CRUSHING SECTION

INTRODUCTION
Crushing is the first mechanical stage in the process of comminution in which the main objective
is the liberation of the valuable minerals from the gangue. It is generally a dry operation and is
usually performed in stages. Lumps of run of mine ore can be as large as 200mm across and
these are reduced in the primary crushing stage to -100mm in heavy duty machines (primary
jaw crusher 18 x 32). Primary crushers are commonly designed to operate 75% of the available
time, mainly because of interruptions caused by insufficient crusher feed and by mechanical
delays in the crusher. Secondary crushing includes all operations for reclaiming the primary
crusher product from ore storage to the disposal of the final crusher product, which is -12mm.
At Old Nic Mine secondary crushing is performed by a gyrosphere and a secondary jaw crusher
(10 x 21). Vibrating screens are placed ahead of crushers to remove undersize material, or scalp
the feed, and thereby increase the capacity of the crushing plant. At Old Nic Mine crushing is in
closed circuit.

Kick’s Law (1885)

States that energy consumed in size reduction is proportional to the reduction in volume of the
particles. Kick expressed the energy required (E) as;

Where R is the reduction ratio which is the ratio of feed particle diameter to product particle
diameter (df/dp).
Kick’s law applies to particle size > 1cm (crushing range).
Purpose of crushing
• Maximum size reduction - feed preparation for grinding circuit.
• Top size reduction for materials handling and conveyor belt design.
• Top size control for minimum fines reduction.
Crushing plant circuit
Ore coming from underground from both the North 1 Shaft and the Main Vertical Shaft is
transported by cocopans which have a capacity of 1 tonne each .The ore from the N1 Shaft is
poured into the shaft bin . The shaft bin is further divided into two bins that is the stockpile bin
and the conveyer bin , the stockpile bin has a capacity of 80-85 tonnes while the conveyer bin
has a capacity of 100-105 tonnes .Ore is transported from the stockpile bin using a truck while
ore from the conveyer bin is transported by conveyer no.1 to the twin bin .Ore coming from the
MVS is transported to the twin bin using conveyer no.1 .The twin bin has a capacity of about 80-
85 [Link] the twin bin the run of mine is transported to the first jaw bin which has a
capacity of 30-40 tonnes .The ore is then crushed by a primary 10x21 jaw [Link] is then
transported using conveyer no.3 to the fines bin where there is a 30x30 vibrating primary screen
.Fines proceed to go on to conveyer no.7 while the ore with a larger aperture size than the
screen are transported using conveyer no.4 to the second jaw bin .The ore then moves from the
jaw bin to the 10x21 jaw crusher via conveyer belt no.5 .The crushed product goes on to
conveyer no.6 which pours directly to conveyer no.7 to combine with the fines bin feed . The
ore is then screened by a secondary vibrating screen which is a double deck . The screen on top
is a 30x30mm screen while the screen at the bottom is a 13x13mm screen .The undersize which
passes both screens falls in the small bin below with a capacity of 20 tonnes .The undersize then
is carried from the bin to the mill bin via conveyer no.10 .The oversize is then sent to the
Gyrasphere bin via conveyer no.8 .From the Gyra bin it is transported to the 36 inch Symone
Cone crusher where secondary crushing is done . The product is sent to conveyer no.6 and the
process is repeated until all the ore passes the screen hence the circuit is a closed circuit .
Primary crushing
Primary crushers take run-off mine rock and start size reduction. Lumps of R.O.M ore as large as
200mm diameter are reduced to a size of about -100mm. Primary crushers are heavy duty
machines that are always operated in open circuit. They are usually in line with scalping screens
(grizzlies). The type of crusher used at this stage that is the jaw crusher .
Jaw crusher

Distinct feature is the two plates which open and shut like animal jaws. Jaw crushers are rated
according to the receiving areas that is jaw width x gape. The discharge size of material is
controlled by the set and the feed size is controlled by the gape. The jaws are usually
constructed from cast steel and are fitted with replaceable liners made from manganese steel or
‘Ni – hard’. This is done to reduce wear and minimize crushing energy consumption. The speed
of jaw crushers varies inversely with the size and usually lies in the range 100 to 300 r.p.m. The
capacity of a jaw crusher can go up to 725tph above which the economic advantage of the jaw
crusher diminishes and the gyratory crusher becomes more preferred.
Advantages
i. Simple and reliable construction.
ii. Wide range of application for example suited for hard, tough and abrasive rock.
iii. Relatively simple maintenance.

Disadvantages
i. Low capacity since crushing is done on half cycle.
ii. There is need for strong foundation and heavy plywood because of vibration caused by
alternate loading and release of stress.

Gyratory crusher
Consists of essentially of a heavy spindle carrying a hard steel conical grinding element (the
head) seated in an eccentric sleeve. The eccentric motion gyrates a moveable crushing surface
as the head sweeps out a conical path within a fixed crushing chamber or shell.

Basic elements of a gyratory crusher

The spindle speed range is 85 to 150 r.p.m. and the maximum movement occurs at the
discharge. The gyratory crusher crushes on full cycle and hence has a higher capacity than a jaw
crusher of the same gap. It can handle through put of up to 900tph. This crusher is identified by
the dimension of the feed opening and spindle diameter.
Advantages
i. Large capacity
ii. More suitable for slabby feeds
iii. Slow compression of crushing head limits fines generation
Choice of the crusher depends on;
i. Maximum size of the ore which the crusher would take.
ii. Capacity required.
The jaw crusher is preferred where the gap is more important than the capacity. For example to
crush material of a certain maximum diameter, the gyratory crusher having equal gap has the
capacity three times higher than that of the jaw crusher. If large gap is required but not capacity,
use the jaw crusher. The jaw crusher will be a smaller and more economical machine.
2.3 Secondary crushing
The secondary crushers reduce primary crushing discharge to a final product. They are much
lighter as opposed to jaw crushers. Example: cone crusher.
Cone crusher
Is basically a modified gyratory. The main difference is that the cone crusher has a short spindle
which is supported in a curved universal bearing below the head cone.

Basic elements of a cone crusher

The crushing chamber flares outwards because a large gap is not required. This design allows a
much greater head angle than in the gyratory crusher while returning the same angle between
crushing surfaces. This gives the cone crusher a high capacity, up to 1100tph. They are rated by
the diameter of the cone lining and ranges from 559mm to 3.1m. The cone crusher is normally
used for secondary and subsequent stages of crushing. In South Africa gold industry it is
sometimes employed as a primary crusher.
Advantages
i. High capacity
ii. High reduction ratio (hammer action of crushing head)
iii. Non-choking characteristics
Potential Hazards and Remedies
Hazards/Risks Remedies
Dust Utilize dust extraction fans, water sprays and wear provided dust
respirators
Injuries to personnel Wear provided PPE (Hard hat, overalls, gumboots, PVC gloves, dust
when dislodging
boulders on grizzly respirators, leggings and safety glasses).
running conveyor Never work/ cross underneath 8x16 crushing plant conveyor number 1.

Do not attempt to track conveyor, refer the job to relevant engineering

personnel

Do not reset conveyors, call for an electrician.

Report any damage to conveyor, fasteners or any relevant conveyor

components which can cause further damage.
Injuries to personnel Never work at conveyor pulleys when the belt is in motion.
working at conveyor
pulleys

Unblinding screens Always stop and lock out vibrating screens when unblinding.

Working in silo Isolate power on silo feed conveyor (using trip wire) before working in the
silo.

Do not work in the silo alone.

Make sure that the silo platform is cleared of loose dangerous objects that
might fall in the silo.
 Use rope provided to lower tools before entering the silo.

Always put on a safety chain/safety rope properly secured on the life line
or exit steel ladder.

After working in the silo, tie the tools on the rope provided and exit first
before pulling out the tools.

Belt Length and speed

Conveyor belt Speed (m/s) Length (m)
0 1.02 96
1 1.26 56
2 0.89 69
3 0.69 115
4 0.68 54
5 0.32 27.2
6 0.73 56
7 1.26 30.3
8 0.63 26
9 0.84 68

Bin Capacity
Bin Capacity
Conveyer bin 103t
Stockpile bin 83t
Twin bin 83t
1st Jaw bin 37t
Fines bin 50t
2nd Jaw bin 35t
Gyro bin 35t
 Mill bin 60t

Grizzly size 200x200mm

Primary jaw crusher 18 x 32 inch
Secondary jaw crusher 10 x 21 inch
Cone crusher 36 inch

Screen sizes Primary 30mm x 30mm

Secondary 30 x 30mm and 13 x 13 mm

Speed of 18x32 jaw crusher = Drive/Driven x Motor speed

= 30/123 x 990rev/min

= 242rev/min

Speed of 10x21 jaw crusher = Drive/Driven x Motor speed

= 29/83 x 970rev/min

=339rev/min

START UP PROCEDURE (crushing plant)

• Before running the belt ensure that all the head, tail pulleys and entire conveyor
system are free from any obstructions.

• Ensure that the working guards are in order and well secured.

• Sound the siren

 • Start conveyer belt number 10

• Start the secondary screen

• Start conveyer belt number 8

• Start conveyor belt number 7

• Start the secondary vibrating screen

• Start conveyor belt number 6

• Start conveyor belt number 5

• Start the oil pump of the cone crusher, run it for 5minutes

• Start the cone crusher

• Start conveyor belt number 4

• Start conveyor belt number 3

• Start the jaw crusher

• Start conveyor belt number 2

• Start conveyor belt number 1

• Start the primary vibrating screen

• Start conveyor belt number 0

SHUTDOWN PROCEDURES

• Stop conveyor belt number 0

• Stop the primary screen

• Stop conveyor belt number 1

• Stop conveyor belt number 2

• Stop the jaw crusher

• Stop conveyor belt 5

 • Stop conveyer belt 9

• Stop the cone crusher and also ensure that oil pump is switched off

• Stop conveyor belt 3

• Stop conveyor belt 4

• Stop the secondary vibrating screen

• Stop conveyor belt 6

• Stop conveyor belt 7

• Stop conveyer belt 10

Process monitoring and control

Problem Cause Adjustments to be made

1. High Circulating Load Blinded Screens Screens to be cleared using a
Heavy object.
Overfeeding Reduce feed.
2. Oversized Product Holed Screens Replace or patch screens.
Large Crusher gap Engineering adjust crusher gap.
3. Crusher tripping overfeeding (choking) reduces feed
Low or no oil Replenish oil tank.
Contaminated oil Replaces oil.
Scrap metal or objects Check for and remove
Stray material
4. Excess Spillages overloaded belts check feed and check screens
Worn out belt replace belts

TROUBLE SHOOTING AT THE CRUSHING SECTION

Crusher product too big

• Screen if not worn out, if holed replace screen.

 • Adjust on crushers’ gap.

High circulating load

• Screen apertures blinded

• Overfeeding in relation to screen surface area

• Adjustments on crushers

• Frequent checks on conveyor product to be done regularly

Metal detectors
There are two metal detectors that are inserted onto conveyor belt 9. These detectors are used
to identify any tramp metal that has not been removed from the flow by the self-cleaning
magnet. The detectors only serve as a pointer to show the area that has any tramp metal. An
attendant will then have to search for that metal piece and manually remove it. The metal
detector functions according to Lenz's law of electromagnetism, when a conductor falls within a
certain range of an oscillating (alternating) magnetic field; it generates an oscillating field of its
own, which opposes the primary field. A magnetometer can pick up the resulting changes in the
overall field, signaling the nearby presence of a conductive object, typically a piece of metal.

Principle of operation of a jaw crusher

Crusher comprises of two approximately plane crushing surfaces or jaws, one fixed and the
other moving. The fixed jaw is the inside end of the machine frame. Facing the fixed jaw and
inclined to it is the moving jaw or swing stock. Both jaws are protected from wear by
manganese steel liners. The moving jaw oscillates in such a way that large compressive forces
are applied to any piece of rock trapped between it and the fixed jaw. Rock to be crushed is fed
down a chute into the crushing chamber between the fixed and swing jaws, and the crushed
product drops out of the cavity, into a chute feeding conveyor belt 2. Product size is controlled
by the size of the set between the fixed and swing jaws. It is this gap that sets the maximum
lump size in the product.

Principle of operation of a gyrosphere

The two crushing surfaces approximate to conical frustums; the moving frustum is within the
fixed one. Relative reciprocating movement between inner and outer surfaces is produced by
gyrating the inner surface. This gyration approximates to rolling of the inner frustum (crusher
head) around the inside of the outer frustum, although the two do not touch. Rock to be
crushed enters via the top into the crushing cavity where rotation of the crusher head around
the crusher center line creates compression between ore and the outer frustum thus breaking
it. The crusher gap is adjusted by raising or lowering the main shaft which runs through the
crusher head. Secondary crusher product is fed into a surge bin.

CRUSHING AND SCREENING OPERATIONAL VARIABLES

Feed Rate
Feed Rate has to be closely monitored as it has a huge impact on the general performance of
the crushers. On the primary and secondary crushers, feed rate is affected by the amount of ore
on the conveyor belts feeding the crushers. These crushers have to give high throughputs and
meet target tonnages when passing over weightometers that transport the crushed ore.
Underfeeding the crushers gives low throughput and lead to power wastages.
For the tertiary crushers, the surge bins have to be 30% full when the crushers start so that
choke feed is induced, which helps obtain maximum crusher efficiency and high throughput.

Gap Setting
The listed gap settings for the primary and secondary jaw crushers should be maintained so as
to ensure maximum crusher performance. As crusher liners wear, the gap setting may change
and therefore these have to be checked and corrected during crushing plant maintenance.
Gap setting directly affects product size distribution and should therefore be prioritized since
subsequent stages after crushing always require feed of the correct PSD. Reduced power draws
are usually an indication of increased gap setting.
Power Draw
The power draws of the crushers give an indication of how efficiently the crusher is working.
Problem Possible Cause
• Decreased Power Draw • Increased Gap Setting
• Low Feed Rate
• Increased Power Draw • High Feed Rate
• Decreased Gap Setting

Tonnages
The average throughputs for the crushers are also indicators of how efficient the crushing
process is. When target tonnages are met it shows crushing efficiency. Therefore weightometer
readings should also surpass the average tonnages expected to pass over that particular belt at
a given time.

SCREENS
Screens play a vital role in the crushing circuit as it measures and determine the efficiency of the
Crusher. Insufficient screening will lead to a big circulating load in the closed crushing circuit and
a low final production rate in Tons per hour. Always ensure that the screens are in a good
working condition before commencing operation. It is recommended that screens are operated
with the exciters set at 80% of rated power, which should give sufficient tonnage.
Particle Size Distribution
Particle Size Distribution can be determined by lab analysis of a sample obtained during belt
cuts. The results give an indication of the efficiency of the crushers, and the PSD of the ore
being conveyed to the silos gives an indication of the screen efficiencies.
Screen Open Area
The net area of screen apertures as a percentage of the area of the whole screen should be high
so as to ensure that maximum amount of ore is screened per given time.
Circulating Load
When there are large amounts of oversize ore returning to the tertiary crusher for re-crushing
then the circulating load is high. This is a direct indication of low screening efficiency. This may
also mean that the crusher is underperforming and failing to reduce the ore down to the
required particle size. The belt cut exercise is also applicable here as it is used to collect the data
used in calculating the circulating load.
Moisture content of feed
Moisture content of the material being screened should be low. When the ore is wet there
tends to be agglomeration of particles which then causes even the undersize particles to pass as
oversize.
RECOMMENDATIONS
• Twin bin gives less ore yet its actual 83t capacity. Its design should be changed.
• Dead ore in the bins should be removed. Dead ore reduces bin capacity.
• Crushing site should be watered after every 4 hours to avoid dust.
• Pedestrian pathway should be inserted on conveyor belt 3.
• Feeding of wet ore to be discarded completely to ensure that no problems of chokes and
slippery conveyors will be encountered.
• Gap measurements to be done consistently on a daily basis to ensure that the rightful
gap is still the one maintained.
 • Monitoring and setting up of residence time for the material being fed in the circuit.
• Oil checks to be done consistently and daily to prevent the cone crushers from friction.

CONCLUSION
The student managed to acquire practical knowledge on Crushing of ore. More tasks were
carried out which included bin capacity calculations, belt speed and length calculations,
circulating load calculations, measuring screen apertures, housekeeping and measuring the
width, gape and set of primary and secondary jaw crushers.