ADAPTATION FOR SURVIVAL

Is defined as the modifications of features which include the structural, behavioural and functioning of
an organism which fit it for life and able to survive in the environment.

To survive or improve the survival of organisms in an environment, such organisms will possess certain
features which makes them to live well in the habitat against some limiting factors. These features
which function effectively for the organisms to overcome the challenges posed by the limiting factors
are called ADAPTIVE FEATURES. These include

A. Strucural/morphological adaptation;

B. Behavioural adaptation; and

C. Functionng/physiological/adaptive colouration adaptation.

STRUCTURAL ADAPTATION

Every part of organisms are structured for a particular purpose in order to sustain the species for life
against the limiting factors of the habitat. These structured parts could be used for

1. Obtaining food;
2. Escape and defence;
3. Securing mates;
4. Regulation of body temperature, and
5. Conservation of water.

Type of organism Example of food Adaptive features

Toad, Frog Flying insects Presence of olfactory organ in the head for
perceiving odour.
Toad, frog Flying insects Tongue is attached to the front of the mouth
which can be extended to capture prey.
Toad, frog Insects Tongue is long and sticky to hold the prey.
Toad, frog Swimming insects Webbed digits for paddling in water to catch
prey.
Eagle, hawks, other Smaller animals Sharp, strong and curved beaks for killing and
carnivorous birds tearing the flesh/meat of the prey.
Sharp, strong and curved claws for catching,
gripping and killing of prey.
Domestic fowl, Grains of maize, sorghum, Short, blunt and strong but horny beaks for
Partridge millet, seeds of sorts. pecking and picking of grains.
Short, blunt and strong claws for scratching
the soil for foods.
Water duck, heron, Smaller fishes and other small Long, strong and serrated edges beaks for
pelican aquatic organisms. sieving out the food from water.
Long and strong feet with webbed digits for
paddling in water.
Wood peckers, Crawling insects like ants on Long, slender and pointed beaks for picking
woody trees. insects in the cracks/holes in the barks.
Humming birds, Nectars of flowers, diatoms Long, hollow with tubular tongue for sucking
 Flamingoes and tiny water organisms flower nectars, tiny water organisms.
2. For escape and defence/Protection and defense

Most animals are either classified as PREDATORS (bigger animals that feed on smaller animals) or PREYS
(smaller animals that are been fed on by bigger animals). These chances of getting away from predators
or catching prey are enhanced by acquiring certain adaptive features, categorized into two

a. Escaping adaptation – these include I. Camouflage – an adaptation of form and colour which
makes an organism to blend with its surrounding background and thereby difficult to be
detected by either the prey or predator. Examples caterpillars, variegated grasshoppers, etc. II.
Individual responses e.g strong kick of a giraffe on attacking cats, shooting of spines by
porcupines III. Group responses e.g bull in herds.
b. Defence adaptation – these include:- I. presence of armours and spines for protection against
direct attacks by predators e.g spines of hedgehogs, sea urchin horny armour of scaly anteaters
and shell of tortoise and turtles. II. Mimicry – this is when an organism looks like an interesting
objector a potentially harmful or unpleasant species of another organism. Examples birds
looking like dead leaves and drippings of birds. III. Chemical defence – this is when an organism
can secrete poisonous substances that can stun, cause pain or kill the prey/predators. Examples
wasps, spiders, scorpions, bees and plants like allamanda and sweet oleander which secrete
poison to scare insects.

3. SECURING MATES

Different organisms possess various reproductive behaviours for survival and continuity of life such as
attractive and brightly coloured folds of male agama lizards, nuptial pads on the thumbs of male toads
and frogs for attachment to the back of the egg producing female, attractive and brightly coloured
feathers of the male peacock and cock for female’s attention, brightly coloured petals of some flowering
plants among others. Others incudes the secretion of pheromones by female dogs, and some cats to
attract the male for mating, soliciting gestures of the female agama lizards and so on.

4. REGULATION OF THE BODY TEMPERATURE

Some animals keep at constant their internal fluids and temperature by possessing scales as in
freshwater fish e.g tilapia fish, skin covered with feathers, furs and hairs (birds, apes and man), layers of
fat under the skin and bare extremities of the body such as striking difference of the pinna of Arctic hare
(small pinna and thick furs for gaining heat) and Savanna hare (large pinna and thin furs for losing heat).

ADAPTIVE COLOURATION

Is the possession of special colour or colour pattern by an organism whether to catch prey, avoid
predator and enable it to survive in the habitat.

This adaptive feature of survival is made possible by possessing special pigment which secrete the colour
or gives the pattern such as shown in the table below

Pigments Colour Distribution

Chlorophyll Green Chloroplasts and accessories of plants
Melanin Yellow or black Melanophores of epidermis in animal cells
Carotene or Orange or yellow Chloroplasts in plants and chromatophores
 xanthophyll of animal cells.
Anthocyanin Red, blue and violet Cell sap of leaves, fruits, flowers and stoma
DISRUPTIVE COLOURATION

This is when some animals have colour patterns in their body surfaces to be against the light and dark
shades of the background environment. Examples spots and stripes of leopard, cheetah, tiger, giraffe
and zebra.

COUNTER SHADING

This occurs when some animals have dark – coloured dorsal surfaces and light – coloured ventral
surfaces in order to remain easily undetected for other animals. Examples fish in water, mosquitoes,
some snakes.

COLOUR CHANGE

This occurs in some animals which can produce more chromatophores with ability to change the colour
of their body surfaces to match the background of their environment and so escape detection. Examples
are some grasshoppers with green cuticles in the raining season becoming brown during the dry season
or black after a fire incidence to match the environment, some green snakes in the raining season
becoming brown in the dry season and Chameleon exhibit a more rapid colour change as it moves from
one background to another.

WARNING COLOURATION

This is the ability of some animals to display bright colours and patterns that announce their presence to
others other than concealing it.

The colouration scares/warns predators that they are unpalatable or unpleasant to taste or smell
thereby protecting them from the enemies. The distinct colours or markings for protection could be

a. The black and yellow colour spots/stripes. Examples are Variegated grasshoppers, yellow jackets
and some wasps.
b. The black and yellow bands of some wasps.
c. Colourful spotted markings on the wing cases of foul – tasting ladybird beetles.
d. Striking white stripes on polecats and skunks.

MIMICRY

This phenomenon occurs when some animals exhibit/resemble the colours and colour patterns, mimic,
of other animals with interesting objects or poisonous character, model.

This can be sub – divided into two

A. BATESIAN MIMICRY – I s a condition in which a harmless organism resembles a distasteful or

harmful one so that the enemies would avoid it. Or unprotected species resemble others that
have unpleasant features. Examples pleasant – tasting swallowtail butterflies mimic the foul –
tasting butterflies, stick insect resembling dead twigs and katydid grasshopper mimics a living
leaf.
 B. MULLERIAN MIMICRY – This is when unrelated animals with unpleasant features look similar
and are thereby avoided by potential predators. Examples striped polecat and striped weasel in
Savanna having white stripes on black body.

BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATION

Behaviour is an adaptive feature in which an organism respond to changes in its environment geared
towards promoting survival and reproduction for perpetuity (continuity of life).

Both plants and anmals exhibit behavioural adaptation although most biologists would want to refer
more to that of animals. In plants examples of behavioural adaptation could be seen in

I. Phototropic movements of the shoots,

II. Insect – trapping movements of Venus fly – trap and other carnivorous plants, and
III. Coiling response of the tendrils of Gloriosa superba plants to touch.

In animals various behavioural adaptive features could be noticed under the following

1. Obtaining food - many animals exhibit foraging by going about to look for their foods to eat.
Examples are still, unnoticed wait and trap behavior of chameleon, frogs for unsuspecting flies,
trap making of the spiders, ant – lion funnel dug to trap ants.
2. Escape and defence – fighting enemies like the hawk fights on its back, frilled lizards with share
aggressive behavior, shedding of body parts by agama lizards, etc
3. Surviving unfavourable environmental conditions – unfavourable conditions such as low or high
temperature, drought, dry season, shortage of food or water and so on make organisms to
exhibit behavioural patterns such as hibernation, aestivation and migration.

Hibernation – this is a condition in temperate/cold region in which an organism remain torpid or

sleep – like, inactive state in which the body metabolism and temperature are low for a period
of time. Examples are polar bear, wood chucks, ground squirrel etc
Aestivation - this is a condition in tropical/hot region in which an organism remain torpid or
sleep – like, inactive state in which the body metabolism and temperature are low for a period
of time. Examples are African lungfish, mudskipper, some insects, snakes and rodents, etc
4. Communication – the act of transmitting information from an individual to another to perform a
task. Examples are danger sound by female hen to her chicks, bleating of goats when hungry,
croaking of frogs for mating, quacking of mother hen to maintain contact with the chicks,
maintaining territory by rubbing scent smell on twigs to ward off other antelopes, waggling
dance by bees etc
5. Others are securing mates and care for the young.

SOCIAL ANIMALS

Many animals especially vertebrates and most insect species come together sometimes temporarily and
at other times permanently to form a group called SOCIAL BEHAVIOUR or GROUP. These social groups
show organizational structure and communication system, increased by giving each individuals in the
group specific roles and places within the society. This results in many vertebrates groups as peck order.
Some organisms are found to move all by itself, these are called solitary organisms (snakes, and some
reptiles) while those which move in social groups are called gregarious organisms (bees, termites, lion,
wolves, man, etc).

SOCIAL INSECTS

Are specialized group of insects of the same species which live together in an organized community
called colony. Examples are bees, termites, wasps and ants.

TERMITES [Macrotermes bellicossus]

Live in nests called “termitarium/psalterium or anthills.”

Castes are three: I. the reproductives (king, queen and winged reproductive), II. The soldiers (Nasute
soldiers and Mandibulate soldiers), and III. The workers.

FEATURES – REPRODUCTIVES

A. THE KING – i. a male reproductive, ii. Does not possess wing and iii. Smaller in size in relative to
queen. FUNCTION – to mate with the queen and fertilize the eggs of queen daily.
B. THE QUEEN – i. a reproductive female, ii. Possess small head and thorax, iii. Presence of large
and swollen abdomen with eggs and about three quarter of the other body parts. FUNCTION –
to mate with the king and lay the fertilized eggs.
C. THE WINGED REPRODUCTIVES – i. presence of wings, ii. Fertile, iii. Potential king and queen.
FUNCTION – To replace the king or queen in the colony or establish new colony via
nuptial/wedding flight.
D. SOLDIERS – i. sterile, ii. Lacks wings, iii. Big head possessing either maxillae (Nasute soldiers) or
mandibles (Mandibulate soldiers). FUNCTION – Defend the colony against the aggression of the
enemies or predators.
E. WORKERS – i. wingless, ii. Blind, iii. Sterile and iv. The largest castes. FUNCTION – Aaa. Build and
repair the nest, ii. Provide food for other members of the colony, take away the eggs from
queen and keep in a chamber where they will take care of the eggs, iii. Look after the
nymph/baby termites, and feed the nymph and the queen, and cultivate the fungus garden.

HONEY BEES [Aphia indica (Indian bee)]

Live in hives made of chambers each room called a cell.

Castes are three: I. Drone, II. Queen and III. Workers

FEATURES –

DRONE – I. Wingless that is, no wings, II. Fertile male individual, III. Smaller abdomen in relation to a
queen, and IV. Bigger in size when compared to workers.

FUNCTION – To mate with the queen in the process of nuptial flight and afterwards dies.

Queen – I. Fertile female individual, II. Possess wings, III. Bigger than the workers, IV. Fed with royal jelly
by workers.

FUNCTION – To lay fertilized eggs.

WORKERS – I. Sterile male individual, II. Possess eyes and a sting, III. Presence of modified mouthparts
for collection of nectars and building nests, IV. Legs are modified to collect pollen grains from flowers.

FUNCTIONS – although tasks change with ages, the younger ones engage in domestic chores while the
older ones engage in foraging for foods outside the nests. Others done include A. cleaning of the cells, B.
feed older larvae with honey, C. ventilate the hive, D. secrete wax to building the hive, E. collect pollen
and nectar from flowers, F. protect and guard the hive, G. prepare the honey and pollen and H. feed the
larvae and queen with royal jelly.

CLASS WORK: Describe the Communication process of honey bees to get food.

ASSIGNMENTS

1. Mention four economic importance of the following organisms:

A. Macrotermes bellicossus
1. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
B. Aphia indica
1. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
3. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
4. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
2. Define the following terms (attach your written answers to the note please)
I. Adaptation, II. Competition, III. Gregarious behavior, IV. Adaptive colouration, V.
Aestivation and VI. Mimicry.
3. Briefly explain nuptial flight in termites.

PLAUSIBLE QUESTIONS (NOT TO BE SUBMITTED BUT ADVISED TO BE ATTEMPTED)

I. Discuss the relationship between competition and succession.

II. Identify the structural adaptive features of the following to obtaining foods in A. toads, B.
Eagle, C. Partridge and D. Butterfly.
III. Mention and explain four adaptive colouration kinds with at least an example.
IV. Describe honey bees as social insect and give two economic importance.
V. Give an example each of an organism that exhibit these abilities 1. Concealing colouration,
2. Disruptive colouration, 3. Rapid colour change and 4. Warning colouration .
 HEREDITY AND VARIATION

HEREDITY - Is defined as the scientific transmission of inherited characters from parents to offspring
through genes.

Heredity or transmission of inheritance is responsible for

a. Semblance or similarity of genes called genetics, and

b. The small differences that exist among species or variation.

VARIATIONS – Is defined as the differences which occur within a species/family which could be inherited
or acquired by organisms from the environment.

Variation may be caused by the effects of

i. Recombination of genes,
ii. Genetic mutation, and
iii. Environmental factors (Nurture), and
iv. Assortment of genes (Nature).

There are two types of variations, these include

a. Morphological variations, and

b. Physiological variations.
c. In turn, these may be continuous variations or discontinuous variations.

CONTINUOUS VARIATION – Occurs when certain feature shows gradation from one extreme form to
another extreme form and clusters of average form in the middle. It usually forms a continuum in the
graphical representation or the dumb bell – shaped normal curve. Examples gradation of height to very
tall, tall, average, short and very short, others are colour, shape, etc.

DISCONTINUOUS VARIATION – This is when certain feature shows an intermediate form of whether it
possessed or not the feature. Examples possess ear lobe or not, can taste Phenythiocarbamide (PTC) or
not, can roll the tongue or cannot. Usually the variation resulted from mutations.

MORPHOLOGICAL VARIATIONS – refers to the noticeable, physical attributes/features of individuals of

the same species. It determines physical appearance which helps to identify individuals of a population.
Examples of morphological variations in organisms are

1. Height of the body – tall and short,

2. Shape of various parts of the body, such as shape of the jaws or fruits,
3. Size of various parts of the body, such as size of head or leaf,
4. Colour of the parts of the body, such as colour of the hair, skin and eye or fruits and flowers,
5. Weight of individuals, and
6. Fingerprints (in man).
There are four groups of fingerprints according to Henry’s classifications but there are more
than eight identified kinds of fingerprints at the moment recognized. The four main fingerprints
are A. Whorl, B. Compound whorl, C. Arch and D. the loop.

ASSIGNMENT – Draw the four main kinds of fingerprints. II. Identify the 8 kinds of fingerprints and draw.
Often times, most morphological variations give rise to continuous variations.

PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIATIONS – Are features or attributes that relate with the functioning and activities
of a species in a population. This feature is not apparently visible but the way and manner organisms of
the same species functions. Examples of these features are

i. Behavioural patterns – timid or brave, aggressive or non – aggressive, excitable or calm.

ii. Ability to roll the tongue.
iii. Ability to taste phenylthiocarbamide (PTC),
iv. Ability to close one eye leaving the other open, and
v. Blood groups.

Some morphological variations such as colour of leaves, colour of flowers, colours of fruits and seeds
and shape of the seeds and fruits are examples of discontinuous variations as well as all of physiological
variations

CLASS WORK

Suggest four advantages of variation to species

1. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
2. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
3. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
4. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Mention four differences between Morphological and Physiological variations

s/n Morphological Variations Physiological Variations

1.
2.
3.
4.

APPLICATIONS OF VARIATIONS

1. Crime detection – use of DNA finger prints, heights, colour and size technique to identify
criminals.
2. Blood transfusion.
There are four main blood groups, these are
Blood groups A, B, AB and O. these are characterized by specific proteins in the blood which are
antigens in the red blood cell and antibodies in the plasma. ANTIGENS – are substances which
will stimulate an animal to form protein compounds called anti-bodies.

Blood Antigens on Red Blood cells Antibodies on plasma of white blood

group cells
A a Anti - b
B b Anti – a
AB a,b or (a and b) Nil
O Nil Anti – a and anti - b
The loss of more blood from the system will trigger serious counter effects (recipient) and quick
replacement must come from another individual who is healthy and has same compatible blood. This is
because when the blood of the donor and recipient are incompatible it will results in blood clump or
agglutination that is, different antigens and antibodies when combined will cause agglutination.

Blood group donor Blood group recipient

A B AB O
A + - + -
B - + + -
AB - - + -
O + + + +

KEYS: + (indicates positive reaction and no clumping/agglutination occurs)

- (indicates negative reaction and that clumping takes place).

Blood group O individuals are referred to as ‘Universal donor’, by indication can give its blood to all
other blood groups because of the presence of anti – a and anti – b antibodies and lack of antigens.

Blood group AB are generally known as ‘Universal recipient’, this is because the group possess antigens
a and b and lacks antibodies. Therefore, has the ability to receive blood from all other blood groups.

CLASS WORK

Complete the table below to indicate donor – recipient compatibility in blood transfusion

Group Can donate blood to Can receive blood from

B
O
A
AB

Draw a table to show blood transfusion of a recipient from a donor

 3. Determination of paternity – in case of child’s father dispute.
4. In medicine – dermatological application of cream and other uses.
5. In agriculture – plant and animals breeding processes.
6. Classifications of human race – into Caucasoid, negroid, mongoloid and Austaloid.

ASSIGNMENT – EXPLAIN RHESUS FACTOR

PLAUSIBLE QUESTIONS

1. Define the terms I. Variations, II. Morphological variations, III. Continuous variations, IV.
Physiological variations and V. Discontinuous variations.
2. Mention three causes of variations and briefly explain the two main kinds of variations.
3. What are fingerprints? Discuss two applications of fingerprints to man.
4. What do you understand as blood transfusion? With the aid of diagram explain the process of
engaging in a successful blood transfusion.
5. Mention four examples of morphological and physiological variations in animals each and three
in plants.
6. List four examples of continuous and discontinuous variations in both plants and animals.
7. Mention five applications of variations to humans.
8. Mention ten forms of fingerprints.
9. Suggest four differences between morphological and physiological variations.
10. What are serum? Describe the process of agglutination.