MILITARY HISTORY

SECTION A; COMPULSORY QUESTION

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS
The League of Nations was set up because American President, Woodrow Wilson wanted this
more than anything else. It was the result of the coming together of similar suggestions made
during the First World War, by a number of world statesmen including the likes of Lord Robert
Cecil, Jan Smuts and Leon Bourgeois. The League was to be a kind of ‘world parliament’ where
nations would sort out their arguments with the hope to settle international disputes before they
get out of hand and promote world peace. It aimed to maintain peace through collective security
and encourage international co-operation to solve economic and social problems. On 10 January
1920, the League came into existence. It was headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland. When
President Wilson got back to the United States, the American Senate refused to join the League.
Americans did not want to get dragged into other countries problems. This had an impact on the
League since the United States was one of the powerful countries. The organization of the League
was as follows: the General Assembly (main meeting of the League to decide general policy), the
Council (a small group of the four permanent membersBritain, France, Italy and Japan), Secretariat
(responsible for all the administrative work of the League), the Permanent Court of International
Justice (consisted of fifteen judges to deal with legal disputes) and Commissions and Committees
(International Labor Organization, Health, economic and financial organization, child welfare,
drug problems and women rights) This paper will attempt to bring to light the success extent of
the League of Nations, the weaknesses and failures of the League in Abyssinia and reasons
accounting for that with an analysis concluding that, the League was not a complete failure even
though the failures outweighed the successes. First and foremost, many of the committees and
commissions achieved valuable results and much was done to foster international co-operation.
One of the most successful was the International Labour Organization (ILO) under its French
socialist director, Albert Thomas to improve conditions of labour all over the world in the areas of
adequate minimum wage, maximum working day, old age pensions and sickness and
unemployment benefits. The Refugee Organization solved the problem of thousands of former
prisoners of war marooned in Russia at the end of the war. About half a million were returned
home. In 1993, valuable help was given to thousands of people fleeing from Nazi persecution in
Germany. The Health Organization did good work in investigating the causes of epidemics and
was successful in combating a typhus epidemic in Russia which at the time seemed likely to spread
across Europe. The mandates commission supervised the government of the territories taken from
Germany and Turkey very efficiently and concluded by organizing the 1935 plebiscite in which a
large majority voted for the saar to be returned to Germany. Secondly, several political disputes
were resolved by the League in the 1920’s. The quarrel between Finland and Sweden over the
Aaland Islands, the verdict went in favour of Finland. Over the rival claims of Germany and Poland
to the important industrial area of Upper Silesia, the League decided that it should be partitioned
between the two. When the Greeks invaded Bulgaria, after some shooting incidents on the frontier,
the League swiftly intervened. Greek troops were withdrawn and damages paid to Bulgaria. When
Turkey claimed the province of Mosul, part of the British mandated territory of Iraq, the League
decided in favour of Iraq. In South America, squabbles were settled between Peru and Colombia
and between Bolivia and Paraguay. Thirdly, despite the success of the League enumerated above,
it was characterized by several failures in the 1930’s. It was too linked with the Versailles Treaties.
The League initially seemed as an organization for the benefit of the victorious powers. It had to
defend a peace settlement which was far from perfect. Some of its provisions were bound to cause
trouble. For example, the disappointment of Italy and the inclusion of German in Czechoslovakia
and Poland. Again, the USA refused the Versailles treaties and did not join the League. They did
not want to be dragged into other countries matters. The absence of the USA meant that the League
was deprived of a powerful member whose presence would have been of great psychological and
financial benefit. In the same vein, other important powers were not allowed to join from the onset.
Germany and USSR were allowed to join in 1926 and 1934 respectively. Therefore, for the first
few years the League was deprived of the world’s most important powers.
To add, the conference of ambassadors in Paris was an embarrassment because it was to function
until the League machinery was up and running but it lingered on several and took precedence
over the League on several occasions. A classic example of this was when the League supported
Lithuania in her claim to Vilna which had been seized by the Poles, the conference of ambassadors
insisted on awarding Vilna to Poland, the League allowed it to go ahead. Another example was the
Corfu incident in 1923 where a boundary dispute between Greece and Albania resulted in the
killing of three Italian officials. Mussolini blamed the Greeks and demanded huge compensation.
He bombarded and occupied the Greek island of Corfu. Greece appealed to the League but
Mussolini refused to recognize its competence to deal with the problem. He threatened to remote
Italy from the League. The Ambassadors ordered Greece to pay the full amount demanded.
Furthermore, there were serious weaknesses in the covenant which made it difficult to get a
unanimous decision and to take decisive action against any aggressor. The League had no military
of its own. Though Article 16 expected member states to supply troops if necessary, a resolution
was passed in 1923 that each member state would decide for itself whether or not to fight in the
crisis. This clearly made nonsense of the idea of collective security. The British Labour Prime
minister, Ramsay MacDonald, a great supporter of the League introduced a resolution, Geneva
Protocol pledging members to accept arbitration. This was rejected by the next British government
and the League was left alone. The absence of other superpowers like the USA and USSR made
the League of Nations very much a French/British affair. The rejection of the Geneva Protocol by
the British conservatives showed that they were never very enthusiastic about the League. The
world economic crisis which began in 1929 contributed to the Leagues decline. It brought
unemployment and falling living standards to most countries. This caused the governments of
Germany and Japan together with Mussolini who refused to keep the rules and took a series of.
actions which revealed the Leagues weakness. In 1931, Japanese troops invaded the Chinese
territory of Manchuria. China appealed to the League which condemned Japan and order her troops
to be withdrawn. Japan’s refusal to comply led to the Leagues demand to govern Manchuria. Japan
rejected this demand and withdrew from the League in March 1933. This action damaged the
prestige of the League. Additionally, at the world’s disarmaments conference, Germany demanded
equality of armaments with France, but when the French demanded that this should be postponed
for at least eight years, Hitler was able to use that as an excuse to withdraw Germany from the
conference and later from the League. This was a grave failure and disappointment to the League.
Italy invaded Abyssinia in 1935. The League condemned Italy and imposed economic sanctions
not including exports of oil, coal and steel to Italy. However, Italy was still able to annex Abyssinia
without much inconvenience. Mussolini had successfully floated the League. Britain and France
were to blame because they did not want to antagonize Mussolini too much since they wanted to
still keep him as an ally against the real danger, Germany. Mussolini was annoyed by the sanctions
and drew closer to Hitler. In conclusion, the League of Nations was established to maintain peace
through collective security and encourage international co-operation to solve economic and social
problems. In this regard, the League was successful to some extent in addressing labour, health
and some political issues. However, certain weaknesses of the League led to its massive failure in
most instances.

THE COLD WAR

The basic cause of the conflict lay in the differences of principle between the communist states
and the capitalist (LIBERAL –DEMOCRATIC STATES). The communist system of organizing
the state and society was based on the ideas of KARL MARX. ie, the wealth of a country should
be collectively owned and shared by everybody. The economy should be centrally planned and the
interests and well-being of the working classes safe guarded by state social policies. Set up in 1917
by USSR (Russia).
The capitalist system on the other hand, operates on the basis of private ownership of a country’s
wealth. The driving faces behind capitalism are private enterprise in the pursuit of making of
making profits and the preservation of the power of private wealth by USA, BRITAIN, FRANCE,
and JAPAN. The government of most capitalist states viewed communism system with mistrust
and were afraid of it spreading to their country, which can end the private ownership of wealth, as
well as the loss of political power by the wealthy classes.
After the civil war in Russia in 1918 (were USA, Britain, France and Japan sent troops to help the
Anticommunist forces) Joseph Stalin, Russia leader – 1929 was convinced there would be under
attempt by the capitalist power to destroy communism in Russia.
He however joined the USA and Britain to put down their differences and help fight the Germans
in the 2nd world war. After, the USA, Britain and Russia began plans for the post war period.
Stalin wanted to take advantage of the military situations at that time to strengthen Russian
influence in Europe. During the war President Roosevelt- USA sent war materials of all kinds to
Russia and he was inclined to trust Stalin. After the death of Roosevelt, he was succeeded by Herry
S Truman, British Labour Prime Minster.
The Cold war was developed between 1945-1953 and even continued after 1953. In 1945 there
was a Yalta conference held in Russia (in the Crimea) and was attended by the three Allied leaders,
Stalin, Churchill and Roosevelt to plan for what would happen when the war ended. At the time
the conference seemed to be successful, agreement being reached on were the formation of the
United Nations to replace League of Nations, Division of Germany into four zones, free elections
would be allowed in the stated of Eastern Europe and Russia president Stalin promised to join the
war against Japan. The main disagreement here was Roosevelt and Churchill, were unhappy about
Stalin’s demand that Poland should be given all German territory east of the river Oder and Neisse.
Another development was the Potsdam Conference that same year. In this conference it was agreed
for Germans to pay something towards repairing the damage they caused during the 2nd world
war. The payments were made to go to the USSR. In the division of the Zone, the fours zones were
occupied by the Russians, French, Americans and the British. That is three zones for the western
powers and one zone for the Russians. After this conference Truman the successor of Roosevelt
and Churchill were annoyed because east of the Oder- Neisse line of Germany had been occupied
by Russian troops and was being run by the pro-communist Polish government, this had not being
agreed to at the Yalta conference. The procommunist government expelled some 5 million
Germans living in the area. Due to this Truman was more suspicious to Stalin, and he toughened
his attitude towards the communist. Truman did not inform Stalin about the exact nature of the
atomic bomb though Churchill was told about it. Few days after the conference the two atomic
bombs were dropped on Japan causing the war to end quickly.
The third development of the Cold War was the establishment of communist governments in
Eastern Europe. This caused alarm in the west. Following the Potsdam Conference, the Russians
systematically interfered in the countries of Eastern Europe to set up pro-communist government.
The countries were Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria, Albania and Romania. Stalin frightened the west
further by a widely reported speech in February 1946 which he said that communism and
capitalism could never live peacefully together and that the future wars were inevitable until the
final victory of communism was achieved.
Churchill responded to Stalin speech that an iron curtain has descended across the continent. He
also claimed that the Russians were bent on indefinite expansion of their power and doctrines.
Churchill called for a western alliance which would stand firm against the communist threat. The
rival powers attack each other with these propaganda and economic measures, with a general
policy of non-co-operation.
Subsequently every state in Eastern Europe with the exception of Czechoslovakia had a fully
communist government either by rigging of the election, expelling or the execution of non-
communist members and dissolving of political parties. These lead to the development of the
Truman doctrine and the Marshall Plan in 1947 by the USA. In the Truman Doctrine the US
announced in March 1947 to support free peoples who are resisting subjugation by armed
minorities or by outside pressures. In the doctrine US made it clear that the USA had no intention
of returning to isolation as she had after the 1st world war and that she was committed to a policy
of containing communism, not just Europe, but throughout the world. The Marshall Plan was the
economic extension of the Truman Doctrine; which was developed by the USA Secretary of state
George Marshall’s European Recovery Program. In this Plan the USA claimed the policy was not
directed against any countries doctrine but against hunger, poverty, desperation and chaos. About
16 nations in Western Europe and western zones of Germany joined these policies. Russia believed
there was more to the Marshall Aid then pure benevolence. They believed the USA wanted to use
the policy as a device for gaining control of Western Europe and interfere in Eastern Europe.
Because of this Russia rejected the offer.
In further development Stalin formed an organization to draw together all European communist
parties and Russia’s satellite nation. The organization was known as the Cominform and Stalin’s
aim for the organization was to tighten grip on the satellites and have a Russian –Style of
communism on Eastern Europe. The three western powers did their best to organize the economic
and political recovery of their three zones in Germany. They merged these zones to form a single
economic unit with much prosperity. The West also introduced a new currency for their zones and
ended price controls in their zones and in West Berlin. They wanted the all four zones to be re-
united and given self- government. The Russians government also treated it zone as a satellite and
caused Germany to pay for all the damage inflicted on Russia during the 2nd World War.
The Russians responses was immediate, all roads, rail and canal links between west Berlin and
West Germany were closed. Their aim was to force the west to withdraw from West Berlin by
reducing it to starvation point. The Western Powers were also convinced that a retreat would be
the prelude to a Russian attack on West Germany and was determined to hold on. They decided to
fly supplies in, rightly judging that the Russians would not risk shooting down the transport planes.
The Berlin blockade showed the West’s military unreadiness and frightened them into making
definite preparation. This caused the western nations to sign the North Atlantic Treaty, which is
agreeing to regard an attack on any one of them as an attack on them all. Stalin took this as a
challenge and tensions remained high.
From 1953, the EAST –WEST relations begun to improve, this were some of the causes of the
thaw was the death of Stalin, this was the starting point of the thaw. His death brought to the
forefront of new Russian leaders like KHRUSHCHEV, who wanted to improve relations with the
USA. This was due to the fact that, the Russians and USA had developed a hydrogen bomb. They
were both so finely balanced that international tensions had to be relaxed if nuclear war was to be
avoided.
Another cause of the thaw was Khrushchev’s policy as a curious mixture, whiles he was making
the conciliatory moves described above, he was also quick to respond to anything seemed to be a
threat to the east and he had no intention of relaxing Russia’s grip on the satellite states.
One important cause was in 1958 when Khrushchev announced that USSR no longer
recognized the rights of western powers in the West Berlin and the USA made it clear that
they would resist any attempt to push out, Khrushchev did not press the point. In 1961
Khrushchev again suggested, to the USA new President John F Kennedy, that the west should
withdraw from Berlin. When Kennedy refused, the Berlin wall was erected, 128 mile long
monstrosity across the entire city, effectively blocking the escaped route, which refugees escaping
from East Germany into West Berlin used.

NUCLEAR BOMBS
The Americans remained well ahead in numbers of nuclear bombs and bombers but the Russians
took the lead when they produced a new type of weapon – THE INTER- CONTINENTAL
BALLISTIC MISSILE (ICBM). This was a nuclear warhead carried by a rocket so powerful that
it could reach the USA even if fired from inside the USSR. Not to be outdone, the Americans soon
produced their version of an ICBM. When the Russians successfully launched the world’s first
earth satellite, the USA again felt that they should not be felt behind and within a few months they
also launched an earth satellite of their own.
Convinced that Cuba was now a communist state, the new USA President Kennedy, approved a
plan by a group of Batista supporters to invade Cuba from the USA bases in Guatemala - Central
America. The USA CIA was deeply involved. Cuba crushed the attack from Batista and announced
that she was now a Marxist and a socialist Country.
Khrushchev decided to set up nuclear missile launcher in Cuba aimed at the USA, he took this
risky decision because the USSR had lost in ICBMS, so this was a way to try to seize back initiative
from USA.
The situation was extremely tense, and the world seemed to be on the verge of nuclear war. The
SecretaryGeneral of the UN, U Thent, appealed to both side for restraint. Khrushcher promised to
remove the missiles and dismantle the sites. In return Kennedy also promised that USA would not
invade Cuba again and undertook to disarm the Jupiter missiles in Turkey. Both sides realized how
easily a nuclear war could have started and how terrible the results would have been. This produced
a marked relaxation of tension and they both signed a Nuclear Test Ban Treaty.
All the resolutions to remove and disarm the nuclear weapons meant nothing because USA had
another threat-Bullistic Missile which was launched from submarines in the eastern
Mediterranean. Russia also decided to go all out to catch up with the USA. The USA during [1961-
1975] became more deeply involved in the war in Vietnam, due to this they had less time to spend
on nuclear weapons. Russia slowly but sure catch up and overtook USA .The Russia brought a
new weapon anti-bullistic missile which could destroy enemy missiles before they reached their
target.
The USA was also ahead in other departments. They developed terrifying weapons, multiple
independently targetable independently vehicle which can carry as many as 14 separate warheads
each programmed to hit a different target. The Russians soon develop the MRV [their type] but
not as sophisticated as the American MRV.
In 1970, USA developed a cruise missiles based in Europe which could flow into Russia at low
altitudes and will be able to penetrate under Russian radar. At this point both sides had enough
horrifying weaponry to destroy the world. The danger was one side might be tempted to try to win
a nuclear war by striking first to destroy all other side’s weapons. There were protests,
demonstrations in many European countries including West Germany, Holland and also in the
USA. One fear was that if the USA ever fired any of the missiles, Britain could be almost destroyed
by Russian nuclear retaliation.
In the long run, the enormity of the nuclear weapon and the protest movements did play a part in
bringing other both sides to the negotiating table. This brought an end to the cold war. Some
historian in the USA blame Stalin that, his intention to spread communism as wide as possible
through Europe and Asia was the reason for the WEST to form the NATO and USA contributing
to the Korean was one Cause of the COLD WAR.
The other blame was the REVISIONIST VIEW that Stalin and the Russians were not to blame.
They suffered enormous losses during the 2nd World War and therefore it was only expected that
Stalin would try to make sure that neighbouring states were friendly, given Russia weakness in
1945. Stalin motives were purely defensive because there were no real threats to the WEST. The
idea adds that the USA should have been understanding and not to have challenged the idea of a
Soviet ‘sphere of influence’ in Eastern Europe. That is the actions of Truman provoked Russians.
The third view was the POST REVISIONIST interpretation, this was popular in 1980. They view
more documents and archives which had not been open to earlier historians. They argued that both
sides should some of the blames for the war. That is the USA policies such as the Marshall Aid
were deliberately designed to increase political influence in Europe and Stalin admitted to take
advantage of any weakness in the west to expand Soviet Influence although he had no long term
plans to spread Communism. These points claimed that what necessary self-defense by one or
other side was taken by the other as evidence of aggressive intent.

SECTION B; INDIGENOUS AFRICAN WARFARE

A. Principles of Indigenous African Warfare include;
1. Ethnic Character and Aim - These refers to the influence that an ethnic group receives from
the society. It could be an internal or external pressure from the same ethnic group or from another
with a unifying objective. All efforts must be made to live to see the achievement of this aim.
Indigenous states which could well define their aim, stood a better chance of being successful at
battle as compared to those without an aim.
2. Ethnic Compactness and Alliance - This is defined as the reliance of one state on the other for
purposes of battle success, support and protection. Weaker ethnic states formed strategic alliances
with stronger states as a means to deter possible threats and pose a dangerous posture by their
association with powerful allies. Ethnic alliances enabled the formation of the Mamprusi, Gonja,
Ewe, Fanti, Ga - Adangbes and other ethnic groups.
3. Security - The organization of ethnic groups were such that it afforded protection to the leader
of the group. They were organized into scouts and rear guards primarily, with flanks providing
some form of protection to the leader or command group who were centrally located in their usual
formations. Practical acts of providing security included protection and denial of information by
placing spies on key points of tracks and roads to inform the main body of threats. Ethnic groups
secured their territorial entry and exit points and organized periodic search activities.
4. Mass and Echelon - Echelon simply refers to terrain or ground. Before any expedition is won,
terrain plays a key factor. A force planning to deploy in a Forest type vegetation must sacrifice the
mass of its troops to closely cover ground and enable good observation. It was better to deploy in
a Savannah type vegetation than a thick forest type, since it requires less men for observation,
covering ground and avoids troop concentration for an attack by the opposing force.
5. Tac and Op Momentum - There should be consistent pressure on the opposing force while
carrying out an attack at any given time. The tempo from the point of declaring war to when the
battle comes to an end must see a relatively same pace. A sluggish force may not be successful at
battle and would defeat the core aim of capturing and ruling over territories they defeat.
6. Surprise - This principle talks about taking out an opponent at a time when he least expects to.
Most groups built on the principle of security to achieve surprise by denying the free flow of
information. Typically, this principle was demonstrated by the royal drummers where they used
the sounds produced by drums, similar to those made by antelopes as a deception to an approaching
opposing force, giving them the impression of meeting a massive force. Casualties incurred when
surprise is lost as twice as much as that on a usual day as the opposing force could decide to fight
from more than one approaches.
7. Maintenance of Morale & Fetishism - Hitherto modern warfare, indigenous African ethnic
groups believed so much in fetishism before, during and even after the wars. They prepared herbs
and concoctions which they drank and bath to launch themselves into battle in confidence. They
did this to build the spirit of oneness. The low side of their believe in fetishism was that it did not
automatically guarantee success despite the traditional and spiritual preparation. A demonstrable
example of believing in voices of the spirits was when a sub - chief Boahen was made to lead the
people of Ashanti into war instead of the Osei -Tutu following a message from Okomfo Anokye
that whoever led the Ashanti’s into the battle of 1700 would not return alive. Even though there
was no justification, the Ashanti’s believed and complied.
8. Sound admin and Logistics - In the traditional setting, it was difficult to get most everyday
products as it is now on the streets of Accra. Troop Administration, ammo replenishment and kits
were important in war administration to ensure that the fighting force was well equipped, resourced
and prepared for battle. The source of funding wars in that era was purely agriculture, therefore
most battles were fought after the farming seasons in other to provide the needed armament and
resources for war.

SPATIAL TRAJECTORY PHASES OF WAR

1. Declaration of War - This is the official announcement of the intent to go into battle over a
perceived territorial interest. This is to grant the opposing party the time to prepare and acquire all
logistics required for battle to be enjoined. It equally presents the opportunity for the opposing
faction to diplomatically surrender and solve an impasse amicably without necessarily going into
battle if it so wishes.
2. Concentration - This is also known as encampment and it is the period when troops are kept at
a single location with the intent of grooming, fine tuning their skills and accessing their
preparedness for battle. A war theatre is usually staged at this level and coordinated by the heads
and rulers of the ethnic groups.
3. Advance to war - After a period of concentration to prepare for battle, the group further
advances towards the objective as a sign of initiative. Advance can be impeded by the force in
defense by mounting obstacles or ambushes.
4. Blocking and Ambushing - A force in defense must equally be mindful of securing routes to
their locations by mounting weapons on such routes and conducting ambushes on likely
approaches.
5. Engagement Battle - After ambushing and blocking the expected opposing force, the force in
defense must be sure to protect its flanks on order to make it unlikely for reinforcement from the
flanks.
6. Decisive Battle - This is where the might’s of the two forces are tested. The decisive battle is
the point where the greatest damage is inflicted on either side. The faction that has more men 3
standing and less casualties after the engagement battle is declared winner of the decisive battle.
7. Counter Attacks - Just as in modern day war setting, counter attacks could be deliberate or
immediate. This is when an overwhelmed force regroups with all the required assets in order to re-
launch into battle; it could be immediate to deliberate when time permits.
8. Tac Retreat and Pursuit - In the indigenous warfare, fighting could be halted when dusk sets
in and continued at first light the next day. Cases like starvation could even be a reason while
battles could be called off to resume on another day under favorable conditions.
9. Plundering and Domination - This is the stage where the adversaries assets are destroyed
completely after taking over by the stronger force. This act is further consolidated by seizing
territories and it was usually controlled by the rear echelons. Plundering offered the avenue for
capturing prisoners of war as well enemy troops fleeing the battle area.
10. Disengagement - This comes about when warring factions decide to settle scores with alternate
dispute resolution techniques including a surrender by the chief, offer of truce and accepting defeat
without fighting while the opposing faction approaches. Disengagement can also be reached by
the loss of alliances.
B. CAUSES OF INSTABILITY
The causes of instability in the pre-colonial period were not much different from what pertains in
the present day. Some of them include; a. Territorial Disputes b. Economic Expansion and
Consolidation c. Superpower rivalry d. Religious matters. In summary, the general causes are
classified into the G-cube factor namely gold, gospel and glory.
C. THE CONCEPT OF WAR IN PRE – COLONIAL SOCIETIES
War has always been the use of force to get an opponent to do one’s will that is, to aid foreign
policy. This has been the concept for the propagation of war since man learnt to live in
communities. War has always involved planning and the use of human and material resources to
ensure the total defeat of the enemy. In pre-colonial days, before the advent of fire arms, societies
still relied on cruel weapons like the axe, cutlasses, spears, bow and arrows, club to wage war.
Historical records indicate that the people of pre-colonial societies more or less had the same
conceptualization of war that has been carried over to the present day. Some of these included are:
a. War as an instrument of self-preservation; - Almost all oral traditions have it that the
various tribes migrated from one place or another to their present locations. For example
the Ga’s claim ancestry from the Jews, whilst certain Asante’s tribes claim they descended
from the sky. As these groups migrated, they found it necessary to consolidate territories
they had inherited and to protect their progeny. This was invariably done by subduing the
opposition through war.
b. Territorial Expansion; -There was often the need to expand the confines of the settlement
to accommodate the growing population. In pre – colonial societies, this was often done
through war, where the weaker group was defeated and annexed by the victor. For example,
we are told that King Osei-Tutu of Asante embarked on ambitious expansionist
programmes and it’s credited with the present size of the Asante Empire.
c. Economic Interest; - Almost all northern territories in the pre – colonial found it necessary
move to the coast for salt. Conversely, coastal territories went in search for gold and other
such valuable in the hinterland. These activities often generated into a number of wars and
battles fought to acquire access to economic interest. For example the Asantes4had to fight
the coastal tribes in the then Gold Coast because they would not give them free passage to
trade their wares for salt. The Fantes and later Europeans also had to encounter the Asantes
in their desire to access the Northern markets.
d. To deal with acts of Regression; - Within the loose system of control that existed, it was
only normal for a few adventuring elements to attempt to defy authority. For example, we
hear of kings going to war to ‘punish’ recalcitrant groups and use them as examples to
prevent others from following suit.
e. Expression of Solidarity; - It was normal for a bigger power to go to war in aid of an ally.
This is evident in contemporary warfare where stronger forces of some countries come
under one umbrella of an organization to fight others with the aim of receiving a reciprocal
assistance.
f. Show of Force; With no flag ships as we have in the present day, one way in which pre-
colonial societies sent out warning signals to potential threat was to deal swiftly and
decisively with the enemy. The victim owned plunder the land of the vanquished, set fire
to his settlement, carry away all the beautiful woman and strong men, and insist on a
penalty usually in gold to be paid or suffer even greater consequences. Such a display
normally ensured good conduct and respect by the surrounding areas.

D. RECRUITMENT IN THE INDIGENOUS AFRICAN WARFARE ERA

There existed local methods of Recruitment into the standing force before the advent of foreign
culture and practices. Ethnic groups employed the following methods in recruitment;
1. By Birth and Heredity - Once a male child is born, he grows up into a man to provide
security to his own land.
 2. Age - If a community lays down a rule to initiate a boy into manhood at a said age the
person ceases to be referred to as a boy from the day of initiation and he is given some
form of training to become a warrior of the land.
3. Adoption of Strangers - After battle, the faction that wins can capture all the prisoners of
war, strangers and stray men to serve as security men for their territories.

The mode of training was by local agricultural activities, games such as wrestling, societal
training and through politico - military experiences. The latter is purely coordinated by the Asafo
companies in the case of the Ashanti’s. The pattern of recruitment in the pre-colonial era was
compulsory military service. Every male child was supposed to grow up to join his elders (other
males) in the defense of the land. He was required to pass the usually demanding test that
confirmed his manliness and proclaimed him a worthy son of the land for as long as he remained
alive. He only retires when he appears too old to participate in active defense. This arrangement
however had its advantage and disadvantages.
Advantages: (QuickPARADE)
1. Ready supply of warriors to replace retiring ones.
2. Purity of the army as foreigners were frowned upon.
3. Capacity to quickly assemble troops for a mission, since almost every male member of the clan
was trained as a warrior.
4. All round defense for the community.
5. Discipline among individuals.
6. Esprit d’corps among men.
7. Bravery and Strength.
Disadvantages: (LUBTER)
1. Resentment borne out of forced military service.
2. Loss of self – esteem as recruitment is by force and not by any exceptional attributes.
3. Life of all manner of people, possibly with various handicaps when it comes to strategy
responsibility.
4. Bring about conflicts within tribes and families since every family in tribe would like show its
strength. 5. Unprofessionalism.
E. THE ASAFO COMPANY
The Akan asafo system appears to have evolved from Mende contacts further to the north of the
Guinea forest before the southward migration of the Akan ethnic groups between 900 and 1200AD.
There existed five main states; Ga-Adangbe, Ewe, Akan, Gonja and Mole-Dagbani. Historical
evidence suggests that the Akan ethnic group precisely the Akwamu military traditions were the
first to have any influence of significance with the Asante military structure and practice being the
most enduring influence. Another school of thought has it that the Fantis were the first amongst
the Akans to develop the art due to the fact that the Asafo group continues to feature as an
entrenched tradition. The Asafo group was a small structure but later evolved into larger
operational wings and divisions namely; benkum, twafo, nifa, adonten, kyidom, ankobea etc.
The basic Akan politico-military structure was known as Asafo kuo or Asafo fekuo which was
essentially associated of soldiers for combat. It was the first attempt at creating a fighting unit
capable of feuds and later combat. In practice, the Asafo was devoted more to defensive warfare
and small-scale raids rather than to offensive actions and large-scale warfare. In it classic structure,
the Asafo consisted of a loose assembly of family knit soldiers along patrilineal lines grouping
together all the able-bodied male adults for a wide range of roles and tasks. The enlistment into it
ranks was democratic with the soldiers being drawn from all sections of society, urban and rural
but excluding the upper class who constituted the ruling estate and Officer corps. Every male child
normally belonged to his father’s Asafo whiles strangers belonged to either the abusua or the Asafo
by adoption. Slaves however, joined the association of their masters. In addition bandits,
mercenaries, vagabonds and escaped slaves were actively recruited or hired into the Asafo. The
Asafo thrived mainly on shock tactics.
Ceremonials features includes; Asafo twene, Nnawuro nta(gong), Nkodwowa(shakes),
Kakradaa(rattles), Totobento(bugles), Africa horns, Asafo kyirema, Asafo flag, Distinguished
uniform, Asafo akonfo(fetish).

INTERNAL STRUCTURE
The Supi or Asafoatse: The captains or leaders, in some context the obaatan or mother of the
group. He was chosen by election subject to the deposition of the company electoral board. His
qualifications included special military skills, dexterity, charisma and sometimes strong financial
standings. It was hereditary however, open to all.
The Tufuhene: This was a hereditary office until recently. He controlled and supplied
ammunitions. In Agona, he had the powers of enstoolment and destoolment of the Adontenhene.
The Asafohene: He acted as the senior officer in charge of a section of the company, all members
of which he must know intimately. His symbol of office included a captain’s whip and a sword
known as akofena indicative of his rank. He also had a gun and ammunition belt.
Kyirema: Drummer.
Frankakitanyi: Flag bearer or ensign.
Asikamafu: Flag supporters who guarded the standard.
Bombaa: Whipper who kept order and discipline.

ASAFO TACTICAL DOCTRINE

Asafo tactics were oriented towards defense or small scale limited offensive actions such as raids
and ambushes spanning a fairly limited space (10 to 100 square miles). Tactically, the internal
composition and structure of the Asafo developed along the doctrinal basis of “force attacks like
force”. It tactics emphasized shock tactics involving close-quarter combat, hand to hand combat
or spears and javelins and other range of weapons. As a result, bows and arrows were not fully
exploited.

ROLES OF THE ASAFO COMPANIES

MILITARY
 They provide focal organization of skill at arm and training
 Provide guards, guides and scouts for European expeditions
 Provide military parade to receive guests and to show force

SOCIAL
 Communal works ie construction of bridges, putting out wild fires etc
 Organization of search and rescue operations
 Escort protocols during state funerals and functions
 Carrying of palanquins
 Monitoring of strangers who settle in town
 Maintaining law and order

ECONOMIC
 Work / cultivate stool farms
 Construction of markets
 Man toll gates
 Escort of merchandise and caravans

F. THE INDIGENOUS WAR GROUPING, FORMATION AND ORGANISATION FOR

BATTLE
As societies became more organized, traditional rulers found a way to raise local armies for the
defence of the people. This was done by the use of various groups or companies that the man had
to join, once he came of age. Among the Asantes were the famous “Asafo Companies” consisting
of energetic young men who would have proved their courage at one way or the other at various
contests of initiation. For each of administrations and tactics, the companies were each assigned
particular roles in time of war. This is in keeping with the present organization where we have war
formation to suit various terrains and situations. At the center of this set – up was the king who
was expected to lead the people to battle. As long as he remained alive in the battle, he was a
beacon of hope to his people who relied on his rallying presence to continue with the fight. It was
normal for the people to concede defeat with the capture of their king. Among the indigenous war
groups in the pre-colonial era was the Asante Army and their organization was as follows:
AKWANSRAFO: These were scouts. They were supposed to lead the battle and scout as far
forward as possible to eliminate natural obstacles that could impede the advance of the main body.
They were also used to fish for information and especially test the pulse of surrounding villages
for possible reaction to the unfolding situation.
TWAFO: The advance guard could serve as initial storm troops or bait troops - getting an enemy
to reveal his position and strength. At the heart of the ‘Twafos’ was the Twafo hene.
AKWAMU: Their position was immediately after the Twafo and they were poised to neutralize
any treats arising out of the frontage of the scouts who were to their front. Their leader was the
‘Akwamuhene’ who was also the third in command.
ADONTEN: The ‘Adontenhene’ led his party who came direct after the Akwamu. The idea was
to ensure a heavy hand in dealing with the enemy once the battle was joined. The king and what
was similar to today’s HQ Company, was usually located behind these three groups, so that the
enemy had a difficult job attempting to capture or kill the King which would result in their victory.
FLANKING UNITS
There are two Flanking units-left (benkum) and right (nifa). Each unit having two formations
NIFA: This was the right flank and was located at the right side of the king’s group, extending to
the rear of the main force; right-half (nifa nnaase). Their leader was the Nifahene.
BENKUM: This was the left flank located at the left side of the King’s group, extending to the
rear of the main force; left-half (benkum nnaase), commanded by Benkumhene were the
protectors of the king’s left flank.
KYIDOM: Bringing the rear or reserve was the kingdom company under the kyidomhene.
REAR GUARD
ANKOBEA: The Ankobea responsible for internal security and therefore the rear detail was the
Akobeahene and his group. The main body had left for battle. It was up to this group to ensure
the security of the men, women and children left behind in the village. They had a heavy
responsibility to shoulder, as the enemy was most likely to attack unsuspecting villages in an
attempt to carry away slaves.
GYAASE: The Gyaasehene’s group assisted the Ankobea to protect the villages when the main
group had left for battle. In peace time, he acted as the second in command to the king and was
usually an astute and courageous individual who tolerated no nonsense when it came matters of
sovereignty.

G. THE INDIGENOUS DEFENCE ECONOMICS, AND WAR LOGISTICS AND

ADMINISTRATION.
Indigenous Defence Economics may be explained as the economic means or tools that indigenous
states employed to finance their security strategies. In practice, this concept involved often-hard
choices in the exploitation, control and allocation of scarce resources. Such resources were in short
supply or were difficult to exploit, and included gold, salt and labour. To varying degrees, these
resources were augmented by rents deriving from land use, from taxes deriving from commodity
trade, including slaves, and fines and attributes. The choices in turn involved knowledge of the
strengths, weaknesses and constraints of indigenous economies, as well as the competing interests
of the ends of states. High indigenous defence spending on military manpower, equipment and the
operational maintenance of armies inversely implied fewer resources for agricultural and
commodity production, in addition to burdensome taxes on individuals, goods and services, with
repercussions on the wellbeing of the individual, community and region.
In principle, logistics and administration in war were related to pre-war routines and infrastructure
within a framework of what would amount to national standing operating procedures. Before war
was declared and not out of battle, some planning was done to obviate the possible predicament of
armies running short or out of supplies. Normally, hostilities started after the major harvest season
in August- September in the forested south and October to November in the savannah north.
Among other things, this assured that the essential agricultural productive economy was not duly
disrupted by war. The logistics infrastructure for war was vital and required a lot of detailed and
informal discussions and calculations, within and outside council. War itself was carefully
planned, together with pre-campaign preparations sometimes covering years, for the acquisition
and stocking of weapons, ammunition and salt from the coast and elsewhere, for training and for
psychological activities involving strategy, deceit and propaganda as legitimate weapons. In
addition to the main equipment of firearms, central authorities were responsible for providing
ammunition, lead and gunpowder.

SECTION C; HISTORY BACKGROUND (PRE-INDEPENDENCE OR COLONISATION

RELEVANCE OF MILITARY
History is the study of the past as it is described in written documents. It encompasses past events
in relation to its memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation and interpretation of
information. Primarily, history focuses on people and their achievements and failures, and on the
events and their developments, causes, results and consequences of things, which contributed to
their heritage. Military history therefore covers the study of past military events or occurrences to
help relate them to the present military traditions and organization and also for the future
advancement of an armed force in general. It is often said that Generals do not die, but they fade
away but then history doesn’t fade away, it dies. It dies because posterity tends to forget itself and
only dwell in the present, allowing their rich history that gives “Substance” as career officers or
people in general to die an unfortunate death. It is only through the study Military History that,
facts that have been misrepresented can be corrected, in that books, files and magazines which are
deteriorating with age can be salvaged for the use by the up and coming modern generation of
Army personnel. Nothing dehumanizes more, than a foreigner telling you what your history is and
we us officers must do all things possible to preserve our history. The evolution of the Army
Officer Corps is of vital importance to the regimental history of the Ghana Army. This should be
vital for the understanding of African Officer Corps, Armies and in particular the Ghana Army.
A. MAIN SOURCES OF HISTORY
There are three sources for our knowledge of what happed in the past;
a. Oral history; - Information handed down by word of mouth or other non-written media from
generation to generation. Advantages It provides first-hand information The opportunity to clarify
issues with source It also provides divergent views from different perspectives It affords
opportunity to confirm documented sources. Disadvantages Events maybe distorted in the handing
down process. The source becomes one sided view.
b. Written Records; - This provides a written or documented accounts of the past events. Books
by notable writers like Captain RS Rogers with “A short history of the Ghana Army” and
Lieutenant Colonel Festus Aboagye with “The Ghana Army” are examples. Advantages prevents
distortion of events ensures the preservation of records gives information about events without the
need for consultation Disadvantages it does not allow for corroboration where materials are
destroyed the source is also jeopardized May not be accurate.
c. Historical remains; - This allows for visual appreciation of history as conscious efforts are
made to preserve them in tombs, museums etc for future studies. Advantages it allows for the
correct dating of events the visual effects allow for divergent views on events and occurrences.
Examples of which are tombs of dead heroes, inscriptions, monuments and etc. Disadvantage in
events of destruction monuments and inscription information gets lost.
d. Artifacts; - These are usually documents, recordings or items of archaeological interest gathered
during the study of history. Its benefits can be related to that of historical remains. As career
officers therefore, there is the need to know the essence of the military history which must cover
the origin of the Ghana Army and its various facets including the gallant men and women who
gave their lives for causes either good or bad in varying battle fields and operational environments.

SIGNIFICANCE IN STUDYING MILITARY HISTORY

The following significance in studying military history cannot be overlooked.
a. Leadership and Command; - Traditionally military history is studied to glean ingredients of
successful commandership. Past commanders are studied to learn good and bad aspects of general
leadership and command.
b. Professionalism; - The study of past commander’s battles and tactics help in the professional
development of future leaders. It aids the service man in acquiring theoretical knowledge of his
history and gives a reference point from the occurrences for an adept and professional stance.
c. Strategic, Operational and Tactical Lessons; - Military history can be used to validate
doctrine and establish precedents. Furthermore, the study of military history helps to identify the
potentials and limitations of modern technological warfare. Drawing on critical evaluations made
in the appraisal of campaigns, flaws could be pointed out in the adherence to principles, tactics,
techniques and procedures.
d. Esprit de Corps; - The study of successful battles and good commander’s serves as an
inspiration and it goes a long way to promote Esprit de Corps. It helps us to collectively look into
past military campaigns in order to understand the effects of applying certain combat multipliers
and how it applies in modern day warfare to achieve victory.
e. Substitute for Battle Experience; - In peace time it is necessary to study past battles to serve
as substitute for battle experience and also helps troops to prepare for war. Officers must create
the craving for the knowledge in their indigenous military in order to make efforts at writing down
events, occurrences and the vast experience gathered under varying operations.
F. Potentials and Limitations of Technology; Technology as we are well aware, has made great
impact on soldiering and the conduct of war.
The introduction of new sophisticated weapon systems poses many complicated questions beyond
the battlefield environment. Although it provides a wider base of opportunities it cannot make up
for stressful battle conditions and other physical requirements of battle.
g. Inspiration; - Most people are moved by real life circumstances and experiences. A vivid
description of an act of bravery and soldering can serve as a turning point for a demoralized soldier
based on historical facts.

B. PRE - WORLD WAR I (WWI) CAMPAIGNS BY WAFF/RWAFF AND GCR

A. Benin 1901 and 1903; The WAFF, which was later, reformed in to the RWAFF, marched
against Benin the “City of Blood.” Two years later there was another expedition into Benin
Territory for which the West African Medal and Clasp were awarded. WAFF was a newly
formed force and its duty was in two-folds: To maintain internal security against warring
tribes and to defend the colonial frontiers. As such it became a civilizing force in the life
of West Africa. Almost every year between 1900 and 1910 expeditions were sent out either
to suppress illicit trade, or to protect legitimate trade.
B. Kano (1903), Sokoto 1903 – 1906; In 1903 Kano and Sokoto which are towns in the
Northern part of Nigeria were taken with very little fighting, but much took place during
the next three years against the fugitive Emir of Sokoto, Muhammadu Attahiru I, who kept
on fighting against British rule over his geographical jurisdiction. He persisted in his fight
against British rule until he died.
CAMPAIGNS BY WAFF/RWAFF AND GCR DURING WORLD WAR I (WWI)
a. Togoland – Kamina 1914.
b. Cameroon’s – Duala 1914, Yaoundé 1915, Campo 1915.
c. German East Africa 1915 - 1916 – Kikirunga Hill 1916, Gold Coast Hill 1916, Narungumbe
1917, Lukuledi 1917.
d. Portuguese Mozambique 1918 (Medo 1918).

MAIN ROLE OF GCR/WAFF/RWAFF DURING WORLD WAR I (WWI)

On the 28th of June 1900, the Arch – Duke Franz Ferdinand married Countess Sophie Maria. Franz
Ferdinand was heir to the Monarchy of the Hapsburg. He stood next in success as emperor of
Austria and Sophia was a mere countess who did not come within the permitted degree for an
imperial Hapsburg marriage. Ferdinand fixed a wedding day. This wedding day ultimately was the
fuse to the 1st World War. At Sarajevo, Capital of Bosnia, the Archduke was killed together with
his wife by a young Serbian nationalist of the Black Hand called Gavrilo Princip. The Serbian
Black Hand had to assassinate Archduke Ferdinand because he wanted to convert the
AustroHungarian Monarchy (the Dual Monarchy) into a Triple Monarchy by the inclusion of
Serbia. Although the Serbs might gain a certain degree of autonomy within the Triple Monarchy,
their long-cherished wish of creating a united Serbian state would be dashed to the ground. Francis
Joseph, the reigning monarch was eighty-four years old and expected to die soon. Ferdinand's ideas
might have a chance for realization very soon. The Black Hand thought that they should kill
Ferdinand before it was too late. Some members of the Serbian cabinet knew the assassination plot
in advance but did not stop it. It was established that the Serb government was involved in the
killing with Russia being the brain behind. Since Russia was exercising hegemony over the
Balkans it could not allow Serbia to be humiliated hence reinforced them. Germany asked Russia
to demobilize but declined; Germany declared war on Russia because Russia reinforced Hungary,
Austria however provided support for the Germans and also declared war on Russia. In the
declaration of its war Germany’s attitude to Britain and France became hostile and Germany
ordered France to surrender two of her frontier Fortresses and ordered Belgium to give a free
passage but the Belgians also had the support of Britain. Britain also declared war on Germany in
1914 Aug 15.
GCR AT TOGOLAND
The Gold Coast Regiment was under the British Empire and they were suited for the tropical rain
forest, they were therefore deployed by the Imperial Defence to take one powerful wireless station
in Togoland and a deep-water harbour in Duala-Cameroon. The GCR was under the commands of
Lt. Col. Bryant and Capt. Barnes, together with a small French force and had an engagement at
Agbelove and Khra River. Twenty-four hours’ armistice was granted to the enemy to consider the
situation, and Capt. Barker withdrew to Keta only to return to find that the Germans had left a
District Commissioner behind to hand over Togoland as far as a parallel drawn 120 kilometers
North of Lome. This engagement resulted in the enemy vacating its position and leaving behind
its powerful radio station in Kamina Togoland.
GCR AT CAMEROON
Cameroon 1914, on the 26 of Aug. GCR concentrated at Duala. The operation was for the capture
of Duala, there was rainfall which did not allow the GCR to get into action immediately. The
operation resumed in November with GCR in a left flanking attack. The force made an advance
that culminated in the taking of the deep-water harbor
GCR ON THE GOLD COAST HILL
The GCR’s next engagement was in East Africa. The East African Forces were called the
Manyamwezi and the Askari’s. In East Africa the first engagement was the Battle of Gold Coast
Hill in Dec. 1916. The GCR was at that point under the command of Lt. Col. Rose, they drove the
Germans from Kikirunga Hill to enable them pass through Uluguru Mountains. After several patrol
actions the regiment was withdrawn to Dar es Salaam. The GCR later had two heavy attacks with
high casualties; the 40th Pathans then reinforced them before they were able to make a capture of
the Gold Coast Hill.
10 GCC AT NARUNGOMBE
On 18 Jul. 1917, the enemy was located at Narungombe where there was a food supply of water
which was required for the use of our troops. Orders were accordingly issued for the position to
be attacked the following day. On the 19 Jul. the advanced guard of the Gold Coast Regiment
became heavily engaged. It was shortly reinforced by two more companies, while other units were
sent up to prolonged the line on the right and left. The action at Narungombe was one of the most
important in the whole campaign and the Gold Coast Regiment has been awarded it as one of their
battle honours to be borne on the King’s Colour.
GCC AT LUKULEDI
The next affair of importance occurred on the 17 and 18 Oct. when the Mission Station at Lukuledi
was got very neat their objective but were unable actually to reach it; however, the enemy had
suffered so severely that at dawn on the 19 the Mission House was found to have been evacuated.
Von Lettow now decided on the desperate course of abandoning “German East” for Portuguese
territory. On the night Nov. 25-26 he crossed the Rovuma with 300 Europeans and less than 2000
”askaris” who still remained staunch. Tafel attempted to follow suit, but render on Nov. 28.
PORTUGUESE MOZAMBIQUE 1918
The German Commander had in fact done a very clever thing. Portuguese Mozambique was large
and fertile, and the local Portuguese troops not particularly warlike. Indeed, Von Lettow was
suspected of deliberately leaving them alone till their Allies had well provided the m with arms
and ammunition, when, by a sudden pounce with his veteran troops, he would appropriate these to
himself. The British reinforced the Portuguese with battalions of the King’s inland from the port
of Mozambique. On the 7 Jan. 1918, the Gold Coast Regiment had disembarked at Port Amelia;
from there a move was made in a westerly direction, and on the 18 Apr. the Regiment got in touch
with the enemy in a strong position neat Medo. An attack was made on the 10 Apr and the action
continued till the 12 when the enemy retired. The Gold Coast Regiment under the command of
Lieutenant-Colonel Rose, D.S.O, had joined the 1st Division at Mahaji on the 4 Aug. 1916. The
first action that the Regiment fought in was at Kikirunga Hill on the 5 and 6 of Sep. when a passage
was being forced through the Uluguru Mountains. The action was successful, though amongst the
casualties was Cap. Butler, V.C, D.S.O., who died of wounds. A further action at Kkessa finally
drove the enemy out of the mountain.
MAIN ROLE OF GCR/WAFF/RWAFF DURING WORLD WAR I (WWI)
After the First World War, great depression set in and millions of people were unemployed all
around the world. Germany had become resentful towards the Treaty of Versailles and all mighty
nations wanted strong leaders. In 1933, Adolf Hitler became the dictator of Germany. Hitler
blamed the Jews for Germany’s problems and ordered Nazi soldiers to arrest and imprison lots of
them. Mussolini was Italy’s dictator. Italy was Germany’s ally. They were the Axis Powers.
Poland, Britain, and France formed the Allied Powers. In 1939, Hitler Germany invaded Poland.
However, since Britain had a treaty obligation with Poland she could not sit on the fence. Germany
fearing English-American coalition also invaded Russia which culminated in the Second World
War. Since Britain was present in the war the GCR was automatically included. British Colonial
Forces were therefore required hence the use of the GCR. They were reinforced to resolve the
situation in East Africa. The first battle was the battle of El-Wak. 1Bn of the GCR played a leading
role in El-Wak as part of the 24 WA Bde. Their next battle was the battle of Juba River; 24 WA
Bde operated alongside the South African Bde to establish a bridgehead on the far bank of the river
Juba. They crushed in to Italian – Somaliland. This was the beginning of the campaign that ended
the defeat of the Italians in East Africa. Their next battle was at the Uaddara 1940; GCR was part
of 24 WA Bde, which fought at Abyssinia against Italian forces. The Italian forces were believed
to be in a defensive position in depth around Uaddara. The terrain was forested and mountainous,
the roads were poor more so the Italian troops were in number, their position was also covered
with Artillery fire but GCR was able to overrun them. They captured 2 mortars, half dozen of MGs
and took away 60 prisoners of war. In pursuit of the fleeing Italian to the north gold Coast troops
encountered their rearguard in Blackshirt. They were positioned on both sides of the ridge from
where they attacked but alas the GCR was able to stand and fight through. The operations of the
Arakan Campaign started in Chiringa. Under pressure of artillery and mortar fire, the Japanese
evacuated Pagoda Hill. The GCR was however surprised by the Japanese who attacked from the
north and reoccupied Pagoda Hill. They cut the kaladan road to the north because of this the plan
to retake Pagoda Hill was abandoned; instead a decision was taken to regroup along the triangle
in the kaladan valley. After a brief Japanese attack the order was given to resume the offensive
across the kaladan. The division crossed a mountain and marched on Kyauktau. Myohaung was
the centre of Japanese opposition in the Arakan, it lied in the swampy valley of the Kaladan river.
The British plan was to attack with the 81 WA Div. From the north and 82 WA Div. From the
south. After initial successes in the opening place the attacked bogged1down on all fronts due to
the stiff Japanese opposition. The stalemate was broken when the GCR crossed the Yan Chaung
in the night and they secured the Thingittaw Pagoda. The opposition capsized and the GCR with a
right hook secured point 425, meanwhile 82 WA Div also cleared the Kalapazin valley and landed
at Akyab. This meeting of the two WA Divs was the first time the entire 5 WA Bde and 12 of the
Bns of the RWAFF were together and it was the largest concentration the force ever had. They
secured all the dominating features at Myohaung and 4 WA Bde entered Myohuang.

C. EVOLUTION OF THE GAF (GOLD COAST CONSTABULARY)

The history of the Ghana Armed Forces dates back to the pre-colonial era. There were in the
indigenous organisation before the coming of the Europeans but these were not standing armies.
They were called the “Asafo Companies”. The Asafo companies tried to work against British
interest during the period of slave trade and trading in general in the West African region.
Due to these threats, the colonial powers tried to establish some defence mechanism and this
defence idea brought about the Royal African Company. The operations of other trading countries
like the Dutch, the Portuguese and the French still posed a great challenge to the British. Sir George
Goldie, a para-military adventurer, later amalgameted all the militias and named them the Royal
Niger Company which was aimed to fight other colonial nations in the sub-region. The RNC was
later organised by Sir Charles McCarthy, one of the ealiest Governors of the Gold Coast and
Nigeria into a Regiment of three companies: the three (3) Coys were then called the Royal African
Colonial Corps Of Light Infantry that had the primary aim of preventing Ashanti raids in their
domain.
The British wanted a peaceful environment to trade in, with this in mind they tried to make the
whole of the Gold Coast a protectorate that fortunately enough the Ashantis did not accept. This
resulted in the “Sagrenti war in 1873- 1874”. Since Sir Garnet Wolsely was in charge of the West
African subregion, also he gave the order for the British troops to fight the Ashanti hence the name
of the war. In pursuit of this War, native troops were raised alongside the British in the colonies
of West – Africa. Earlier in 1865 a Corps of Hausas had been established to take care of the
upheavals in the sub-region. This force was under the command of Capt RN Glover and was known
as Glover Hausas. The Glover Hausas was a Force that was used in the 1873 Ashanti Campaign
(Sagrenti War). It was however disbanded after the operation leaving 350 who were used to form
the nucleus of the Gold Coast Constabulary. The Constabularies who served the training Coys
were observed to be rudimentary and inadequate. They were therefore transformed into a more
disciplined organisation, given a military bearing, improvement in their drill and training in arms.
The Gold Coast Constabulary was raised in 1874, from a nucleus of the Glover’s Hausas’ and in
1879 they were reorganised into a kind of armed police, they were given British Officers and Sgt
Majors. The GCC was redesiginated as the Gold Coast Regiment in 1901 and incorporated into
the WAFF.
The Regiment was reorganised with stations in Kumasi, Accra, Kuisa, Odumase, Asafo, Tamale,
Kintampo, Wa and a corps of 30 horsemen as a means of17transport. The Gold Coast Regiment
took part in the First World War as part of the 1st Division of WAFF and assumed peace time
duties until 1933 when it was reorganised in an anticipation of the Second World War. In 1939, Lt
Gen Giffard was appointed as the first GOC with his HQ in Achimota, Accra. The 24th Gold Coast
Brigade under the command of Brig Gen CFM Richards led them during the East Africa and
Burma Campiagns, where several battle honours were awarded to the GCR of the WAFF as part
of the famous 81st and 82nd West Africa Divisions. On their return from Burma, all the wartime
Battalions were disbanded leaving just the 1st and 2nd Battalions.
The experience of the demobilised soldeirs however acted as a catalyst for the demand for
Independence from the Colonial Bristish Government. In 1947, the United Gold Coast Convention
(UGCC) was formed with the objective to attain selfgovernance for the Chiefs and people of the
Gold Coast. Certain crisis complemented this move including; boycotting Bristish goods by the
locals in 1948 which was spearheaded by the Nii Kwabena Bonney, the Osu Alata Mantse in
attempt to gets the attention of the Bristish and make his stance clear. Their disturbance was serious
enough to warrant the committee of enquiry. This warranted a constitutional and political reform.
Harley Coussey was appointed to chair the committee. The coussey committee then recommended
a framework for a local government and made recommendations for a military to be established to
avoid breakdown of law and order. This cause was viciously fought until Independence in 1957
with a well organised standing Army. The Army consisted of a Brigade group of 3 Infantry
Battalions, a Field Battery, a Field Engineer Squadron, Recruit Training Centre and the Supporting
Services. The Ghana Navy took its roots from the Gold Coast Naval Volunteer Force, which was
established in 1936, just before the Second World War. Their role was to provide Seaward Defence
to carry out sea patrols and to keep the coastal waters free of mines.
The Ghana Navy and Airforce were both established by an act of parliament in 1959. The current
structure of the Navy is 2 Bases and a Training Command. The Ghana Air force was established
in 1959 under the supervision of Indian and Israeli officers with an Indian Air Commodore as the
first commander. Later in 1960, 10 Ghanaian pilots were trained and qualified under the Israeli
trainers even though the training agreement with Israel was terminated and the task was given to
the Brits supplemented by a small group from the Royal Canadian Force. Same year 1960, a
Ghanaian Army Brigadier General was appointed the Chief of Air Staff. The Ghana Air Force
currently has 3 bases.

C. EVOLUTION OF THE GAF (MILITIAS OF TRADING COYS)

Prior to the arrival of the Europeans, Africans had their own indigenous armies with which they
used to fight wars. The Commanders of these armies used to be the traditional chiefs and or strong
men in those communities. Before the soldiers who were mostly strong young and older men
were18launched into battle, they were edified by a chief priest. They underwent training, bathed
concoctions, chanted phrases and sang war songs all in with the aim of preparing themselves for
war. During this period, messengers are sent to opposing factions to negotiate on the battle or select
battlegrounds. Recruitment into, and training methods/procedures were pragmatic enough to
reflect the needs of the traditional set up. The scramble for Africa’s riches led to an unhealthy
rivalry between the European countries. The French, English, Portuguese, Spanish and Dutch
traded through companies who operated Royal charters on behalf of Metropolitan kings and
Queens. This resulted in the building of forts and castles to protect themselves against their
European rivals and also agitate instability between tribes.
These militias were established for roles including; (DSMI).
a. To safeguard commercial activities and post along the Gold Coast. The British needed to
safeguard crucial issues relating to commercial trade such as the trading routes and forts required
for a successful trade in Gold, Slaves, Ivory among others.
b. As a defense against hostile natives. The formation of the MOSSI Corps of Volunteer Natives
Cavalry raised by Maj Morris was used against unfriendly tribes in the northern territories. This
served as a means of defeating and dominating unfriendly local tribes who were an upfront to the
activities of the British.
c. Maintenance of law and order. The suppression of internal dissidents, intervention on tribal
wars and riots was paramount to ensure a serene atmosphere for trading activities to go on and also
the external protection of the Protectorate. They helped to quell riots and tensions.
d. Instigate instability between the tribes. As part of their (British) divide and conquer policy,
the British needed to create instability between the local tribes to ensure that they were not a united
front against them. It would then be relatively easy to subdue each Tribe gradually than having to
go head to head against the “united front”.

D. The Second World War.

After returning home in 1918, War Office decided to convert the Gold Coast Regiment into a
Brigade consisting of 4 Battalions of Infantry, a Battery of four guns and 8 stokes Mortars,
consequently a brigade under Brigadier-General Rose was constituted on 1st November, 1918.
WWII
After the Great Depression, millions of people were unemployed all around the world. They
wanted strong leaders. In 1933, Adolf Hitler became the dictator of Germany. Hitler blamed Jews
for Germany’s problems. Nazi soldiers arrested many Jews and sent them to prison. Mussolini was
Italy’s dictator. Italy was Germany’s ally. They were the Axis Powers. Poland, Britain, and France
formed the Allied Powers. In 1939, Hitler Germany invaded Poland. However since Britain had a
treaty obligation with Poland she could not sit on the fence. Germany fearing English-American
coalition also invaded Russia which culminated in the Second World War.
In summary the main causes of WWII are:
1. Treaty of versaillies
2. Italian fascism in 1920
3. Japanes militarialism and invasion of China in 1930
4. Hitler political takeover in 1933 coupled with his aggressive foreign policy
5. Apeasement
6. Great Depresssion
SECTION D; POST-INDEPENDENCE PHASE
A. The Era of Africanisation/Ghanaianisation and Expansion Programmes in the GAF.
Ghananisation means putting Ghanaians or Africans in the helm of affairs of a hitherto European
occupied position or portfolio. As part of earlier efforts to Africanize the Armed forces, Gen
Nicholson started the campaign but failed due to a number of facts which included; commissioning
only soldiers recommended by the central academic board, instead of considering the option to
directly enlist total civilians to augment the soldiers picked from the ranks. He believed it was
easier training serving soldiers with good military bearing and officer qualities than the latter. The
third point is that he felt training total civilians would be more expensive and difficult since they
had no form of experience and feared their inclusion could cause a decline in the high standards
of the Ghana Army.
Gen Whistler took over from Gen Nicholson with an entirely different approach since the then
President, Dr Kwame Nkrumah was advocating for more officers to be commissioned. His policy
involved enlisting Senior Secondary School leavers and commissioning them as officers,
commencing the formation of a Boys Company in the training centres and defining various
interventions to make the Ghana Armed Forces more attractive.
The problems encountered by Whistler included low remuneration on the part of officers, no
opportunity for career progression causing the Army to be looked down upon as a job for the less
privileged in society. Dr Kwame Nkrumah in his quest to Ghananise the Ghana Armed Forces,
gave all the support required to realize this dream. He thought of equipping the Army with
modernized assets, providing adequately trained and motivated instructors for troops and above
all create an Army which has the task of national defense at heart. Dr Kwame Nkrumah equally
had the vision of creating the Ghana Navy and Air force around that time but was materialized in
1959. Dr Nkrumah’s plan of creating a 5 Bn Army was later proposed to be a 9 Bn Division with
an Armored Car Unit by Maj Gen ABV Parley, which he earmarked for completion in 1960.
His vision as of this time included gradually replacing all British in high ranking command
positions with Ghanaian Officers. Africanisation had just taken off in Ghana and it was beginning
the ripple into the Republic of Congo and other West African countries. Just as Ghana, the
Congolese had Belgian officers in-charge of affairs until Nkrumah’s message got to them, causing
a decline in the existing support by the Belgians to the Congo. The then Prime Minister of the
Congo, Patrice Lumumba informed his troops of the need for reforms in their Army and appointed
Maj Gen Y Victor as the Commander of the Army and assigned a new Chief of Staff in the person
of Joseph Mobutu. The key point of the Congolese Africanisation was that, all ranks were
promoted one rank up to boost their morale and interest in the Army.
The rationale behind Nkrumah’s Ghananisation policy was to;
1. Ensure internal security within Ghana.
2. Defend the country against external aggression.
3. Provide quality military parades and guards of honor ceremonies.
4. To contribute troops to support other nations.

Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah became the Commander-In-Chief of the Ghana Armed Forces on
the attainment of independence and inherited an Army consisting a Brigade Group of 3 Infantry
Battalions (deployed at Accra and Takoradi and Tamale), a Field Battery, a Field Engineer
Squadron, a Recruit Training Centre and the Support Services (S&T, Medical, Ordnance, EME,
Provost, Education, Chaplaincy and Pay). The institution was in a poor state; the only barracks
worth its name was in Accra and the others were very old and dilapidated and the Units were ill-
equipped. For its size, equipment and firepower, the Army in 1956, by comparison was only a
shade better than a gendarmerie. Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah took lots of radical steps to ensure
he was successful and these included; terminating the appointments of Maj Gen Alexander and all
other British Troops in September 1961.
After this, Ghanaians in high commanding positions were appointed to fill the vacant areas
including Maj Gen SJA Otu as the Chief of Defense Staff, Maj Gen Ankrah as the Deputy Chief
of Defense Staff, Air Commodore JES De-graft Hayford as the Air Force Commander and
Commodore DA Hansen for the Navy. In addition to these developments, equipment states of all
the services were beefed up.

The Ghana Navy had the following equipment on inventory;

a. A Frigate.
b. 4 Corvettes and support ship which would constitute an anti-submarine and general
purpose Sqn for long-range operations.
c. 2 Coastal Minesweepers.
d. 2 Seaward Defence Boats.
e. 8 In-shore support ships to constitute an In-shore Squadron.
f. 4 motor gunboats and 8 landing craft to constitute the Volta Squadron.

The Air Force was also to be expanded to include the following:

a. Otter Squadron of 11 aircrafts.
b. Caribou Squadron of 8 aircrafts.
c. Helicopter Squadron of 14 aircrafts.
d. Beaver Squadron of 12 aircrafts.
e. Chipmunk Squadron of 12 aircrafts.
f. Heron flight of 2 aircrafts.

Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah had at this point totally done away with the British and
concentrated on further expansion of the Ghana Army. The expansion continued with the
formation of 4 and 5 Bn’s, the Para Troop training program was started in 1961 and he used the
Ghana Armed Forces to advance Ghana’s foreign policies, evident in the troops sent out to Congo
on a peace support operation and committed troops to be commissioned abroad.
Problems of Africanisation
1. Financial constraints - The Budget for the GAF was doubled when Nkrumah took over.
2. The time span for achieving Nkrumah’s dreams was very short.
3. Lack of interest from the youth.
4. Doctrinal challenge posed by Soviet and British.
5. Non-availability of well qualified personnel.

The Origin of the Ghana Navy and the Ghana Air Force.
THE GHANA NAVY
The Ghana Navy was raised in Jun 1959 under Royal Navy (British) Officers on loan. The first
CNS was Commodore DA Foreman (Jan 1959-Sep 1961), a retired Royal Naval Officer who was
granted Presidential Commission as a Ghana Navy Officer in that rank. The first Ghana Navy Day
was then held on 25 Oct. 1964. The Ghana Navy HQ was originally designated as MOD (NAVY)
and its Commander as Naval COS. The Royal Navy ceased its Loan Service to the Ghana Navy
on 1 May 1962 when it formed the Royal Naval Element of the British Joint Service Training
Team (BJSTI). This was followed in Oct 1962 with the reorganization of the title of Naval COS
along with the equivalent appointments of Army and Air COSs. HQ Ghana Navy was again
designated MOD (Navy) on 25 Jun 1965. It is now the Ghana Naval HQ. There are two commands
that is, Tema in the east and Takoradi in the west.
Naval Operations generally covers;
 Anti - Smuggling
 Fishery protection
 Environmental protection
 Search and rescue on routine basis.
The Ghana Navy Fleet was established on 25 Nov 1959 with two Minesweepers;
GNSs YOGAGA and AFADZATO. They were given a berth at the Takoradi Habour. In Sep 1961,
the Navy provided assistance to the Takoradi Harbour Authorities to get the Harbour operational
during strike actions. In all 19 ship movements were recorded.
By 1981 there were 10 ships, which were:
 Seaward Defense Boats (SDB): KOMENDA and ELMINA.
 Fast Patrol Boats (FPB): SAHENE and DELA.
 Corvettes: KETA and KROMANTSE.
 Fast Attack Craft (FAC): SEBO and DZATA.
However a number of ships were scrapped between 1975-1983 owing to their exorbitant
maintenance costs.
These included
1. GNS ASUANTSI
2. GNS EJURA
3. GNS AFADZATO
4. GNS YOGAGA,
5. GNS ELMINA,
6. GNS KOMENDA,
 7. GNS KROMANTSE,
8. GNS KETA,
9. GNS SAHENE and
10. GNS DELA.

THE GHANA AIR FORCE

The Ghana Air Force started on 20th July 1959 as a flying Training school with Israeli instructors
and technicians. The school was established to compliment the Army and Navy”. FTS was
inaugurated in Sep 1959 at Takoradi Technical/Flying Support Service were later provided by
Pakistan. It was equipped with Hundustan – HT2 Trainers manned by Israeli Training/Technical
Team. Air Commodore Jaswant Singh was appointed the first chief of Air staff of the Ghana Air
Force.
The Ghana Air force was basically to provide transport support for ground and naval forces and
was therefore made up solely of transport squadrons until early 1965 when an to offensive support
element was added with the acquisition of fighter ground attack aircrafts from Italy. The structure
of the Air Force at that time included two Transport Sqns, two Jet Sqns, and AFS Accra.
There were a total of two IAF and one RAF commanders till 23 Sep 1962 when Air Cadre JES
De-Graft Hayford was appointed as the first Ghanaian Chief of Air Staff (CAS) The first batch of
Ghanaian Pilots completed their training on the Hindustan aircraft in 1960. They completed their
advance training on the Piston Provost Aircraft at Ternhill (UK) in 1961. The first Beaver aircraft
was hop-flown to Ghana by Flying Officer (Lts) Ashley-Larsen and Beausoleil in 1961. In 1963,
the first Ghanaian Instructor trained in the UK arrived in Ghana. Alternative batch training was
also undertaken in the Soviet Union and Czechoslovakia in 1961. The last expatriate staff departed
in 1970 after service with the Air Detachment of the BJSTT.
Type of aircrafts used were:
1. Helis
2. Bell
3. Chinook
4. Fauker
5. Transport and
6. Cargo aircraft.
The role of the Air Force basically is to provide Air transport and offensive air support to the
Armed forces and to protect the territorial air space of Ghana.
The following tasks are also performed by the Air Force:
a. Provision of air transport to the Ghana Armed Forces.
b. Protecting the territorial air space of Ghana
c. Ferrying relief supplies to inaccessible areas including the medical evacuation of casualties
and running of air rescue missions.
d. Flying power line inspection for the Volta River Authority.
e. Photographic surveys for industrial and mapping purposes.
f. Recently, it had been running the Air Link service as a domestic commercial air travel
facility in addition to providing transport for official civil and VIP requirements.
 g. To provide surveillance over the air space of Ghana and over the Maritime Exclusive Zone
(MEZ) by day.
h. To maintain Fighter Ground Attack capacity and provide close air support during
operation.
i. To provide liaison and recce flight capability.

ORGANISATION GENERAL
The Ghana Air Force in organized on a 4 prong branch structure. These are Operations,
Engineering, supply and Administration. These start from the HQ and permeate the 3
operational base / station. Currently, The Ghana Air Forces is composed of an Air HQ at Burma
Camp, Accra, AFS Accra, AFS Takoradi, AFS tamale and No. 1 Maintenance Unit (MU)
Takoradi.

ACHIEVEMENTS
1. Until recently, the Ghana Air Force operated regular interval flight known as “Air Link”
from Accra to Kumasi and Tamale on commercial basis.
2. The VRA electric transmission lines across the country are exposed to varying
environmental conditions of the weather and require periodic inspection and maintenance
to ensure power supply at all times. The GAF over the years have assisted VRA to conduct
these inspections by the use of helicopters.
3. The GAF has successfully taken part in domestic flights in times of emergency. They were
involved in the search and rescue mission when it’s Heli crashed in the Atiwa forest on 16
March 2002. Several medical evacuations have also been undertaken.
4. The Ghana Air Force recently evacuated Ghanaians from Equatorial Guinea.

SHORTCOMMINGS
a. Lack of aircraft spare parts: The inadequate spare parts have made it difficult for the
GAF to maintain aircraft serviceability to acceptable level of 70%.
b. Manpower: The GAF is currently operating at half its established strength and the service
in operating with only 25% of its established strength for pilots.
c. Retirement: Without regard to the manpower problem, personnel who have served the
stipulated maximum service of 25 years are being released. The worst affected is the
engineering branch whose services are very crucial for the operational efficiency of the
GAF.
d. Desertion / Awol: Personnel of the GAF trained at the expense of the nation are gradually
leaving the system without due regard to their obligation to serve the nation.
e. Accommodation: The major problem with living accommodation is overcrowding, and
inadequate maintenance. The barracks, which were built in the 60’s, have not seen any
meaningful expansion. With increase in the strength of units and the continued retention of
personnel who served more than 25 years, there is serious overcrowding.
C. The Ghana Armed Forces in Socio-economic development.
The history of the Ghana Armed Forces dates back to the pre-colonial era. There were indigenous
military organizations before the coming of the Europeans, but there were no standing armies. The
ancient indigenous militia were rather called Asafo Companies, using the Ashanti model as the
standard. On the coming of the Europeans to the West African Coast, however, we began to
witness more robust attempts at establishing well organized and quasi standing militia to repel
both internal and external aggression and also provide a safe and enabling environment for growth.
It is therefore necessary that in the scheme of modern governance, Article 210 of Ghana’s
fourth Republican constitution stipulates that:
1. There shall be the Armed Forces of Ghana which shall consist of the Army, the Navy and
the Air Force and such other services for which provision is made by Parliament.
2. No person shall raise an armed force except by or under the authority of an Act of
Parliament.
3. The Armed Forces shall be equipped and maintained to perform their role of defence of
Ghana as well as such other functions for the development of Ghana as the President may
determine.

The GAF as we have it today is made up of the Ghana Army, Ghana Navy and Air Force all
operating under a Joint Service General Headquarters and like any other Armed Forces in the
world, has traditional roles that it plays. These are:
a. To defend the state against external threats to its own security.
b. To support the government in its dealings with other states, i.e. in aid of foreign policy.
c. If necessary, to provide a firm basis to the authority of the state against internal threats to
its security.

The GAF functions together with the Armed Forces Council equally mandated by article 211
of the 1992 constitution. Armed Forces Council which shall consist of
(a) The Vice-President, who shall be chairman.
(b) The Ministers responsible for defence, foreign affairs and internal affairs.
(c) The Chief of Defence Staff, the Service Chiefs and a senior Warrant Officer or its
equivalent in the Armed Forces and
(d) Two other persons appointed by the President acting in consultation with the Council of
State.

The Ghana Armed Forces has over the years, proven to be a high standard institution, serving the
nation both locally and internationally and living up to the core roles as enshrined in the
constitution. No country can function properly without a standing Armed Force and Ghana is not
an exception. The GAF is a legacy of colonial administration with its current structure reflecting
most of the colonial systems. Under-listed are the general roles of the Ghana Armed Forces
1. Safe - guarding the territorial integrity of Ghana.
2. Foreign aid
 3. Assist police in maintaining law and order
4. Provide a firm base for political authority
5. Peace - Keeping Roles

A. Internal Security. Peace, security and stability are essentials for development. No meaningful
development takes place in a chaotic environment. Currently, the Ghana Armed Forces in
conjunction with the security agencies are involved in major operations which are all aimed at
maintaining a most secure environment conductive for investment and other economic activities.
Such operations include OPS GONGONG, OPS CALM LIFE, OPS SIT DOWN LOOK, OPS
SAFE, OPS MERCURY, OPS BOAFO and others. Notably among them is the operation wipe
off illegal mining operators in the country, this commonly known as Galamsey. This exercise is
necessary because galamsey is destroying railways lines and polluting rivers.
b. Political; We should say that the Ghana Armed forces does not have any clear cut political role
since by its nature, role and constitution it is expected to be a neutral entity. Much of what has
become known today as political role is only an accident of our history as a nation. Going down
history lane the GCR was very instrumental in the attainment of Ghana's independence and hence
the military have also assisted the Electoral Commission in OPS PEACETRAIL.
c. State Functions: Certain ceremonial functions have become part of the responsibilities of the
GAF. National parades including Independence Day Parades have become the show for the
military. Again, guards of honor for foreign heads of state and other foreign dignitaries are
mounted by personnel of the Armed Forces. Other state protocols are also handled by PR section
especially in dealings with foreign armies or diplomats.
d. International Peace Support Operations; The Ghana Armed forces has rich experience in
international peace support operations, beginning with the Congo Crisis in 1960 till date. Today,
Ghana has Battalions serving in 4 major UN Peace Keeping Missions: MONUSCO, UNIFIL,
UNMIL, UNMISS and also serving in several observer missions around the globe helping
promote world peace.
e. Transport and Communication; The Armed Forces have the capability for land transport for
movement of personnel and supplies, utilizing military vehicles for the accomplishment of
missions and providing boats and flood rescue parties using the Navy. Emergency airlift for the
movement of personnel and supplies utilizing military aircraft not required for accomplishment of
primary urgent missions.
f. Health; The Ghana Armed Forces provide varying medical services to the populace all over the
country. The 37 hospital and the medical reception stations provide assistance for both military
personnel and civilians. The 37 Military hospital is designated as a national disaster and emergency
hospital giving high level hospitality at the national level. The hospital also trains medical
personnel like nurses, medical students and medical assistants.
g. Education; All the seven Garrisons of the armed forces have education unit over seeing various
garrison schools. These schools serve not only kids of military personnel and civilian employees
of the armed forces but also to the general public as a whole. The Ghana Armed Forces Command
and Staff College (GAFCSC) provides training not only for mil offrs, but also for civilians. Same
can be said of the KAIPTC which offers Master’s Degree courses to civilians and mil offrs alike.
h. Environmental Protection; The military is engaged in a number of activities in conjunction
with the environmental protection agency and the ministry of lands and forestry to protect the
environment. Prominent of such activity is OP HALT which aims at arresting all illegal cutting of
trees in the country. The Ghana Navy is also involved in various ops to prevent the pollution of
our water bodies. They also protect merchant and fishing fleets along the coast of Ghana. The 48
Engrs has also been involved in various road constructions in the country. Afram Plains in the
Eastern Region, Sefwi in the Western Region and Anyako in the Volta Region are but a few of the
places road construction is either on-going or completed. These road networks have gone a long
way to open up the cut-off enclaves and hinterlands to adjoining towns and cities.
i. Disaster Management; Troops of the Ghana armed forces have from time to time been called
upon during disaster periods, working hand in hand with NADMO. The Ghana Armed Forces
provides invaluable services through the use of helicopters and ambulances for the evacuation of
casualties during emergencies or natural disasters and also search and rescue operations.
j. Combating anti-Economic Activities; Even though the primary role of the Armed Forces does
not include the maintenance of law and order within the country, it has been called upon several
times to compliment the actions of the police service in performing these tasks. Ghana, like any
other third-world country especially, is faced with a myriad of illegal activities that go lengths to
inhibit economic development of the country. Prominent among these are crossborder smuggling,
illegal mining, poaching of our fish stock by foreign vessels, among others. The Ghana Navy for
instance, of late has been on top of the game not only in warding off foreign vessels that fish
illegally in Ghana's territorial waters but also local fishermen who adopt harmful fishing practices.
k. In conclusion, the armed forces can be considered as partners in national development because
our primary role is to provide security network for the country to develop within democratic
dispensation. The security of the state gives a peaceful atmosphere for a prosperous economy. The
socio-economic roles under health, education, environmental protection, developmental projects,
disaster management and Combating anti-economic activities are crucial to the acceleration of real
economic growth with its results being improvement in quality of life and services where our
military input is rendered.

D. ROLE OF GHANA ARMED FORCES IN PEACE SUPPORT OPERATIONS

League of Nation after First World War tried to prevent subsequent Wars but couldn’t that is why
we had the World War 11. This led to the creation of the UN to prevent a total war and to reduce
the damage should war break up. In recent times, there has been an escalation of conflict situations
around the West African sub-region and the world in general. Around the world, Israel, Palestine
North Korea, Syria are a few of these conflict-ravaged areas. In Africa, there has been conflicts in
Liberia, Sierra Leone, La Cote d’Ivoire, Somalia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda,
Algeria, Sudan, Uganda and many other areas in Africa. As part of settling these conflicts, peace
missions are sent.
Peace support operations currently has shifted from the traditional concept of separation of forces,
policing of agreements and supervision of withdrawals. The current trend of PSO entails
supporting delivery of humanitarian aid, disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR),
supporting electoral components among others. The trend of events has made the less important
Army role of peacekeeping now emerging as very dominant aside its traditional role of defending
the territorial integrity of Ghana against external aggression. Personnel of the Ghana Armed Forces
(GAF) have served as UN peacekeepers since the early 1960s. Since their first participation in the
UN Operation in the Congo (ONUC). Currently the Ghana Army is involved in peacekeeping
missions in Liberia, Congo, Mali, Lebanon, and South Sudan. Apart from the UN, personnel of
GAF also serve under African Union (AU) missions at the regional level and at sub-regional level,
missions of the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS). Ghana’s most recent
contribution was the Regional Force sent to Gambia with Ghana contributing about 200 troops in
all as part of ECOMIG.
RATIONALES FOR CONTRIBUTING
Political and Normative Rationales: Ghana’s engagement in UN peacekeeping is driven by a
deep-rooted commitment to help maintain international peace and security as enshrined in the UN
Charter. More importantly, this commitment is underpinned by domestic legal principles and
values which are set out in Ghana’s Republican Constitution of 1992. Specifically, Article 40(c)
(d) states that Ghana should: “Promote respect for international law and treaty obligations and the
settlement of international disputes by peaceful means; and adherence to principles enshrined in
or as the case may be, the aims and ideals of:
(i) The Charter of the United Nations.
(ii) The Charter of African Union.
(iii) The Commonwealth.
(iv) The Treaty of the Economic Community of West African States; and any other
International Organizations of which Ghana is a member.

Participation in peacekeeping, therefore, is related to Ghana’s commitment to sustain global peace,

security, and stability. Politically, it is also believed that participation in peacekeeping offers
Ghana a mechanism to exert influence in world affairs and enhance its image and prestige in the
international system. For instance, Ghana is currently the only African country with an aviation
unit in MINUSMA, which is boosting Ghana’s international image. Security Rationales:
Ghana shares cultural history and ties of blood with countries in the sub-region, especially with its
immediate neighbors. Given the spate of civil wars that have engulfed the West African sub-
region, there has always been the fear of a spillover of proximate conflicts into Ghana.

Ghana therefore participates in international peacekeeping efforts to:

a. Control and suppress the spread of such wars.
 b. Prevent them from jeopardizing its security and developmental agenda.
c. Sometimes to extricate Ghanaian expatriates who may be caught up in the conflicts.
d. To stop wars sparking a wider conflagration which might undermine the region’s
security, prosperity, and stability and
e. To stem the humanitarian crises that are often associated with such conflicts. It is
commonly assumed that Ghana’s security and economic development are best
ensured by keeping the region peaceful. Ghana’s commitments to provide UN
peacekeepers in Côte d’Ivoire, Sierra Leone, and Liberia are good examples of this
approach.
Economic Rationales: Economic rationales, both individual and at the national level, have
become a major reason for Ghana’s peacekeeping deployments. Peacekeeping engagements have
also brought pecuniary rewards to the GAF and GPS as well as individual personnel through the
compensation packages offered by the UN. In MINUSMA, for example, the UN pays the Ghana
Aviation Unit an amount of $9,400 per an hour flight.[6] In a month, the unit is expected to do 80
hours flight, but it usually does about 100 hours. The UN pays $8,000 per hour for the extra 20
hours. What this means is that in a month, Ghana is earning about $900,000 from its involvement
in MINUSMA. In addition, the UN provides compensation for equipment costs and the troops also
receive $30 a day as mission subsistence allowance. For the State and the GAF especially, these
financial gains represent a major supplement to the national defense budget, some of which has
been used to purchase aircrafts and other military equipment. For the individual personnel, the UN
reimbursement package offers an important income supplement. For example, officers who
hitherto could not afford to build their own houses, buy good cars, and provide sufficiently for
their family, can do so because of the financial rewards they get from UN peacekeeping.
Institutional Rationales: Ghana’s participation in UN peacekeeping is also motivated by the
operational benefits that accrue from such activities. In particular, peacekeeping has served as an
avenue for the military and police to acquire overseas experience and training. The GAF has
benefited immensely from capacity-building initiatives and training assistance programs such as
the US African Crisis Response Initiative (ACRI) and African Contingency Operation Training
and Assistance (ACOTA), France’s Reinforcement of African Peacekeeping capabilities
programme (RECAMP), and Canada’s Military Training Assistance Programme (MTAP). Such
collaborative training and assistance programs have also offered opportunities for the GAF to
accumulate military equipment and technology by retaining the supplies provided by the UN and
other donors. Additionally, the exposure of GAF personnel, especially, those in the Air Force to
new and difficult desert terrains like Mali is enhancing their professional and technical capabilities.
While some military pilots are doubling the number of hours they have flown in aircraft since
joining the GAF due to the vastness of Mali, the technicians are being exposed to new technical
issues in their field of work. Through extensive pre-deployment, induction and in-mission training,
the police have also gained broader perspectives on policing methods and issues such as human
rights, rule of law, crowd control measures, crime scene management, investigations and
administration. Given the resource constraints faced by the GAF and GPS, these training programs
have enabled them to improve skills and knowledge to reach advanced international military and
policing standards. This has impacted positively on their professional expertise and capabilities
and enhanced their operational performance both at home and abroad.
BARRIERS TO CONTRIBUTING
Alternative political or strategic priorities: Internal security concerns limit Ghana’s capacity
and willingness to contribute troops or police to certain UN missions. Currently, Ghana contributes
about 20% of its total army to UN missions. This affects their operational capacity whenever there
is any internal strife, especially during election periods. For this reason, Ghana claims it will limit
deployments of personnel to peacekeeping duties during such periods. To date, however, this does
not appear to have dramatically affected Ghana’s contributions.
Alternative institutional preferences for crises management: This is not a significant
consideration although Ghana prefers working under the UN than the ECOWAS or AU. The main
reason is that ECOWAS and AU peacekeeping expenses are usually borne by troop-contributing
countries and this imposes AN additional financial burden on Ghana’s limited resources.
Moreover, the operational requirements of ECOWAS and AU peace operations in terms of
adequate logistics and equipment are also sometimes lacking when compared to UN missions.
Difficult domestic politics: While the Ghanaian parliament is actively involved in the decision to
deploy peacekeepers, the general public is not. The PSCD&I and the Finance Committee of
parliament in particular, discuss and approve budgets meant for peacekeeping procurement and
expenses.
Financial costs: This is not a major issue in discussions about providing peacekeepers because
participation in UN peacekeeping benefits Ghana financially due to the UN reimbursement
packages. But equally important are the non-fiduciary benefits discussed earlier. These cannot be
quantified but they benefit Ghana nonetheless.
Resistance in the military: This is not a barrier because the GAF has been a strong supporter of
UN peacekeeping. In fact, participation in UN peacekeeping forms part of the military’s internal
rewards system (in terms of personnel promotion).
Legal obstacles: Ghana’s participation in UN peacekeeping is supported by the Article 40(c) (d)
of the 1992 Constitution (see above).
Lessons learnt
Below are some of the lessons learnt in peacekeeping operations:
a. The result of political dictatorship.
b. Devastating effects of war on the people and infrastructure.
c. The difficult process of peace making.
d. Mistrust among belligerent forces who were once a united people
e. The negative influence of officers and men who transition from one Ghanbatt to another and
the disciplinary problems it possess to Command.
f. The problem of Command and Control of troops within a city.
g. Unemployment problems.
h. Disruption of life-style.
i. Disruption of essential Svcs.
j. Incidence of Inflation

In conclusion, The Ghana army is well known for its outstanding performance in PSO and would
continue to play this role in the future. Training for PSO would therefore have to be skewed
towards meeting the recent dimensions of PSO. Units also needs to be well equipped to take
advantage of the wet-lease system of the UN.