CHEMISTRY

Structure of atom:

By the end of 19th century, it was discovered that atom consists of sun-atomic particles such as
electrons, protons and neutrons. Electron has negative charge, proton had positive charge,
whereas neutron has no charge, it is neutral.

Discovery of Electron:

The existence of electrons in an atom was shown by J.J. Thomson in 1897. He passed
electricity at high voltage through a gas at very low pressure taken discharge tube. A discharge
tube is a long tube fitted with metal electrodes on either end, across which a high voltage
potential difference is applied. The tube is also connected to a vacuum pump for controlling the
pressure of gas inside the discharge tube. On reducing the gas pressure to 0.0001mm Hg and
applying voltage of about 10000 volts, the end of the glass tube opposite to cathode starts
glowing with a faint greenish light. Further investigations revealed that the fluorescence was due
to the bombardment of rays coming from cathode on the walls of the tube. These rays were
called cathode rays. These rays were found to consist of negatively charged material particles,
called electrons.
Properties of Cathode Rays. Some of the properties of cathode rays are as follows:
l. Cathode rays travel in straight lines. An object placed in the path of cathode rays casts a
sharp shadow on the screen.
2. Heating effect. When cathode rays are focused on a thin metal foil, it gets heated up to
incandescence (emission of light from the hot body).
3. Cathode rays consist of material particles. This was indicated by the fact that a light paddle
wheel placed in the path of cathode rays starts rotating.
4. Effect of electric field. When electric field is applied to a stream of cathode rays, they get
deflected towards positive plate. It shows that cathode rays are negatively charge.
Thomson explained the formation of cathode rays as follows. The gas taken in discharge tube
consists of atoms, and all the atoms contain electrons. When high voltage is applied, the
electrical energy pushes out some of the electrons from the gas. These fast moving electrons
form cathode rays. Thus, the formation of cathode rays shows that one of the subatomic particle
present in all the atoms is negatively charged ‘electron’.
Characteristics of an Electron
The two important characteristics of an electron are its mass and charge described below.
Mass of an Electron
The mass of an electron is about 1/1840 of the mass of hydrogen atom (which is atom of
lowest mass). Since the mass of a hydrogen atom is 1u. The relative mass of an electron is
1/1840 u. The absolute mass of an electron is 9 x 1028 gram. The mass of an electron is so small
that it is considered to be negligible. This is why the mass of electron is ignored while
calculating atomic mass of an element.
Charge of an Electron
The absolute charge on an electron is 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb of negative charge.1.6 x 10-19
coulomb has been found to be the small negative charge carried by any particle. So, this is taken
as the unit of negative charge. In other words, the relative charge of an electron is -1.
Discovery of Proton:
E. Goldstein, a German scientist, in 1886, discovered the existence of a new type of rays in
the discharge tube. He used a perforated cathode in the discharge tube. The cathode divided the
discharge tube in two chambers. On passing the electric discharge at low pressure he observed a
new type of rays streaming behind the cathode. The path of these rays became visible due to the
glow of the residual gas. These rays also produced fluorescent glow on striking the walls of the
tube behind cathode. These rays were named anode rays or canal rays. These rays were named
canal rays because they passed through ‘holes’ or ‘canals’ in the cathode. Further investigations
of these rays showed that they consist of positively charged material particles.
Properties of anode rays:
Some of the properties of anode rays are as follows :
l. Anode rays travel in straight lines.
2. Anode rays consist of material particles.
3. Anode rays are deflected by electric field towards negatively charged plate. This indicates
that these rays are positively charged.
4. Anode rays are deflected by magnetic field. The direction of deflection indicates that these
are positively charged.
Characteristics of a Proton
The two important characteristics of a proton are its mass and charge. These are described
below.
1. Mass of a Proton
The proton is actually a hydrogen atom which has lost its electron. Since the mass of an
electron is very small, the mass of a proton is equal to the mass of a hydrogen atom. But the mass
of a hydrogen atom is l u, therefore, the relative mass bf a proton is l u. If, however, we compare
the mass of a proton with that of an electron, then the mass of a proton is 1840 times that of an
electron. The absolute mass of a proton is 1.67 x 10-24 grams.
2. Charge of a Proton
The charge of a proton is equal and opposite to the charge of an electron. So, the absolute
charge of a proton is 1.6 X 10-19 coulomb of positive charge. Now, 1.6x 10-19 coulomb has been
found to be the smallest positive charge carried by any particle. So, this is taken as the unit of
positive charge. This means that proton carries 1 unit positive charge. In other words, the relative
charge of a proton is +1 (plus one).
 Thomson’s Model of Atom
Thomson’s Model of Atom also known as Plum Pudding Model is given by the English
Physicist Sir Joseph John J.J. Thomson. He discovered the electron (first subatomic particle) in
the year of 1897. At the time of discovery, J.J. Thomson called this negatively charged particle
as corpuscles. Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model is the first model to represent the atomic
structure of matter. According to Thomson’s Plum Pudding Model, an atom consists of small
spheres. The positive charge is spread uniformly throughout the volume of sphere .The
negatively charged particles Electrons called Plums are distributed as point charges in shells as

shown in figure:
The positively charged sphere exerts the force on negatively charged electrons. The direction
of the net force on negatively charged electrons due to positively charged sphere is towards the
center of the sphere. Atom as a whole is electrically neutral because the negative and positive
charges are equal in magnitude. This model is also known as water melon model, plum pudding
model and apple pie model.

Limitations of Thomson’s Model:

 It failed to explain how protons and electrons were arranged in atom so close to each
other.
 It also failed to explain stability of an atom.
Rutherford’s Experiment
Thomson’s model could not provide satisfactory explanation for the stability of atom. In
1911, Rutherford performed series of experiments which led to the new atomic model called
Rutherford’s model of atom. The experiments involved the bombardment of a thin sheet of gold
(thickness 4 X 10-5 cm) by alpha-particles. He selected gold element for the experiment because
gold could be beaten into incredibly thin sheets, so thin that even light could pass through them
partially. The a-particles were obtained in the form of a narrow beam by passing through a slit in
a lead plate. A circular screen coated with zinc sulphide (ZnS) was placed around the foil to
detect the deflection suffered by a-panicles

Observations of Rutherford's alpha ray scattering experiment:

1. Most of the α-particles passed straight through the gold foil without any deviation.

2. Some of the α-particles were deflected by the foil by some angles.

3. Interestingly one out of every 12,000 alpha particles appeared to rebound

Conclusion of Rutherford's scattering experiment:

1. Most of the space inside the atom is empty because most of the α-particles passed through the
gold foil without getting deflected.

2. Very few particles were deflected from their path, indicating that the positive charge of the atom
occupies very little space.

3. A very small fraction of α-particles were deflected by very large angles, indicating that all the
positive charge and mass of the gold atom were concentrated in a very small volume within the atom.

Rutherford’s Model of Atom: Based on the above observations and conclusions, Rutherford
proposed the atomic structure of elements. According to the Rutherford atomic model:
1. The positively charged particles and most of the mass of an atom was concentrated in an
extremely small volume called nucleus. The size of nucleus is very small compared to an atom.

2. Rutherford model proposed that the negatively charged electrons surround the nucleus of
an atom. He also claimed that the electrons surrounding the nucleus revolve around it with very
high speed in circular paths called as ‘orbits’.

3. Electrons being negatively charged and nucleus being a densely concentrated mass of
positively charged particles are held together by a strong electrostatic force of attraction.

Drawbacks of Rutherford Model

 According to Rutherford’s Model, electron revolves round the positively charged nucleus. A
charged particle in an accelerated motion along a circular path would continuously undergo loss
of energy and finally would fall into nucleus. This makes an atom unstable while atoms are quite
stable.

DISCOVERY OF NEUTRON
The existence of neutrons in the nucleus was first predicted by Rutherford in 1920 to account
for the difference in the mass of the atom and the total mass of protons. For example, helium
atom is found to have 2 protons in the nucleus. Thus, its mass should be 2 u. But actually mass of
helium atom on atomic mass scale has been found to 4 u. Such discrepancies due to mass of
atom and total mass of protons were found in all elements except hydrogen. Neutrons were
discovered experimentally by James Chadwick in 1932. He bombarded a thin foil of beryllium
with fast moving a-particles and observed that highly penetrating rays consisting of neutral
particles were produced. These neutral particles were found to have mass 1.675 X 10-27 kg and
were named neutrons.
Bohr Atomic Model

A Danish physicist named Neil Bohr in 1913 proposed the Bohr atomic model. He modified
the problems and limitations associated with Rutherford’s model of an atom. Earlier in
Rutherford Model, Rutherford explained in an atom a nucleus is positively charged and is
surrounded by electrons (negatively charged particles).The electrons move around in a predictable
path called orbits. Bohr modified Rutherford’s model where he explained that electrons move
around in fixed orbital shells. Furthermore, he explained that each orbital shell has fixed energy
levels. Therefore, Rutherford basically explained a nucleus of an atom whereas Bohr took the
model one step ahead. He explained about electrons and the different energy levels associated
with it. According to Bohr Atomic model, a small positively charged nucleus is surrounded by
revolving negatively charged electrons in fixed orbits. He concluded that electron will have more
energy if it is located away from the nucleus whereas the electrons will have less energy if it
located near the nucleus.

Postulates of the Bohr Atomic Model

 Electrons revolve around the nucleus in a fixed circular path termed “orbits” or
“shells” or “energy level.”

 The orbits are termed as “stationary orbit.”

 Every circular orbit will have a certain amount of fixed energy and these circular
orbits were termed orbital shells. The electrons will not radiate energy as long as they
continue to revolve around the nucleus in the fixed orbital shells.
  The different energy levels are denoted by integers such as n=1 or n=2 or n=3 and
so on. These are called as quantum numbers. The range of quantum number may vary and
begin from the lowest energy level (nucleus side n=1) to highest energy level. Learn the
concept of an Atomic number here.

The different energy levels or orbits are represented in two ways such as 1, 2, 3, 4… or K, L,
M, N….. shells. The lowest energy level of the electron is called the ground state.

Arrangement of electrons in an atom:

The arrangement of electrons in various shells (energy levels) of an atom of the element is
known as Electronic configuration.

The Maximum number of electrons that could be put in a particular shell, i.e., energy levels,
was given by Bohr and Bury.
According to Bohr-Bury Scheme:
 The maximum number of electrons that can be accommodated in any energy level is
given by 2n2where n = 1, 2, 3, 4, …. (for K, L, M, N…..) and is number of that orbit.
For example:

Number of electrons in K-shell i.e. in 1st orbit

Here n = 1

Therefore, 2n2 = 2 × 12 = 2
Thus, maximum number of electrons in K-shell, i.e. 1st shell = 2
Number of electrons in L-shell, i.e. in 2ndorbit
Here n = 2, therefore,

2n2 = 2 × 22 = 8
 Thus, maximum number of electrons in L-shell = 8

In similar way maximum number of electrons in any shell can be calculated.

 The maximum number of electrons in the outermost orbit will be 8 electrons even if it has
capacity to accommodate more electrons.
 Electrons, are not accommodated in a given shell. Unless earlier shells are filled, that
is stepwise filling of shells is followed.
Valence Electrons
The electrons present in the outer most shell of an atom are known as valence electrons. These
electrons determine the valency of an atom.

Valency:
Valency is the combining capacity of an atom, i.e. their tendency to react and form molecules
with atoms of the same or different elements. Valency is also defined as the number of electrons
gained, lost or contributed for sharing by an atom of the element so as to complete its octet.
Valency of an element is determined by the number of valence electrons in an atom. For the
atoms having valence electrons less than or equal to 4, valency is same as that of the number of
valence electrons in that atom.

For example, valency of Magnesium (2, 8 , 2) = 2

If number of valence electrons exceed 4, then valency = 8 – Number of valence electrons.

For example, valency of Oxygen (2, 6) = 8 – 6 = 2.

Valency of atoms with 8 valence electrons is zero as they have fully filled valence shell and
cannot gain or lose electrons to form, molecules or compounds.

Atomic number (Z): Atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons present
in the nucleus of an atom. Since an atom is electrically neutral, thus number of protons and
number of electrons are equal, therefore:

Atomic number (z) = number of protons = number of electrons.

Mass Number (A) : The total number of the protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an
atom is called mass number. It is denoted by [Link] protons and neutrons together are called
nucleon.
The number of neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom is represented by N.
 Isotopes :Atoms of the same element having same atomic number but different mass numbers
are known as [Link] example:

Applications of Isotopes
 Isotope of uranium U-235 is used as a fuel in nuclear reactor
 Isotope of cobalt Co-60 is used in treatment of cancer
 Isotope of iodine I-131 is used in treatment of goiter.
 Isotope if phosphorus P-32 is used in treatment of leukemia.
 C-14 isotope is used in Carbon dating.
Isobars
Atoms of different elements having same mass numbers are known as Isobars, For example:
Potassium, K and Argon Ar both have the mass numbers equal to 40.

Electron configuration for atoms of first 20 elements:

[Link] the points of difference among electron, proton and neutron.

Q. If bromine atom is available in the form of say, two isotopes (49.7%) and (50.3%),
calculate the average atomic mass of bromine atom.
 Ans. The average atomic mass of bromine atom

Q11. The average atomic mass of a sample of an element X is 16.2 u. What are percentages
of isotopes