CHAPTER-17

BREATHING AND EXCHANGE OF GASES

The process of exchange of O2 from the atmosphere with CO2 produced by the cell is called breathing. It
occurs in two stages: inspiration and expiration. During inspiration air enters the lungs from the
atmosphere and during expiration air leaves the lungs.
Respiratory Organs: The mechanism of breathing varies in different organisms according to their body
structure and habitat.

Respiratory Organs
Entire body surface: Sponges, Coelenterate, flatworms
Skin: Earthworm
Tracheal system: Insects
Gills: Pisces, aquatic arthropods and molluscs
Lungs: Amphibians, mammals

Human Respiratory System

The human respiratory system consists of a pair of nostrils, pharynx, larynx, bronchi and bronchioles that
finally terminate into alveoli.
The nasal chamber opens into the pharynx which leads to the larynx. The larynx contains a voice box
(sound box) that helps in sound production.
The trachea, primary, secondary and tertiary bronchi and initial bronchioles are supported by incomplete
cartilaginous rings to prevent collapse in the absence of air.
Each bronchiole terminates into an irregular walled, vascularized bag-like structure called alveoli.
The branching network of bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli collectively forms the lungs.
Two lungs are covered with double-layered pleura having pleural fluid between them to reduce the friction
on the lung surface.
Alveoli are the site of the actual diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and atmospheric air.

Steps of Respiration
Breathing in which oxygen-rich atmospheric air is diffused in and CO2-rich alveolar air is diffused out.
Diffusion of gases across the alveolar membrane.
Transport of gases by blood.
Diffusion of O2 and CO2 between blood and tissues.
Utilization of O2 by cells to obtain energy and release of CO2 (cellular respiration).

Mechanism of Breathing
Breathing involves inspiration and expiration. During inspiration, atmospheric air is drawn in and during
expiration, alveolar air is released out.
Movement of air in and out takes place due to differences in pressure gradient. Inspiration occurs when
the pressure inside the lung is less and expiration occurs when pressure is more in the lungs than outside.
The diaphragm and external and internal intercostal muscles between the ribs help in developing pressure
gradients due to volume change.
The contraction of intercostal muscles lifts the ribs and sternum causing an increase in the volume of the
thoracic cavity that results in a decrease in pressure than the atmospheric pressure to cause inspiration.
Relaxation of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles reduces the thoracic volume and increases the
pressure to cause expiration.
The volume of air involved in breathing movements is estimated by using a spirometer for clinical
assessment of pulmonary functions.

TOPIC-2
Respiratory Volume and Capacities
Tidal Volume (TV): Volume of air inspired or expired during normal respiration. It is about 500 mL in a
healthy man.
Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Additional volume of air a person can inspire by forceful inspiration. It is
about 2500 mL to 3000 mL.
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Additional volume of air a person can expire by forceful expiration. It is
about 1000 mL to 1100 mL.
Residual Volume (RV): Volume of air that remains in the lungs even after a forcible expiration. It is about
1100 mL to 1200 mL.
Inspiratory Capacity (IC): The total volume of air a person can inspire after a normal expiration. TV + IRV
Expiratory Capacity (EC): Total volume of air a person can expire after a normal inspiration TV + ERV
Functional Residual Capacity (FRC): Volume of air that will remain in the lungs after a normal expiration
ERV + RV
Vital Capacity (VC): Maximum volume of air a person can breathe in after a forceful expiration.
Total Lung Capacity (TLC): Total volume of air accommodated in the lungs at the end of forced inspiration.
RV+ ERV+ TV+ IRV or Vital capacity + Residual Volume.

Exchange of Gases
The exchange of gases takes place at two sites:
Alveoli to blood
Between blood and tissues.
Exchanges of gases occur by simple diffusion due to pressure/ concentration gradient, solubility of the
gases and thickness of the membrane.
Pressure contributed by individual gas in a mixture of gas is called partial pressure represented by pCO2
and pO2.
The partial pressure of oxygen and carbon dioxide at different parts involved in diffusion varies from one
part to another and moves from higher partial pressure to lower partial pressure.
The solubility of CO2 is 20-25 times more than the solubility of O2, so CO2 diffuses much faster through the
membrane.
The diffusion membrane is three layers thick i.e. the alveolar squamous epithelium, the endothelium of
alveolar capillaries and the basement substance between them.
Transport of Gases
Blood is the medium of transport of CO2 and O2. Most of the oxygen (97%) is transported through RBC and
the remaining 3% by blood plasma.
20-25% of CO2 is transported by RBC and rest 70% as bicarbonate and the rest of 7% by blood plasma.

Transport of Oxygen
Haemoglobin in RBC combines with O2 to form oxyhaemoglobin. Each haemoglobin combines with four
oxygen molecules.
The binding of O2 is related to the partial pressure of O2 and CO2, hydrogen ion concentration and
temperature.
When the percentage saturation of haemoglobin with O2 is plotted against the partial pressure of oxygen
forms a sigmoid curve (oxygen dissociation curve).
In the alveoli, pO2 is more and pCO2 is less. Less H+ ions concentration and lower temperature favour the
binding of O2 with haemoglobin. Whereas, the opposite condition in tissues favours the dissociation of
oxyhaemoglobin. This clearly indicates that O2 gets bound to haemoglobin in the lung surface and gets
dissociated at the tissue.
Carbon dioxide is transported by haemoglobin as carbamino-haemoglobin. In tissues, pCO2 is high and pO2
is less. This favours the binding of carbon dioxide with haemoglobin. Opposite condition help in the
dissociation of carbamino-haemoglobin in alveoli.
Enzyme carbonic anhydrase helps in the formation of carbonate ions to transport carbon dioxide.

Regulation of Respiration:
Human beings can maintain and moderate the rate of respiration to fulfil the demand of body tissues by
the neural system.
The respiratory rhythm centre is located in the medulla region of the hindbrain. The pneumatic centre in
the pons moderates the function of the respiratory rhythm centre.
The chemo-sensitive area is highly sensitive to CO2 and H+ ions that ultimately control the respiratory rate.
Oxygen does not play a major role in controlling the rate of respiration.

Functions of Respiration:
Energy production
Maintenance of acid-base balance.
Maintenance of temperature
Return of blood and lymph.
Mountain Sickness is the condition characterised by the ill effect of hypoxia (shortage of oxygen) in the
tissues at high altitudes commonly due to a person going to high altitudes for the first time.
Symptoms:
Loss of appetite, nausea, and vomiting occur due to the expansion of gases in the digestive system.
Breathlessness occurs because of pulmonary oedema.
Headache, depression, disorientation, lack of sleep, weakness and fatigue.
Disorder of the Respiratory System
Asthma: It is due to an allergic reaction to foreign particles that affect the respiratory tract. The symptoms
include coughing, wheezing and difficulty in breathing. This is due to excess mucus in the wall of the
respiratory tract.
Emphysema: It is the inflation or abnormal distension of the bronchioles or alveolar sacs of the lungs. This
occurs due to the destruction of septa between alveoli because of smoking and inhalation of other smoke.
The exhalation becomes difficult and the lung remains inflated.
Occupational Respiratory Disorders: Occurs due to occupation of individual. This is caused by inhalation of
gas, fumes or dust present in the surroundings of the workplace. This includes Silicosis and asbestoses due
to exposure to silica and asbestos. The symptom includes the proliferation of fibrous connective tissue of
the upper part of the lung causing inflammation.
Pneumonia: It is an acute infection or inflammation of the alveoli of the lungs due to the bacterium
Streptococcus pneumoniae. Alveoli become acutely inflamed and most of the air space of the alveoli is
filled with fluid and dead white blood corpuscles limiting gaseous exchange.