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GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERIES

IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Article in Advanced Engineering Letters · July 2024

DOI: 10.46793/adeletters.2024.3.2.5

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Advanced Engineering Letters Vol.3, No.2, 83-90 (2024) e-ISSN: 2812-9709

GLOBAL DEVELOPMENT AND SUSTAINABILITY OF LITHIUM-ION

BATTERIES IN ELECTRIC VEHICLES
UDC:621.352
Review [Link]

Branislav Dudić1*
1
Faculty of Management, Comenius University Bratislava, Bratislava, Slovakia

Abstract: ARTICLE HISTORY

The aim of this review was to provide a comprehensive assessment of the Received: 19 December 2023
global development and sustainability of lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) for Revised: 5 March 2024
electric vehicles. Production of various renewable energy sources has Accepted: 10 April 2024
Published: 30 June 2024
proven to be sustainable; however, with certain types of renewable energy
sources, due to the cyclical nature of natural resources, energy production
is not constant, and energy production needs to be more balanced with
KEYWORDS
consumption needs. In the future, this problem could be alleviated if global
Development, Sustainability,
energy storage capacity were improved and expanded. Today, batteries are Lithium-ion batteries, Electric
an important but underutilized energy source for electric cars. LIBs have a vehicles, Recycling, Global
long history behind them and currently play the most crucial role in the battery market, Battery
electric car industry. LIBs are primarily characterized by high energy and manufacturing capacity
power density, which makes them incomparably competitive for use in
electric cars. The research presents and processes in detail segments
related to the development, principle of operation, and sustainability of
LIBs, as well as the global manufacturing capacity of LIBs for electric
vehicles.

1. INTRODUCTION make any wireless electronic devices and would have

to rely only on a wired power source. Electric
Achieving CO2 neutrality is currently the most batteries of various types, designs and shapes are
important global activity in the fight against climate now available in large numbers for various purposes.
change. In order to meet the global goals of CO2 Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) were initially developed
neutrality, all countries are switching to cleaner as portable electronics. However, their acceptance is
energy. Furthermore, population growth on planet now reflected in everyday life in increasingly diverse
Earth, economic progress and technological applications such as power tools, electric vehicles,
development have triggered an accelerated demand satellites, drones, portable healthcare devices, smart
for additional renewable energy sources. The biggest watches, and stationary energy storage [1]. A
problem with using renewable sources is that they particularly current application of these batteries is
need constant energy production, and batteries are in electric vehicles (electric cars, motorcycles,
often needed to store that energy. Nowadays, great bicycles, scooters, advanced wheelchairs, etc.) [2].
attention is paid to the use of batteries in all areas of LIBs are primarily characterized by high energy
society, especially in the transport system. and power density, making them incomparably
Modern batteries have made significant progress competitive for all electric tools and devices,
in the 21st century, and their performance and safety including electric and hybrid vehicles [3]. A battery is
in use have been greatly improved over the past few an electrochemical device composed of several
years. Currently, we can only imagine the situation components of different materials. The most
with these energy sources. We would be unable to important characteristics of a battery are its energy


CONTACT: Branislav Dudić, e-mail: [Link]@[Link]
 B. Dudić / Advanced Engineering Letters Vol.3, No.2, 83-90 (2024)

density, degradation rate, lifetime, safety, price and the effective energy density of commercial cells
case type, etc. Depending on their technical design through various design modifications, such as
and properties, batteries are classified as primary or reducing the thickness of components (e.g., current
secondary. Primary cells are exclusively disposable, collectors, separators, cell housing, etc.) [9].
and their electrochemical process is irreversible. By Evident progress in this area has been noted in
discharging, the chemical compounds constantly the development of electrode materials for LIBs,
change, releasing electrical energy until the original with the aim of reducing production costs per unit
compound is fully depleted. Secondary cells are by 90% and increasing gravimetric density. This
rechargeable, and the electrochemical process is ultimately resulted in an increased capacity, where
reversible because the original chemical compound state-of-the-art LIBs have high energy density (up to
is renewable by applying an electric current from an 750 Wh/l) and lifetimes (1,000 - 6,000 cycles) [10].
external source. However, there are several types of LIBs, with
the most used LIBs such as NCA (nickel, cobalt,
2. DEVELOPMENT OF LITHIUM-ION aluminum). This abbreviation describes all the
BATTERIES compounds found on the cathode, which are nickel,
cobalt and aluminum. This combination has proven
LIBs have a very long history behind them. Sony to be the most useful in many cases, as it provides
launched the first commercial LIBs in 1991, and they high energy density and longevity [11]. The cells can
have since been used in various applications, from accumulate 200-250 Wh/kg of energy, with a 1,000-
electronic devices to electric vehicles [4]. Nowadays, 1,500 cycle lifespan, which is enough to exploit for
there has been an even greater boom in the several years. A strong alternative to these batteries
research and development of better, more could be the NMC (Nickel, Manganese, Cobalt)
powerful and cheaper lithium batteries. Lithium battery, which bases its cathode on manganese,
batteries have several advantages over nickel-metal nickel and cobalt. This battery has a longer service
hydride batteries, lead-acid batteries and, last but life, but its energy density is considerably lower and
not least, nickel-cadmium batteries. LIBs currently ranges from 140 to 200 Wh.
play the most crucial role in the electric car industry. An alternative to the use of LIBs can be lithium-
Most common electric cars today use LIBs, which sulfur batteries. The main feature of the element
are currently the most available and practically the sulfur is its availability in abundance and its cost-
most technologically advanced. It is to be expected effectiveness. Lithium-sulfur batteries have
that with the growing demand for electric cars, their exceptional theoretical energy density compared to
production will continue to grow in the coming traditional LIBs, and they have the potential to pass
period. These vehicles should have the best possible 500 Wh/kg and may even approach 1,000 Wh/kg in
performance, such as the distance they can travel, theory [12]. These characteristics will make these
charging speed, lifetime, etc. Unlike other batteries, batteries attractive for weight- and volume-
LIBs have many advantages, such as high power sensitive applications such as electric aviation and
density, high energy density, relatively long life, etc. portable electronics [13]. State-of-the-art Li-ion
[5]. cells can accumulate about 250 Wh/kg (900 kJ/kg),
Power performance, energy density, charge- while more advanced variants of Li-S and Li-air
discharge speed, cost, lifetime (number of cycles), systems can accumulate about 650 Wh/kg (2.34
safety, and environmental impact should be MJ/kg), that is about 950 Wh/kg (3.42 MJ/kg),
considered when adopting LIBs for electronic respectively [14].
devices and electric vehicles. While energy density The production of LIBs is a very complex process
is the most important factor for portable electronics, consisting of several different activities in the
price, lifetime, energy density (driving distance production process. Fig. 1 shows an example of a
between charges), and safety are the most modern LIB manufacturing process consisting of
important factors for electric vehicles [6]. three main parts: electrode preparation, cell
The application and sales growth of Li-ion assembly, and battery electrochemistry activation.
batteries have expanded over the last 30 years, and The formation is the last and most expensive
their basic cell chemistry developed in the 1980s is activity in the production of LIB cells, which affects
still in use (i.e. intercalation chemistry based on the quality of freshly assembled cells and
graphite anodes and transition metal cathodes) significantly contributes to the total costs, making
[7,8]. What has improved and changed is increasing up to 33% of production costs [15,16]. The Forming
process involves multiple cycles of charging and
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 B. Dudić / Advanced Engineering Letters Vol.3, No.2, 83-90 (2024)

discharging, which slows down this activity 𝑄(𝑡)

𝑆𝑂𝐶(𝑡) = 𝑄𝑛
, (1)
significantly [17].
where are:
Q(t) - the remaining capacity and
Qn - the nominal capacity.

SOC is generally calculated proposed current

integration to determine the change in battery
capacity over time [21]:
𝑡 𝜂𝑖 ∙𝐼𝐿,𝑡 ∙𝑑𝜏
𝑆𝑂𝐶𝑡 = 𝑆𝑂𝐶0 − ∫0 𝐶𝑎
, (2)

where are:
SOCt - the current SOC,
SOC0 - the initial SOC value,
IL,t - the instantaneous load current (assumed
positive for discharge, negative for charge),
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of production ηi - the Coulombic efficiency (a function of
activities in the production of LIBs [15] current and temperature), and
Ca - the current maximum available capacity,
3. PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION OF LITHIUM-ION which may differ from the nominal capacity.
BATTERIES
The SOC value varies between 0% and 100%. If
During discharge, lithium is oxidized to lithium the SOC value is 100%, then the cell is considered
ions, which are torn from the anode and move fully charged; that is, if it is 0%, it means that the cell
through the electrolyte into the crystal lattice of the is completely discharged.
cathode material, which leads to the reduction of In practical applications, the SOC is not allowed
this material [18]. To maintain the charge balance, to exceed 50%, so the cell is recharged when the
the same number of electrons in the charging and SOC reaches 50% [22]. SOC is a key parameter for
discharging process should be transferred through the correct control of an electric vehicle. Factors
the external circuit, and Li+ ions should move affecting SOC significantly in a short time are
between the positive and negative electrodes temperature and C-rate. The SOC level is related to
simultaneously [19]. the properties of the electrode active materials, and
different active materials behave differently [23].
Cathode: 𝐿𝑖𝐶𝑜𝑂2 ↔ 𝐿𝑖𝑥𝐶𝑜𝑂2 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖+ + 𝑥𝑒− The health (SOH) of a lithium-ion cell is affected by
cyclic aging due to use and aging due to storage
Anode: 6𝐶 + 𝑥𝐿𝑖+ + 𝑥𝑒− ↔ 𝐿𝑖𝑥𝐶6 time [24]. SOH, as a health index, is calculated based
on capacity measurements during battery cycling to
In the charging process, Li+ ions deintercalated account for capacity loss. When the cell is fully
from the lithium metal oxide, pass through the charged, it has a maximum capacity of Cmax. This
conductive electrolyte and intercalate into the capacity may vary from the start-of-life capacity, Cbol,
anode structure [20]. As mentioned, this process is which is assumed to be the maximum capacity of
the main difference between LIBs and other types the cell when newly installed. Cmax decreases with
of batteries. storage time and use of the cell [3]:
In the production and development of batteries, 𝐶𝑚𝑎𝑥
a crucial aspect is the continuous monitoring of the 𝑆𝑂𝐻 = 𝐶𝑏𝑜𝑙
∙ 100, (3)
condition of the prepared batteries. This process,
known as battery characterization, introduces the
terms state of charge (SOC) and state of health (SOH)
of the battery. SOC, a relative quantity, describes where are:
the ratio of the remaining capacity to the current Cmax - the value of the maximum capacity when
maximum available capacity of the battery and is the battery is fully charged and
given by:

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 B. Dudić / Advanced Engineering Letters Vol.3, No.2, 83-90 (2024)

Cbol - the capacity at the beginning of the battery country in the production of LIB electric vehicles,
life. with an estimated share of 69% in 2025. On the
other hand, large European countries need to
Aging processes that reduce SOH begin as soon increase their production capacities significantly.
as the batteries are assembled. As the battery ages, With the planned investments in production
the SOC will decrease until the battery no longer facilities, Germany will become the second
meets the required performance and the end of life producer of electric vehicles with LIB in the world by
is reached. SOH is not a physical quantity, but the end of 2025, with a share of about 11.3% of the
depends on parameters such as the number of global production capacity, Fig. 3 [27].
charge and discharge cycles, capacity and power
drop, and internal resistance. The battery ageing
process is complex and depends on various
mechanisms such as temperature, SOC energy
range performance conditions, and time, which are
the basic parameters [21].

4. GLOBAL ELECTRIC VEHICLES LITHIUM-ION

BATTERY MANUFACTURING CAPACITY

Over the next decade, the battery market is

expected to experience substantial growth,
surpassing fourfold from 2021 to 2030. The total
revenue of the battery market in 2021 was
approximately $112 million (US dollars), and by Fig. 3. Share of the global electric vehicles with LIBs
2030, the annual revenue is projected to reach manufacturing capacity in 2021. with a forecast for 2025
about $424 million. As illustrated in Fig. 2, the
dominance of LIBs in production [25] is a testament Forecasts show that global LIB production
to the stability and confidence in the industry. capacity will increase from 1.57 TWh in 2022 to 3.97
For example, in China, the new energy industry TWh by 2025., that is or to 6.79 TWh by 2030, Fig. 4.
is based on lithium raw material, that is, as a
strategic emerging industry. In 2022 alone, China’s
lithium battery exports amounted to nearly CNY
342.7 billion [26].

Fig. 4. LIBs battery manufacturing capacity worldwide in

2022, with a forecast to 2030.

Fig. 2. Global battery market size from 2018 to 2021,

In 2023, Japan‘s Hitachi Ltd. was the world‘s
with a forecast to 2030. largest manufacturer of LIBs, with revenues of
In 2021, China was the world‘s largest producer $91.36 billion. Johnson Corporation, headquartered
of electric vehicles from LIB; that year, it produced in Ireland, with revenues of $25.3 billion, and Saft,
79% of all-electric vehicles (Fig. 3). All predictions headquartered in France, with revenues of $0.759
indicate that China will continue to be the leading billion, were the largest European manufacturers of
LIBs [28].
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 B. Dudić / Advanced Engineering Letters Vol.3, No.2, 83-90 (2024)

electric vehicles at the end of their useful life is

5. SUSTAINABILITY OF LITHIUM-ION essential for many reasons. Recycling primarily
BATTERIES IN ELECTRIC CARS stems from the effort to avoid unnecessary storage
of materials, that is, using already used materials in
The European Union wants to reduce the carbon new products after processing. Due to the cost and
footprint of the transport sector to 200 g CO2/km by complexity of disassembling batteries, today's
2030. and in order to achieve this goal, more recycling methods are quite difficult. The recycling
electric cars must be on the roads. The main process works by draining the battery and removing
advantages of electric cars compared to internal the hard outer shell; the modules are often crushed
combustion engines are potentially many times and thrown into the oven. Lighter materials such as
lower operating costs for maintenance, significantly lithium and manganese burn, leaving behind an
higher efficiency, significantly lower operating noise alloy slurry that contains higher-value metals such
and much better utilization of space. as copper, nickel and cobalt.
Electric cars are becoming very popular In spent LIBs there are a large number of
worldwide due to environmental protection and flammable organic substances (electrolytes and
bring significant benefits to transportation. Also, it separators) [33] and toxic substances (cobalt),
should be noted that due to the absence of an which means that the disposal of these batteries
internal combustion engine, electric cars have can cause serious health and environmental
fewer working parts, there is no need to use oil to problems. Spent LIBs contain many beneficial
lubricate the moving parts of the piston-cylinder metals, such as aluminum, copper, nickel, cobalt,
block, there is no need for service, etc. [29]. The and lithium [34]. Recycling technologies should be
absence of wear products, waste motor oils, or all sustainable, i.e. clean and efficient. Direct recycling
tribological processes is also very important [30]. methods are still in the early stages of development;
This means there is no danger of engine oils spilling this approach could one day allow recyclers to put
onto the ground or further reaching waterways. more recycled materials back into the
The market for recycled batteries is gradually manufacturing process, which should result in a
growing as demand for electric vehicles grows higher-value final product.
worldwide. The rapidly growing use of LIBs in By 2030, LIBs reuse and recycling is expected to
vehicles will produce many spent batteries that be approximately US$13 billion worldwide, with
require proper handling after use and further China accounting for half of the global value. China
recycling. Millions of tons of LIBs are expected to be will have the largest revenues from recycled LIBs,
decommissioned and stored worldwide in the with 6 billion dollars, followed by the European
coming decades. The battery life of an electric Union countries with 3 billion dollars, the USA with
vehicle also depends on the use of the electric 2 billion dollars, and the rest of the world with
vehicle. The lifetime of LIB ranges from 3 to 10 years around 2 billion dollars (Fig. 5).
[31]. It was estimated that the amount of LIB waste
generated annually by 2020 was between 200-500
million tons [32]. These data indicate that these are
significant quantities of spent batteries, and further
storage and recycling of this waste represents a
danger to human health and the environment.
Today, people are concerned that electric car
batteries will burden the environment, but
fortunately, new technologies are gradually being
developed for more environmentally friendly
recycling of electric car batteries. Some advocates Fig. 5. Revenue opportunities in LIBs reuse and recycling
in the scientific community claim that the in 2030.
production of batteries alone has a more significant The global LIB recycling market value is
impact on the environment than internal estimated at US$9.37 billion in 2023, up from
combustion cars. At the same time, there is no US$8.19 billion in 2021. This number is expected to
research to confirm this. rise to over $18 billion by 2031 (Fig. 6). LIB recycling
All used and discharged batteries must be capacities will also need to increase significantly to
disposed of or recycled. Recycling batteries from be able to process the entire supply of spent
batteries in the next decade.

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 B. Dudić / Advanced Engineering Letters Vol.3, No.2, 83-90 (2024)

such as batteries. LIBs dominate the secondary

energy storage market due to their unmatched
combination of energy density, power performance
and cycle stability, along with lower costs that have
contributed to the growth of global production
capacity.
The use of LIBs due to their energy content and
multifunctional use has a huge potential and great
perspective for the future of every country in the
world. In the future, in the production of LIBs, the
most important thing will be the price, and it is
assumed that it will be cheaper. People are
Fig. 6. Market value of LIBs recycling sector worldwide
from 2021 to 2023, with projections through 2031. concerned that electric car batteries will burden the
environment, but fortunately, new technologies are
The rapid deployment of new energy gradually being developed for more
technologies as part of the transition to sustainable environmentally friendly recycling of electric car
clean energy implies a rapidly growing demand for batteries. What will certainly be a problem in the
critical minerals [35,36]. The use of mineral raw further global development of the battery is the
materials varies depending on the availability of raw limitation and access to rare raw materials
materials and new energy technologies. Earlier necessary for the production of batteries of
observations of the scientific and wider social materials such as lithium and cobalt.
community were focused on the availability of
lithium. However, recent research has shown that Conflicts of Interest
the cobalt raw material may pose the greatest The author declares no conflict of interest.
concern in terms of sustainability and long-term
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