with parthenogenetic
generations of sporocysts and rediae. Such an alternation of a sexual generation with a series
of parthenogenetic generations is called heterogamy.

This theory of parthenogenetic development in the various larval stages is now discounted, and
formation of various larvae from germ cells is regarded as simple mitotic asexual
multiplication; this asexual multiplication of various larvae is called polyembryony.

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Thus, there is a period of asexual multiplication during larval stages, followed by sexual
reproduction in the adult fluke. This may be regarded as an alternation of generations, but more
probably it is continuous life history in which asexual multiplication occurs in the larval stages
due to parasitism.

The free swimming larval stages, miracidia and cercariae of F. hepatica, are morphologically
more advanced than the adult fluke because they bear organs of locomotion, sense organs,
cellular epidermis and a well developed body cavity.

10. Parasitic Adaptations of Fasciola Hepatica:

As adult Fasciola hepatica lives in the liver and bile ducts of sheep as an endoparasite, it is very
well adapted for its parasitic mode of life. In fact, on one hand adult fluke exhibits certain
adaptive features and on the other a number of adaptive features may also be accounted from
the various stages of its life history.

So, the adaptive features of Fasciola hepatica can be discussed in the following two
headings:
A. Adaptations of the Adult Fluke:
These can be accounted as under:
1. Its body is dorsoventrally flattened, leaf-shaped which increases surface area of the body for
increased diffusion of substances through fluid of the body.

2. Its body is covered with a thick cuticle which protects it from host’s antitoxins.

3. Cilia are absent in adult flukes.

4. Adhesive organs like suckers (anterior sucker and ventral sucker) well developed which
provide it firm attachment with the host tissue. Many cuticular spines over its body erode the
host tissue forming its food and also serve in saving the fluke from being pushed away in the
ducts with bile.

5. Its mouth is situated anteriorly and the muscular pharynx serves for sucking the nutrients
from the host body. Since it feeds on pre-digested and digested substances of the host body,
hence, its alimentary canal is not well developed and digestive glands are not found.

6. Since process of digestion does not occur, anus is absent and, hence, circulatory system is
wanting because the various organs of alimentary canal (intestine and its various branches)
distribute the already digested food substances to the different parts of its body.

7. Since it lives in an environment which is devoid of oxygen, hence, anaerobic mode of

respiration occurs; respiratory organs are completely wanting.

8. Its nervous system is very simple and the sense organs are completely wanting, as the flukes
are endoparasites.

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9. Locomotory organs are not found as the flukes lead a well protected life.

10. The excretory system consists of a complicated arrangement of branched tubules so as to

facilitate the collection of various metabolic excretory wastes of the body.

11. The reproductive system is well developed and best suited for its parasitic mode of life.

12. Since adult fluke lives in the body of the sheep, hence, it may die with the death of the
sheep. Therefore, there is a need of secondary host for the transference of the parasite from one
host to the other, so that its race may be continued. Hence, snail is the secondary host.

B. Adaptations in Life History:

The various parasitic adaptive features in the life history of Fasciola hepatica can be
accounted as under:
1. Production of enormous number of eggs to overcome their wastage during transference.

2. The eggs are to pass down the bile duct into the intestine of sheep and then to the outside
with its faeces, hence, the fertilised eggs are enclosed in a chitinous covering, the shell, which
protects the zygote from the enzymes of the host. The shelled eggs are called capsules.

3. Miracidia are the first larvae to come out of the capsules; miracidia are well adapted to lead
free swimming life (it has ciliated body to help in swimming, eye spots are developed) and also
for entering into the body of the secondary host, Limnaea, Planorbis, etc. (penetration glands
help them to enter into snail’s body).

4. The sporocyst leads parasitic life; its body is covered in a cyst-like structure to protect it
from digestive enzymes of the snail. The germ balls in sporocyst give rise to rediae which may
further produce either large number of daughter rediae or cercariae.

5. The locomotory organs of rediae (lappets or procruscula) and cercariae (tail) enable them to
move and find their way into the fresh tissues of the snail.

6. Cercariae find their way out of the body of snail and lead a very short free life and then get
enclosed in a cyst secreted by them itself on vegetations.

7. The cysted cercariae called metacercariae on vegetation make sure of their entry into the
sheep’s body due to herbivorous habit of the sheep.

8. Metacercariae can live for a longer period waiting for entry into sheep’s body as they are
well protected in cyst to overcome climatic hazards.

9. Mode of parthenogenetic reproduction of larvae further ensures the continuity of their race.

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However, the high rate of reproduction, adaptations of the larvae, sexual and asexual mode of
reproduction and adaptations in the morphology and physiology of the fluke are to ensure the
survival and continuity of the race.

The Structure and Life Cycle of Taenia

Systemic Position
Phylum: Platyhelminthes
Class: Eucestoda
Order: Taenioidea
Genus: Taenia
Species: solium
Taenia is a digenetic parasite. Man is the primary or definitive host, the secondary host for
T.solium is pig. The body is elongated, dorso-ventrally flattened and ribbon-like. It is also
called tapeworm as the shape of the body is like a tape. The size of adult worm varies from 3-
5 metres i.e., 9-16 feet, but few are recorded to attain a length of about 8 metres. The body is
opaque white but may be grey, yellow or creamy. The body of Taenia is modified for parasitic
mode of life.

It is distinguished into three parts:

1. Head and scolex

2. Neck

3. Body or strobila.

1. Head or scolex:
The scolex is the anterior- most knob like part of the size of pin head. It is a four- sided, pear-
shaped structure distinguished into two parts-

(i) Rostellar part:

Rostellum is the proximal conical part bearing at its base two rows of curved and pointed
chitinous hooks. These are about 28 in number and of two different sizes and the smaller hoods
alternate with the larger ones. The rostellum is slightly retractile.

(ii) Distal four-sided part:

It lies posterior to the rostellum and possesses four cup-shaped suckers. One of them is dorsal,
one ventral and two are lateral.

2. Neck:
The scolex is followed by a narrow un-segmented neck region. New segments are budded off
from this region by budding. Hence it is also known as the region of proliferation or area of
segmentation (fig. 9.12).

3. Strobila:

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The rest of the body is known as strobila. It is composed of linear series of 800 to 1,000 sets of
reproductive organs or genitalia, each set being contained in a segment. This linear repetition
of genital organs is termed as proglottisation and each segment is known as proglottid. Since
the segments are budded off from the neck region in an orderly succession, the youngest
segments are towards the neck and the oldest segments are posterior most.

Reproductive System:
The reproductive organs are segmentally repeated and each segment carries a complete set of
male and female reproductive organs (i.e., hermaphrodite).

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A. Male Reproductive Organs:

The male reproductive organs are:
1. Testes

2. Vasa efferentia

3. Vas deferens

4. Cirrus and cirrus sac

1. Testes:
The testes are numerous minute round bodies scattered throughout the dorsal part of the
proglottid. The number of testes varies from 15 to 200.

2. Vasa efferentia:

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By: Smruti Ranjan Behera, Department of Zoology, Dr. R.C. SIST Nayagarh, Utkal University.
CORE-1 B. Sc.

These are numerous minute ducts which arise from testes and collectively open into the vas
deferens.

3. Vas deferens:
It is a long coiled tube which arises from the middle of the segment and runs transversely either
to the left or right to open into the genital atrium.

4. Cirrus and cirrus sac:

The distal end of vas deferens is modified into a protrusible cirrus which is surrounded by a
muscular pouch, the cirrus sac. The cirrus is beset with spines, bristles, or hooks and opens into
the genital atrium through male genital pore.

B. Female Reproductive Organs:

1. Ovaries

2. Oviducts

3. Ootype

4. Vagina

5. Uterus

6. Vitelline gland

7. Mehlis glands.

1. Ovaries:
There are two ovaries situated in the medulla towards the posterior end. These are
dorsoventrally flattened, highly branched and connected together by a transverse bridge.

2. Oviduct:
The oviduct arises from the middle of the bridge. It is a short and wide duct and opens into the
ootype.

3. Ootype:
It is a small rounded chamber developed at the junction of oviduct with the vitelline duct. It is
surrounded by numerous unicellular shell glands or Mehlis glands.

4. Uterus:
A blind sac-like or tube -like uterus arises from the ootype and runs forward in the segment. In
gravid proglottids the uterus enlarges and gets branched to occupy the whole of the proglottid.
It remains filled with the fertilized ova or developing embryos.

5. Vagina:

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By: Smruti Ranjan Behera, Department of Zoology, Dr. R.C. SIST Nayagarh, Utkal University.
CORE-1 B. Sc.

It is the narrow tubular part. It opens into the genital chamber by female reproductive opening.
The seminal receptacle is a small wide tube connected on one hand with the ootype by a narrow
spermatic duct and on the other with vagina.

6. Vitelline gland:
The vitelline gland is a compact, elliptical mass of numerous follicles situated posterior to the
ovaries. The secretion of the vitelline duct is rich in yolk and forms a covering to yolk around
the fertilized egg.

7. Shell gland or Mehlis glands:

These are numerous minute unicellular glands situated at the ootype.

Life- History:
The life-history is complicated and digenetic, being completed in two hosts. The primary host
is man and the secondary host is pig.

1. Fertilization:
Self-fertilization takes place in Taenia. The cirrus of the segment is inserted into the vagina of
the same segment. The sperms received are stored in the seminal receptacle. The eggs are
fertilized in the oviduct and get surrounded with yolk and egg-shell in the ootype. The
capsulated egg enters the uterus and is collected there. The uterus enlarges in size, gets
branched and occupies the whole space. The eggs are very small in size measuring about 40
microns in diameter. These contain a large amount of yolk and each is surrounded by an egg-
shell or egg-capsule.

2. Cleavage:
The division in the eggs start, while these are- still inside the uterus. The first cleavage is
unequal so that a large vitelline cell and a small embryonic cell is formed. The embryonic cell
undergone repeated divisions and a solid ball of cells, the morula is formed. The divisions are
unequal so the morula consists of a few larger cells, the macromeres forming an outer or
peripheral layer and inner mass of small cells or micromeres.

3. Hexacanth larva:
The micromeres develop into a hexacanth or onchosphere larva.

4. Infection to secondary host:

The development of egg up to the formation of onchosphere takes place inside the uterus of
gravid proglottid. The further development is not possible inside the host body. The gravid
proglottids detach from the body of the parasite and come out along with the host faeces. These
infect the secondary host when pig feeds upon the contaminated faeces.

5. Cysticerus or hydatid larva or bladderworm stage:

The numerous hexacanths are set free in the stomach, where the embryonic membranes of
onchospheres is dissolved (fig. 9.14) These bore through the intestinal wall the help of hooks

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By: Smruti Ranjan Behera, Department of Zoology, Dr. R.C. SIST Nayagarh, Utkal University.
CORE-1 B. Sc.

and enter the blood stream or lymph vessels. Travelling through the heart, these enter the
muscles of various parts in the body. The usual site where the hexacanths gey encysted is the
voluntary muscles of tongue, heart, liver and shoulder.

6. Infection of final host:

Further development of the bladder worm takes place only inside the definitive host. Infection
of man occurs when inadequately cooked pork infected with bladderworms is eaten. The
cysticerci become active in the intestine. The scolex takes a firm hold of intestinal wall of the
host. The bladder is thrown off and the neck starts budding off segments an adult tapeworm is
formed (fig. 9.15).

Infection of tapeworm can be prevented with high level of personal hygiene. The prevention
of fecal contamination of pig foods may be helpful in prevention of contamination of these
parasites.

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By: Smruti Ranjan Behera, Department of Zoology, Dr. R.C. SIST Nayagarh, Utkal University.
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By: Smruti Ranjan Behera, Department of Zoology, Dr. R.C. SIST Nayagarh, Utkal University.