Ancient and Medieval Indian Political Thought

Unit-I: Foundations of Indian Political Thought

(a) AN OVERVIEW ON SOURCES OF INDIAN

POLITICAL THOUGHT
Dr. Surae Soren

STRUCTURE

1.1 Learning Objectives

1.2 Introduction
1.3 Basic Premises of Indian Political Thought
1.4 Nyaya School of Thought
1.5 Carvaka School of Thought
1.6 Self
1.7 Conclusion
1.8 Practice Questions
1.9 References

1.1 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

The lesson would make the students understand the rich, vivid and popular traditions of India.
This will empower them to believe in the valuable practices emanated from civilizations. The
lesson would also make the students understand the epistemological/ ‘gyanmimansha’
traditions of Indian political thought which view the intrinsic nature of the subject of
cognition often delve into metaphysics or religion.

1.2 INTRODUCTION

We know that Indian political thought has a rich, vivid and deep tradition of eulogizing
values, beliefs and practices emanating from a lustrous civilization since very ancient time.
The thinking process and subsequent practices which developed in India is unique,
unparalleled unquestionable and unfathomable in the entire world. The Indian thinking
tradition has given to the world a rich source of knowledge relating from enquiry into the
existence of the God, purpose of human life, the unfathomable mysteries of outer space, the

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minute existent particle of earth and even the universal value system. So rich is the Indian
political thought tradition that it has earned enormous respect in the world and gathered
several followers since ages. India which had been a land of hermits, philosophers and
preaches has guided humanity since ancient ages. Whenever the world had faced crisis and
deviated from the path of humanity, India had shown the worlds the right path. This was true
during ancient times and even in the modern times.
To understand the deep-rooted India political thought which can be often complex at
times, it is necessary to understand its epistemic foundations so that clarity may emerge and
the present generation benefit from it. In understanding the knowledge tradition,
epistemology plays a very important role. The word epistemology has been taken from Greek
lexicon where ‘episteme’ means knowledge and ‘logos’ mean reason. Epistemology therefore
is a science of knowledge or a field of understanding knowledge. Epistemology therefore
studies the origin scope and frontier of knowledge. Epistemology has emerged from strong
human will to know about anything, be it surrounding like objects around or anything which
could not be seen but could be perceived like any supernatural force or entity. Epistemology
which in India is called as ‘gyanmimansha’ is also about cognition which focusses on three
vital issues, like the object, which is cognized, the subject which cognizes the object and the
tools of cognition like perception. The epistemological understanding of Indian political
thought which view the intrinsic nature of the subject of cognition often delve into
metaphysics or religion. Therefore, the Indian epistemology not only explains the basis of
everyday common experience but by focusing on cognition it explains the real nature of
subject. Thus, the epistemology in Indian political thought often depicts a knowledge form
where the subject-object distinction may break down (Soni, Jayandra: 2003).

1.3 BASIC PREMISES OF INDIAN POLITICAL THOUGHT

Knowledge as Pramana
Knowledge is a kind of cognition which is acquired through the right methods. Thereby
cognition is a phenomenon of consciousness which produces a belief system that is verifiable
and genuine. In Indian political thought cognition is always produced in a right manner. So,
despite different theories of truth, knowledge not only reveals the truth but also emerges out
of it. Knowledge cannot be acquired by whims and fancies or by sudden mishaps; neither it
can be produced by mere speculation as the right methodology has not been followed. In the
epistemology of Indian political thought, the knowledge source or the ‘pramana’ becomes
important as it is method of verifiable cognition determination. It is a means of accurate and
valid knowledge.
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In epistemology of Indian political thought, the means of knowledge or pramana which

has emerged as a significant area of thought are pratyaksa (perception), anumana (inference),
upamana (comparision), sabda (verbal testimony), arthapatti (presumption), sambhava
(implication) and aitihya (tradition). The Mimamsa School has played a significant role in
underlying the development of knowledge in Indian tradition. The scholars of Mimamsa
School have played important role in establishing epistemology in Indian knowledge
tradition. In this context Kumarila and Prabhakara have rejected sambhava (implication) and
aitihya (tradition) as valid forms of knowledge. Kumarila has accepted six pramanas which
are pratyaksa (perception), anumana (inference), upamana (comparision), sabda (verbal
testimony), arthapatti (presumption) and anupalabdhi (non apprehension). Prabhakara has
though rejected anupalabdhi (non apprehension) as a valid source of pramana.
Pratyaksa (perception)
Pratyaksa or perception talks about the knowledge which is present and can be perceived
through eyes or whose presence is visible before eyes. Pratyaksa or perception is therefore
considered as one of the most important forms of pramana. Pratyaksa is a type of cognition in
which the most important aspect is the contact between senses and the object of perception.
Thus, pratyaksa is knowledge about the existence of worldly phenomena through sense
organs and experience of internal human cognition like happiness and sadness through mental
abilities (Phillips, Stephen: 2019).
Anumana (inference)
The word anumana is derived from two words ‘anu’ meaning after and ‘mana’ meaning
knowledge. Therefore, anumana means after knowledge or seeker of knowledge based on
proof. Therefore, the knowledge obtained by anumana is not direct but indirect and has been
inferred. For example, when smoke is observed on a distant hill, it is immediately inferred
that there is fire. Because smoke and fire are associated and there is previous knowledge
about it. So, in anumana three features are important. They are ‘Sadhya’ (what is to be
proved, i.e., fire), ‘Hetu’ (cause of inference, i.e., smoke), and ‘Paksa’ (which causes side or
cause doubt, i.e., hill) (Ibid.).
Sabda (verbal testimony)
Sabda or verbal testimony is the authoritative speech of a trustworthy person. It is the hearing
of words though ears and believing it, as it emanates from a person whose integrity is
unquestionable. A major part of knowledge has been imparted to humans through verbal
usage of words by other people. So sabda or words are extremely important in the
development of cognitive ability of a person. Sabda or testimony has been well established as

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an important form of pramana. Also, the scriptural testimony develops cognition about
objects which are not in contact of sense but are being developed by knowledge of words.
Upamana (comparison)
Upamana means ‘comparison’ or ‘resemblance’. It produces a valid source of cognition by
means of analogy. Upamana refers to comparison or association of something by virtue of its
similarity to object that has been known from earlier times. For example, a person who has
never seen a wild ox has been told that it resembles a cow. So, when the person observes a
wild ox, the person observes that it is like a cow and so believes it to be a wild ox.
Arthapatti (presumption)
Arthapatti means ‘presumption’ or ‘implication’. It is derived from two words ‘artha’
meaning fact and ‘apathi’ meaning ‘kalpana’ or supposition. Arthapatti resolves the conflict
between two facts by solving the problem which occurs between two facts. Arthapatti solves
the problem by presuming about the fact which may seem contradictory. For example, a
person is fat and the person does not eat in the day. It therefore means that the person eats in
the night.
Anupalabdhi (non apprehension or non perception)
Anupalabdhi (non apprehension) is a kind of pramana which informs about the nonexistence
of an object or about the absence of the object. Objects that do not exist sometimes cannot be
perceived through the senses and therefore another source of knowledge is needed. Therefore,
Anupalabdhi happens when the non-perception of an object talks about its non-existence. For
example, when a chair which must be in a room is not seen there, then the knowledge about
nonexistence of the chair is determined through separate pramana which is Anupalabdhi.
The Indian political thought tradition includes various aspects of ancient moral philosophy
like Purus̩ arthas, goals of liberation and theory of karma. These moral philosophies have
given rise to two distinctive schools of thought depending on the acceptance of Vedas and
religious rituals. These schools of thought are orthodox (Astika) schools and heterodox
(Nastika) schools. The schools which accept the authority of the Vedas are classified as the
orthodox schools and the schools which do not accept the authority of Vedas are classified as
the heterodox schools. Among the orthodox schools of thought the Nyaya school of thought
and among the heterodox schools of thought the Carvaka school of thought is important to
understand the epistemic foundation of Indian political thought.

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1.4 NYAYA SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

Sage Gautama is the chief proponent of the Nyaya school of thought. Nyaya in Sanskrit
variously means justice, equality of all beings, rules, methods, or judgement. They are also
called Tarkashastra, Anvikshiki, Akshapada Vidya and the Nyaya Vidya. The Nyaya school
of thought has been attributed to the development of epistemology, methodology and theory
of logic. The Nyaya school is religious as well as philosophical. It advocates bringing an end
to human suffering as suffering results from ignorance of reality. Therefore, liberation from
suffering can be achieved by right knowledge. The objective of the Nyaya school is to
achieve true knowledge of the reality as inherent in metaphysics and investigation of those
conditions which require correct thinking as evident in epistemology. The Nyaya school of
thought advances the use of logical reasoning and critical thinking (Chatterjee, S C: 1939).
The Nyaya school of thought prominently emphasize four basic area, namely (i) theory
of knowledge (ii) theory of physical world (iii) theory of self and (iv) theory of God. These
four areas culminate from the study of Nyaya sutra. In Nyaya sutra sixteen entities
(padarthas) are mentioned. These sixteen entities are (1) pramana (means of knowledge)
(2) prameya (right knowledge) (3) samsaya (doubt or uncertainty) (4) prayojana (goal or
purpose) (5) dristanta (factually correct example used in inference) (6) siddhanta (widely
accepted doctrine) (7) avayava (components of syllogism) (8) tarka (counterfactual argument)
(9) nirnaya (definite knowledge) (10) vada (consultation or discussion) (11) jalpa (finding
fault in opponents argument to establish own argument by giving wrangling rejoinder)
(12) vitanda (debating only to refute) (13) hetvabhasa (fallacy of inference) (14) Chala
(unjust reply) (15) jati (reply by false analogy) (16) nigrahastha (exposing opponent’s
argument and showing self-contradiction and inconsistency and thus defeating the opponent).
Pramana
Pramana is the effective depiction of true knowledge of the existence of an object. Pramana
articulates an object the way object articulates itself. Pramana however articulates an object
through true cognition which can be ascertained by inference. Therefore, without true
cognition the object cannot be realized. In Pramana the object of knowledge, the knowledge
itself and the one who knows, or knower gets linked to the object. It is only by Pramana that
an object can be determined. So, one who generates practical response due to desire to
possess the object is the knower. Therefore, Paraman is the way by which he knows the
object. The object which is known is called prameya and the knowledge of the object is
known as pramiti. Therefore, Pramana reveals the truth and emphasizes the importance of
cognitive process and its connection to the existence and non-existence of things. The Nyaya
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school of thought uses four different and independent means of knowledge. These four
knowledge forms are (i) Perception (Pratyaksa) (ii) Inference (Anumana) (iii) Comparison
(Upamana) (iv) Verbal Testimony (Sabda) (Bilimoria, Purushottama: 2017).
Pratyaksa (perception)
In this world it is believed that whatever is perceived by our senses is true. So, whatever we
see by our eyes or hear is thought to be true because our senses create a definite perception of
an object. Perception therefore is valid knowledge and the method of acquiring valid
knowledge. In the Nyaya school of thought perception is a kind of cognition that generates
from contact of sense organ and the object. A perception comes into existence when the
object encounters self, mind (manas) and sense organs. The contact happens in sequences
where the self meets mind (manas), then the manas comes into contact with sense organs and
then the sense organs come into contact with the object. The entire process produces
cognition and the knowledge about an object becomes a perception.
The perception or pratyaksa means an object or something which is present before the
eyes or sense organs which demonstrate direct of immediate knowledge of the object. By the
term “object”, Gautam means three kinds of objects namely, the physical objects (table, chair,
pot), specific objects (color, hard, soft), and internal objects (pleasure, pain, sorrow).
Therefore, perception is a cognition which is always about the object. The cognition of
objects that are externally present, for example table and chair is called external perception
and those which are internally present as for example pleasure and pain are called internal
perceptions.
It can be said that in the Nyaya school of thought the perception applies to those
cognitions which are produced through contact between object and sense organ. This
perception can be momentarily as the cognition is generated at that moment due to contact.
However, in the deep study of cognition there can be the existence of an eternal being who
can perceive all the objects at all the times. In this condition the meaning of perception
becomes difficult to comprehend. In Nyaya school of thought, Gangesa has attempted to
loosen the complexity by defining perception in a more general sense by including the
subject, object and eternal being. This brings focus of the ‘contact’ between different
variables. Contact is the process by which an object gets into relationship with sense organ
thereby producing a definite perception of that object.
In Nyaya school of thought there are different kinds of contact between sense organ and
the object. Uddyotakara has shown six kinds of contact between sense organ and the object.
These contacts are as follows:

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(i) Samyoga (conjunction) – In this kind of contact there is direct contact between the eyes
and the object. As for example, a full view of table or a chair in a classroom.
(ii) Samyukta samavaya (inherence in what is conjoined) – Here an indirect form of contact
is established. The contact is established between the object and the sense organ though
a third-party mediation which is related to both. As for example, the eyes encounter the
color of pot through the pot kept in full view.
(iii) Samyukta samaveta samavaya (inherence in what is inseparably related to what is
conjoined) – It is the kind of indirect contact which takes place with the help of
mediation of two objects that are related. As for example a blackboard in a classroom is
when looked at or is perceived, the colour of the blackboard that is black is also
perceived. Here the contact of the eyes with that of the colourness with help of
mediation of two inseparable objects, that is blackboard and colour takes place.
(iv) Samavaya (inherence) – This is related to sound. When a person hears a sound then a
contact between sound and the sense organ that is ear is being made.
(v) Samaveta samavaya (relation between inherence and the senses) – This is the contact
between the sense and the object through another object that is inseparably related to
both. As for example when a person perceives a sound, the ear is in contact with the
soundness as the sound is inherence and that inherence is the virtue of the ear.
(vi) Samyukta visesanata (absence of the object) – In this kind of contact the sense remains
in contact with the object until the object reflects the virtue of the other object with the
sense. As for example when a table is not seen in a classroom. The relation between the
perception of nonexistence and the inherence is explained by this contact. So, when a
table is not seen in a class, the visual sense has conjunction with the class, but the
absence of the table is in the relation of the class.
The above mentioned six types of contact (Samyoga, Samyukta samaveta samavaya,
Samyukta samavaya, Samavaya, Samyukta visesanata and Samaveta samavaya) are called
ordinary or “laukika”. Apart from these the Nyaya school of thought recognizes three kinds
of extraordinary contacts which are also known as “alaukika”. These three kinds of contacts
are (i) samanyalaksana pratyaksa (ii) jnanalaksana pratyaasatti and (iii) yogaja.
(i) Samanyalaksana pratyaksa – In this kind of contact the quality of an object is perceived
as the quality of all other individual objects. As for example when a person sees a tiger,
the quality that is tiger-ness is also perceived. Therefore, tigerness becomes the mode of
contact for all other tigers which would be seen in future.

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(ii) Jnanalaksana pratyaasatti – In this kind of contact the perception is extraordinary

because the perception made by sense organ is not normally capable of perceiving and
is not present at that moment. Therefore, perception is based on experience. For
example, the coldness of the ice.
(iii) Yogaja – This kind of contact is intuitive in nature and is observed among the yogi who
by committed meditation has gained extraordinary powers to perceive phenomena of
the past, present and the future.
In the Nyaya school of thought the perception or the cognition takes place in two stages
namely (i) nirvikalpaka cognition and the (ii) savikalpaka cognition.
(i) Nirvikalpaka cognition- In this stage of cognition the first contact of sense organ takes
place with the object. This is the primary cognition of an object without determinate
knowledge of the characteristic and interconnection of the object. So nirvikalpaka is a
blunt knowledge of object in which merely the basic existence of object is perceived.
As for example when a person sees a mongo, a contact between eyes and mango is
made. At this stage merely the merely the size, shape and colour is perceived and not
the mango itself.
(ii) Savikalpaka cognition- This is generally considered as the second stage which produces
determinate knowledge of the object. In savikalpaka the person recognizes the object
due to attributes of its quality. The interconnection between several characteristics is
easily drawn. As for example after seeing the mango the person can easily determine
that it is a mango and can be edible. The savikalpaka cognition cannot take place
without the occurrence of nirvikalpaka cognition as the interconnection between
characteristics cannot be drawn without knowing that characteristic itself.
Anumana (inference)
Inference or Anumana is one of the important parts of Nyaya school of thought as it deals
with logic. Inference comes under Pramana which is a theory about knowledge. Inference not
merely deals with valid thinking but also gives much emphasis on the mode of knowing.
Inference as a means of knowing is called ‘anumana’ while inferential cognition is known as
‘anumiti’. Inference is that form of knowledge which comes after some other knowledge. So,
it is a kind of knowledge which is indirect and is the result of past knowledge. As for
example when a person sees smoke emanating from the hill, the person infers that there is fire
on the hill. Therefore, the sight of smoke proves to be a benchmark for the inferring fire of
the hill. The inference is further divided into two categories namely (i) svarthanumana and
(ii) pararthanumana.

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(i) Svarthanumana– This is the inference for oneself. The inference therefore shows a
psychological understanding about the process of knowledge. As for example a person
has observed earlier that smoke is produced whenever there is fire. So, whenever a
person sees smoke on a hill that person remembers that wherever there is smoke there is
fire. Therefore, due to experience an inference is made that the hill is on fire.
(ii) Pararthanumana– This kind of inference is based on logical reasoning. Hence syllogism
plays an important role in determining the production of knowledge. Pararthanumana
can be understood by five logical statements- (a) there is fire on the hill (the proposition
that has to be proved, also known as pratijna) (b) because there is smoke (it states the
reason for fire, also known as hetu) (c) wherever there is smoke, there is fire (vyapti)
(d) as observed in kitchen (it is an example also known as drstnta) (e) there is fire on the
hill (this is the conclusion also known as nigamana). In this example the first statement
is the assertion, the second statement gives the reason, the third statement shows the
unchanging conjunction (between smoke and fire), the fourth statement expresses the
similarity as for example hill is like kitchen (due to presence of fire and smoke) and the
fifth and last statement is conclusion which establishes the assertion made earlier.
Upamana (comparison)
Comparison or Upamana is the knowledge that is derived from the similarity between two
objects. The word Upamana is derived from two words, that is ‘upa’ and ‘mana’. Upa means
similarity and mana means cognition. So it is that cognition that is produced by comparing
the similarity between one object which is known to another object that is not known. The
classic example is about wild ox. A person who has never seen a wild ox recognizes it
because he has been told that it resembles a cow and has seen a cow earlier. So, when the
person sees a wild ox then he finds that it is like cow. Therefore, the person thinks that it
must be a wild ox. The Nyaya school of thought says that this knowledge cannot be derived
from by perception or by inference as it is based on the knowledge of similarity.
Sabda (verbal testimony)
Most of the knowledge is transmitted from one human to another by the words spoken by an
individual. This is also known as verbal testimony or ‘sabda’. However, all the words and
sentences are not true and therefore are not valid knowledge. Only those authoritative verbal
testimony (aptavakya) becomes pramana which are given by authoritative and trustworthy
people because they know the truth and speak the truth. The statements of trustworthy people
are reliable and are meaningful.
However, to derive knowledge from verbal testimony it becomes necessary to

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understand the words. The words are important as they form the sentences. The sentences
may be verbal or in a written form. To convey knowledge the sentence must follow some
conditions. These are (i) akanksha (expectation) (ii) yogyata (fitness or qualification) (iii)
sannidhi (nearness) and (iv) tatparya (intention).
Simply grouping some words does not create a sentence and therefore it becomes
meaningless. In the first instance if the group of words does not produce akanksha or
expectation. The words do not make sense. As for example ‘table, elephant, pot’. These
words do not make sense as they do not produce expectation. As for the second condition the
sentence has to be fit and non-contradictory to convey meaning. As for example ‘boil the
potatoes in soil’. Here the word boil produces an expectation while the word soil is not fit to
fulfil. The third condition points out that the words must be near or spoken in quick
succession to make sense. As for example if words are spoken with long pause it does not
make sense. In the fourth condition the intention of speaker becomes relevant whereas several
meaning of the word can be drawn at a time. As for example at cash counter when a person
says that he needs change then it means that he needs money of small denomination and not a
change in life. Therefore, it is necessary to know a person’s intentions.
In Nyaya school of thought the sabda are of two kinds. These are laukika and alaukika.
The verbal testimony under laukika and are words of trustworthy and reliable persons
whereas verbal testimony under alaukika is divine in nature. Therefore, statements from wise
people are laukika while words of Vedas or religious texts are alaukik. The sabda pramana
plays a significant role in transmission of knowledge, generation of cognition and cultivation
of values. Through sabda, knowledge about ‘dharma’, ‘kartavya’, ‘dana’, ‘tyaga’ etc. are
cultivated.
Nyaya Padarthas
In Nyaya sutra, Gautama has mentioned about sixteen entities or padarthas. Of the sixteen,
the “pramana” has already been discussed above. The rest of the fifteen padarthas are
discussed below.
Prameya– It talks about the object of true knowledge or reality. The Nyaya school of thought
recognizes twelve objects of true knowledge. These are (i) self (atma) (ii) body (here the
organic activities takes place and feelings like pleasure and pain are felt) (iii) senses (taste,
touch, smell, hearing and sight) (iv) objects of senses (the sensible qualities of taste, touch,
smell, sound and colour) (v) cognition or knowledge (buddhi) (vi) mind (manas that can
perceive pleasure and pain) (vii) activity (pravitti) (viii) mental flaws (dosaa or weakness like
‘raga, ‘dvesa’ and ‘moha’) (ix) rebirth after death (pretyabhava) (x) experience of pleasure
and pain in life (phala) (xi) suffering (dukkha) (xii) liberation from suffering (apavarga).
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Samsaya– It is a condition of doubt and uncertainty. Here the mind gets puzzled in choosing
an option due to the availability of several alternatives. This condition is exacerbated if
contradictory explanation of similar things is available. As for example if two wise men offer
contradictory meaning of life, then samsaya or doubt occurs. Doubt can be overcome by
rational decision making.
Prayojana– It means goal to achieve something or purpose of some activity. It is related to a
person’s desire to achieve the goal or to shun it. This produces determination to achieve the
desired goal. The primary purpose can also be to achieve happiness and remove pain.
Dristanta– This refers to factually correct example or an undisputed fact that can be used
generally. As for example if smoke from the hill represent fire, then smoke from the kitchen
also represent fire.
Siddhanta– It is the widely accepted set of rules or conclusive views in a disciplinary area.
The Nyaya school of thought accepts four kinds of siddhant. These are (i) sarvatantra
siddhanta (ii) pratitantra siddhanta (iii) adhikarana siddhanta and (iv) abhyupagama
siddhanta. In sarvatantra siddhanta the conclusive doctrine is not disputed. In pratitantra
siddhanta the conclusive doctrine is established by specific philosophers for a specific
discipline. In adhikarana siddhanta, to establishe the conclusive doctrine of a discipline, the
conclusive doctrine of another discipline must be established first. In abhyupagama siddhanta
a discipline provisionally accepts the conclusive doctrine of another discipline as a
hypothesis, in a hope that future scrutiny may nullify the conclusive doctrine.
Avayava– It is based on syllogism. Therefore, it is said to be a conclusion derived from
logical argument. In Nyaya school of thought syllogism is based on five logical arguments
known as pratijna, hetu, vyapti, drstanta and nigamana.
Tarka– It refers to counterfactual argument to a given logical statement. It initiates a debate.
A hypothetical argument is used to justify a conclusion. In tarka the use of hypothetical
arguments to justify a conclusion can lead to absurdity. As for example if smoke can exist in
a place which does not have fire, it will mean that smoke cannot be caused by fire. The given
example leads to absurdity. However, tarka is useful in confirming pramana.
Nirnaya– It is a definite knowledge or a doctrine in a discipline. The doctrine has been
produced after a detailed examination using tarka, ascertaining pramana and removing all
doubts. The doctrine is therefore widely accepted in a discipline.
Vada– In this discussion or debate takes place between two opposing parties who have
different views on a subject matter. The motive behind vada is to find out the truth. Hence in
the discussion tarka is used and pramana is adhered to. The use of syllogism is a common
practice.
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Jalpa– In this a person finds fault in opponents’ argument to establish own argument and
therefore gives wrangling arguments. The aim here is to defeat the opponent and not to find
out the truth. Hence invalid logic is used.
Vitanda– In this a person tries to win a debate by refuting the arguments of other. Here the
aim is not to establish one’s argument but to win by refuting the arguments of the opponent.
Hetvabhasa– It is the fallacy of inference. Here the reason that is given in the statement is not
the valid reason. It contains error and therefore difficult to get an inference.
Chala– In a debate when a person is unable to give a good reply to a strong argument of the
opponent then the person gives irrelevant argument. The person takes opponents argument in
a sense that was not intended.
Jati– In a debate it is a reply by false analogy. Here a futile argument is given by a person to
counter the opponent. Therefore, instead of countering the argument the position of the
opponent is destroyed. This kind of futile argument is based on similarity and dissimilarity
between the objects.
Nigrahastha– This is the final part of the debate. Here a person shows self-contradiction and
inconsistency in the opponent’s argument. By doing this the person finally defeats the
opponent.

1.5 CARVAKA SCHOOL OF THOUGHT

Among the heterodox (nastika) schools of thought, the Carvaka school of thought is the most
important school of thought. It is a materialist school of thought. It heavily relies on the
naturalistic tendencies of human life. Though it is influenced by spiritual schschools thought
like Nyaya, it significantly refutes them by destroying their main premises of argument and
ridiculing them (Chattopadhyaya, Debiprasad:1992).
The Carvaka school is believed to be propagated by Brahaspati who teacher (Guru) of
Gods (Devta) was. Brahaspati propagated Carvaka school or materialism to the Daityas
(Rakchasa) to destroy them. It is also believed that Carvaka was a sage and a disciple of
Brahaspati who propagated materialism. It is also believed that those people were called
Carvak who believed in the philosophy of ‘eating, drinking and making merry’ as the word
‘carv’ means to eat. Also, Carvaka means nice words to hear as ‘caru’ means nice and ‘vak’
means word. Caravaka school is also known as Lokayata school as both are same.
The Carvaka school questioned the authority of the Vedas and dogmatic practices of the
society by propagating the materialist arguments. In that process the Carvaka school refuted
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existing morality and ethics. They produced negative rhetoric for other school of thought
which later on developed into a distinctive philosophy and thereby contributing to epistemic
foundation of Indian political thought. Unfortunately, no authoritative text of Carvaka school
except for ‘Tattvopaplavasimha’ has survived. Most of the knowledge about Carvaka school
has been derived from those texts which heavily criticize and ridicule the Carvaka school.
Pratyaksa (perception)
The Carvaka school believes that Pratyaksa (perception) is the only pramana or valid source
of knowledge. So, anything that is available to sense perception is considered to be true and
the rest of the things are considered doubtful. For Carvaka school, the things that could not be
perceived do not exist.
Anumana (inference)
The Carvaka school reject Inference Anumana (inference) as a valid source of knowledge.
Carvaka school believes that there is no valid ground to determine the relation between
objects in a statement or vyapti. The inference moves from a known premise to an unknown
premise. So, whatever is true for a specific phenomenon may not be true for another
phenomenon. As for example in Carvaka school the vyapti that wherever there is smoke,
there is fire, is not true because it is difficult to determine its universal occurrence. So,
Carvaka school rejects inference as relation between objects cannot be accepted universally.
Sabda (verbal testimony)
The Sabda or verbal testimony is also rejected as a valid source of knowledge by the Carvaka
school as Sabda is based on inference. Even the Vedic testimony is also rejected by the
Carvaka school as it considers issues like life after death, belief, moksha, and rebirth as
having no meaning.
By constructing their philosophy based of refutation and rejection the Carvaka school
has weakened its own philosophical premises. As for example by rejecting Inference
(anumana) they have created problem for themselves because any validation of Carvaka
school will require inference. So Purandara postulated that inference could be accepted to
strengthen perceptual knowledge but cannot be used to determine knowledge which is not
perceived by sense organs like life after death.
Carvaka school therefore accept Pratyaksa (perception) as the only pramana or the valid
source of knowledge. Everything originates from the combination of four elements, namely,
earth, water, fire, and air. Therefore earth, water, fire and air are the only realities of the
world. Consciousness exists only due to the combination of these four elements. The Carvaka

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school postulates that ‘self’ or ‘purusa’ is nothing but only body which has consciousness.
The Carvaka school does not consider ether (akash) as an important element as it could
not be perceived by sense organs. The consciousness that exists in the body is due to the body
and hence the property of the body. Consciousness is produced only due to a combination of
the four elements. However, in relation to self or purusa the Carvaka school has shifted
position upon criticism from the Nyaya school of thought.
The Nyaya school of thought argued that since earth, water, fire and air does not
individually have consciousness, they cannot produce consciousness collectively. The Nyaya
school of thought also argued that even when the body is unconscious, the self exists and
there is no proof that the self is destroyed upon death. The carvaka school shifted its position
and postulated that the self is the mans and consciousness is in the manas. Everybody has
manas and can feel pain or pleasure. However, the Carvaka school called manas to be subtle
and hence cannot be perceived.
The Carvaka school of thought has been vigorously criticized by other schools of
thought. It has been considered useless by humans and often ridiculed. The Lokayata has also
been considered as ‘the basis of the foolish and the profane world’. Despite criticism, the
Carvaka school of thought played an important role by challenging the dogmatic belief and
questioning other schools of thought. This way it enriched the epistemological foundations of
Indian political thought.

1.6 SELF

In the Indian political thought, the ‘self’ has been given considerable importance. As the
Indian political thought has inclination towards spiritualism the notion of self has been
widely explained. The self has often been associated to atman and consciousness. In the
Nyaya school of thought the individual selves (atman or souls) who are finite and the God
(parmatman) which is infinite has been recognized. Self or (atman) is the all-knowing which
is present in a person and experiences pleasure and pain through the sense organs due to
ability of cognition. The manas or mind can know all these. The action or pravrtti of an
individual and certain defects or dosas like passion and attachment causes pain and pleasure.
The self is in a constant journey and changes body until it achieves moksha (Chakrabarti,
Kisor Kumar: 2001).
The Carvaka school of thought points out that the self is subtle and therefore cannot be
perceived by sense organs. To know self is a difficult proposition. It is believed that the self
is inferred from qualities like pleasure, pain, desire, hatred, effort, and consciousness. Atman

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and the Parmatman (the finite self and the infinite self) both experience qualities like desire,
effort, and consciousness. Infinite selves alone experience hatred and pain. Both individual
and God experience happiness, however individual’s happiness is not eternal while God’s
happiness is eternal.
The Nyaya school of thought believes the self exists independently. Self is different from
mind, body, senses, and consciousness. The self is eternal and cannot be produced or
destroyed. Consciousness is a quality of self which however is not essential. Just like a
sleeping individual has self but no consciousness. Therefore, the self can exist without
consciousness. Self can attain consciousness when it comes in contact with mind, and the
mind comes in contact with senses and senses with objects (Ibid.).
The atman or soul attains liberation or moksha when it is detached from the body. In this
state, the soul is liberated from all worldly pain and suffering. If the soul is attached to the
body, then the sense organs will come in contact with the worldly objects and give rise to
pleasure or pain. Liberation brings freedom from pain and ends the cycle of rebirth, ushering
the soul into eternal bliss.
To attain knowledge about self an individual should listen to the teachings of scriptures
and reflect upon it. An individual should also meditate by practicing yoga. This way an
individual will learn about self and understand that the self is different from body. Upon this
realization an individual will not be attracted towards material things and worldly pleasures.
This way the individual will eliminate punishment of past karma, get freedom from pain,
detach the self from body and attain moksha.

1.7 CONCLUSION

The epistemic foundations of Indian political thought are a culmination of those thought
processes which have been developed by sages, philosophers, theoreticians and logicians
since time immemorial. The thought process which developed in ancient India had enriched
itself by various debate, discussions and practices. It is noteworthy that the thought process
maintained its continuity and clarity.
By inclining towards spiritualism, the epistemic foundations have not merely drawn a
link between the creator that is God and the worldly affairs but have also drawn authority
from the God for activities in the world. This is how a King got recognition and this is how
the state came into existence. The duties of the King and the purpose of the state were
elaborated and with the passage of time it got consolidated. To guide the purpose and goal of
a Kingdom, the philosophical foundations played an imminent role. Any deviation or

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complexity of the state was resolved by the knowledge gained from the various schools of
thoughts.
Certain philosophical concepts of ancient India like Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha
are such deep rooted in Indian political psyche that statecraft has intricately aligned itself to
these concepts. So, purpose of the state or of the politics in India is not merely to bring
material development but also bring spiritual upliftment by following the path of
righteousness.

1.8 PRACTICE QUESTIONS

1. Multiple Choice Questions

a. Who is the chief proponent of the Nyaya school of thought?
(i) Gautama (ii) Brahaspati (iii) Kumarila
b. The meaning of apavarga is …….
(i) liberation from suffering (ii) suffering (iii) rebirth after death
2. Explain the meaning and nature of Pratyaksa (perception) in Indian political thought?
3. Discuss the chief features of Sabda (verbal testimony).
4. Critically examine the role of Carvaka school in shaping Indian political thought.
5. Delineate the basic premises of Self.

1.9 REFERENCES

• Altekar, A S (1958), State and Government in Ancient India, Delhi: Motilal

Banarasidass.
• Banarjee, Sarbani (2003), Theory of Nyaya: Some Observations, Indian Philosophical
Quarterly, XXX (1): 103-110.
• Bilimoria, Purushottama (2017), Pramana Epistemology: Origins and Developments,
in Purushottama Bilimoria (et. al.) (eds.) History of Indian Philosophy Routledge
history of world philosophies, London: Routledge.
• Brown, D. Mackenzie (1953), The Premises of Indian Political Thought, The Western
Political Quarterly, 6 (2): 243-249.
• Chakrabarti, Kisor Kumar (2001), The Existence and Permanence of the Self, in
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