CHAPTER FIVE

TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

This chapter will address orientation, training, and development in sequence. Each is important to
the success of the firm and each must be used to optimize desired end results. Orientation orients,
directs, and guides employees to understand the work, firm, colleagues, and mission. Training
helps employees do their current work better. Development prepares individuals for the future. It
focuses on learning and personal development.
1.1 Orientation: A special kind of training
Orientation is the planned introduction of new employees to their jobs, coworkers, and the
organization. However, orientation should not be a mechanical one-way process. Because all
employees are different, orientation must incorporate a sensitive awareness to the anxieties,
uncertainties, and needs of the individual.

Purposes of orientation
The overall purpose of orientation is to help new employees learn about their new work
environments and get their performances to acceptable levels as soon as possible. The orientation
process has several specific purposes:
To create an initial favorable impression: A good orientation program creates favorable
impression of the organization and its work. This impression begins even before the new
employees report to work. Providing sufficient information about when and where to report the
first day, handling all relevant paper work efficiently, and having personable and efficient people
assist the new employee all contribute to creating a favorable impression of the organization.
To enhance interpersonal acceptance: Another purpose of orientation is to ease the employee’s
entry into the work group. New employees often are concerned about meeting the people in their
work units. Furthermore, the expectations of the work group do not always parallel those presented
at management’s formal orientation. Also, if a well-planned formal orientation is lacking, the new
employee may be oriented solely by the group, and thus possibly in ways not beneficial to the
organization.
To reduce turnover: If employees perceive themselves as ineffective, unwanted, or unneeded, they
may react to these feelings by quitting. Turnover is high during the break-in period, and effective
orientation can reduce this costly reaction.
To reduce anxiety: Anxiety in this case means fear of failure on the job. It is normal fear of the
unknown, focused on the ability to do the job. This anxiety can be made worse if old employees
haze the new employee.
To save time: Improperly oriented employees must still get the job done, and to do so they need
1|Page
help. The most likely people to provide this help are coworkers and supervisors, who will have to
spend time breaking in new employees. Good orientation programs save everyone time.
To develop realistic expectations: New employees must learn realistically what the organization
expects from them, and their own expectations of the job must be neither too low nor too high.
Each worker must incorporate the job and its work values into his/her self-image. Orientation
helps this process.
1.2 Training
Training is a process whereby people acquire skills or knowledge to aid in the achievement of
goals. Because learning processes are tied to a variety of organizational purposes, training can be
viewed either narrowly or broadly. In a limited sense, training provides employees with specific,
identifiable knowledge and skills for use on their present jobs. Sometimes a distinction is drawn
between training and development , with development being broader in scope and focusing on
individuals gaining new knowledge and skills useful for both present and future jobs.
5.2.1 Process of Training and Development

Too often, unplanned, uncoordinated, and haphazard training efforts significantly reduce the
learning that could have occurred. Training and learning will take place, especially through
informal work groups, whether an organization has a coordinated training effort or not.
Employees learn from other employees. But without a well-designed, systematic approach to
training, what is learned may not be what is best for the organization. The relevant components of
the three major phases in a training system:
1. The assessment phase
2. The implementation phase
3. The evaluation phase.
1. The assessment phase: In the assessment phase, planners determine the need for training and
specify the objectives of the training effort. Looking at the performance of clerks in a billing
department, a manager might find that their data-entry and keyboard abilities are weak and
that they would profit by having instruction in these areas. An objective of increasing the
clerks’ keyboard entry speed to 60 words per minute without errors might be established. The
number of words per minute without errors is the criterion against which training success can
be measured, and it represents the way in which the objective is made specific. To make the
bridge between assessment and implementation, the clerks would be given a keyboard data-
entry test.
2. The implementation phase: Using the results of this test, implementation can begin. For
instance, the billing supervisor and an HR training specialist could work together to determine
how to train the clerks to increase their speeds. Arrangements for instructors, classrooms,
materials, and so on would be made at this point. A programmed instruction manual might be
used in conjunction with a special data-entry class set up at the company. Then training is
actually conducted.
3. The evaluation phase: The evaluation phase is crucial. It focuses on measuring how well the
training accomplished what its originators expected. Monitoring the training serves as a bridge
between the implementation and evaluation phases.

2|Page
Training needs assessment. Training is designed to help the organization accomplish its
objectives. Determining organizational training needs is the diagnostic phase of setting training
objectives. Just as a patient must be examined before a physician can prescribe medication to deal
with an ailment, an organization or an individual employee must be studied before a course of
action can be planned to make the “patient” function better. Managers can identify training needs
through three types of analyses:

Organizational analyses. The first way to diagnose training needs is through organizational
analysis, which considers the organization as a system. An important part of the company’s
strategic human resources planning is the identification of the knowledge, skills, and abilities that
will be needed by employees in the future as both jobs and the organization change. Both internal
and external forces that will influence the training of workers must be considered.

The problems posed by the technical obsolescence of current employees and an insufficiently
educated labor pool from which to draw new workers should be confronted before those training
needs become critical. For example, assume that in its five-year business plan, a manufacturer of
mechanical equipment identifies the need to shift production to computer-based electronic
equipment. As the organization implements its plans, current employees will need to be re-trained
so that they can do electronic instead of mechanical assembly work.
Organizational analyses also can be done using various operational measures of organizational
performance. On a continuing basis, detailed analyses of HR data can show training weaknesses.
Task analyses. The second way to diagnose training needs is through analyses of the tasks
performed in the organization. To do these analyses, it is necessary to know the job requirements
of the organization. Job descriptions and job specifications provide information on the
performances expected and skills necessary for employees to accomplish the required work. By
comparing the requirement of jobs with the knowledge, skills, and abilities of employees, training
needs can be identified.
Individual analyses. The third means of diagnosing training needs focuses on individuals and how
they perform their jobs. The use of performance appraisal data in making these individual analyses
is the most common approach. To assess training needs through the performance appraisal process,
an employee’s performance inadequacies first must be determined in a formal review. Then some
type of training must be designed to help the employee overcome the weaknesses.
In some instances a good HR information system can be used to help identify individuals who
require training in specific areas. Another way to assess individual training needs is by asking
employees. Both managerial and non-managerial employees can be surveyed, interviewed, and
tested. The results can inform managers about what employees believe their problems are and what
actions they recommend. A survey can take the form of questionnaires or interviews with
supervisors and employees on an individual or group basis.

5.2.2 Objectives of Training and Development

3|Page
Objectives for training should relate to the training needs identified in the needs analysis. The
success of the training should be measured in terms of the objectives set. Good goals are
measurable. For example, an objective for a new salesclerk might be to “demonstrate the ability to
explain the function of each product in the department within two weeks.” This objective serves as
a check on internalization, or whether the person really learned. Objectives for training can be set in
any area by using one of the following four dimensions:

Quantity of work resulting from training (for example, number of words typed per minute or
number of applications processed per day).
Quality of work after training (for example, dollar cost of rework, scrap loss, or errors).
Timeliness of work after training (for example, schedules met or budget reports turned in on
time).
Cost savings as a result of training (for example, deviation from budget, sales expense, or cost of
downtime).

5.2.3 Training methods

Objectives have been determined, and now actual training can begin. Regardless of whether the
training is job specific or broader in nature, the appropriate training approach must be chosen. The
following overview of common training approaches and techniques classifies them into several
major groups. Other methods that are used more frequently for management development are
discussed later in this chapter, although there can be overlap in the use of some of the methods.
1. On-the-job training On-the-job training takes place in a normal working situation, using the
actual tools, equipment, documents or materials that trainees will use during training.
The most common type of training at all levels in an organization is on-the-job training (OJT).
Whether or not the training is planned, people do learn from their job experiences, particularly if
these experiences change over time. On-the-job training is usually done by the manager, other
employees, or both.

The main methods of one-the-job training include:

a. Demonstration / instruction - showing the trainee how to do the job.

b. Coaching - a more intensive method of training that involves a close working relationship
between an experienced employee and the trainee
c. Job rotation - where the trainee is given several jobs in succession, to gain experience of a
wide range of activities (e.g. a graduate management trainee might spend periods in several
different departments)
d. Projects - employees join a project team - which gives them exposure to other parts of the
business and allow them to take part in new activities. Most successful project teams are
"multi-disciplinary"
e. Simulation. Simulation is a training approach that uses a training site set up to be identical
to the work site. In this setting, trainees can learn under realistic conditions but be away from
the pressures of the production schedule. For example, having an employee practice on a PBX
console in a simulated setting before taking over as a telephone receptionist allows the person
to learn the job more easily and without stress. Consequently, there may be fewer mistakes in

4|Page
 handling actual incoming calls. Airlines use simulators to train pilots and cabin attendants,
astronauts train in mock-up space capsules, and nuclear power plant operators use model
operations control rooms and consoles.
f. Cooperative training. There are two widely used cooperative training methods: internships
and apprenticeships. Both mix classroom training and on-the-job experiences.
An internship is a form of on-the-job training that usually combines job training with classroom
instruction in trade schools, high schools, colleges, or universities. Internships are advantageous to
both employers and interns. Interns get “real-world” exposure, a line on the resume, and a chance
to examine a possible employer closely. Employers who hire from campuses get a cost-effective
selection tool that includes a chance to see an intern at work before a final hiring decision is made.
Another form of cooperative training that is used by employers, trade unions, and government
agencies is apprentice training. An apprenticeship program provides an employee with on-the-job
experience under the guidance of a skilled and certified worker. Apprentice training is used most
often to train people for jobs in skilled crafts, such as carpentry, plumbing, photoengraving,
Typesetting, and welding. Apprenticeships usually last two to five years, depending on the
occupation. During this time the apprentice receives lower wages than the certified individual.
Advantages

There are distinct advantages of on-the-job training.

 The first advantage is that the employee is obtaining revenue for the company or business
while he is working and the company is benefiting while the employee is learning.
 Employee can be monitored at all times while he is training.
 Managers or supervisors are on site to give feedback and guidance to new employees while
they are training on the job.
 Employee is working in real time and can see firsthand exactly how things are done at the
company.
 Cost savings is another advantage of on-the-job training. Companies will not need to go to
the expense of sending the employee to off-site training.

Disadvantages

There are some disadvantages to on-the-job training.

 One big disadvantage is the time it takes to train a new employee. Training a new employee
can slow down whoever is training that person, as he will need to answer questions and
repeat tasks along the way.

 There may also be difficulty finding the right person to train the new employee.

 Some employees may be very good at their job but don't possess the right attitude or have the
willingness to take on the responsibility.
 Quality depends on ability of trainer and time available.
 Bad habits might be passed on.

5|Page
  Learning environment may not be conducive
 Potential disruption to production

2. Off-the-job training: takes place away from normal work situations — implying that the
employee does not count as a directly productive worker while such training takes place. Off-the-
job training has the advantage that it allows people to get away from work and concentrate more
thoroughly on the training itself.
Role-playing: in which each person is assigned a role in a situation and asked to play the role
and react to other players’ role-playing. The player
is asked to pretend to be a focal person in the situation and to react to the stimuli as that person
would. The players are provided with background information on the situation and the players.
Business games: Computer simulations where the trainee makes management decisions and gets
feedback on success. Train people to make business decisions without actually affecting the
business. May be expensive and time consuming.
In-basket. A method used to develop managerial decision-making abilities in which a participant
is given materials and conditions that need immediate decisions, such as out-of-stock positions,
complaints by customers, and a demand for a report from a superior. The trainee is analyzed and
Critiqued on the number of decisions made in the time allotted, the quality of the decisions, and the
priorities chosen for making them. In order to generate interest, the in-basket materials must be
realistic, job-related, and not impossible to make decisions on.
Case studies/incidents: Descriptions of real companies or situations that require dealing with lots
of facts and making decisions. Can provide a great deal of exposure to many different companies
and problems. Some participants complain they do not have enough information.
The critical issue in any of these methods is the purpose of the exercise. Employees may perceive
role playing as fun or annoying, but they should understand clearly what the exercise is attempting
to teach. Also, they must be able to transfer the learning back to their jobs.
Classroom and conference training . Training seminars, courses, and presentations can be used
in both job-related and developmental training. Lectures and discussions are a major part of this
training. The numerous management development courses offered by trade associations and
educational institutions are examples of conference training. The advantage of classroom training
is that it is widely accepted because most people are familiar with it. But a disadvantage of
classroom instruction is the lecture system, which encourages passive listening and reduced learner
participation. Sometimes trainees have little opportunity to question, clarify, and discuss the lecture
material. The effectiveness of classroom instruction depends on the size of the group, the ability of
the instructor, and the subject matter.

Advantages
 A wider range of skills or qualifications can be obtained
 Can learn from outside specialists or experts
 Employees can be more confident when starting job

6|Page
Disadvantages
 More expensive – e.g. transport and accommodation
 Lost working time and potential output from employee
 New employees may still need some induction training
 Employees now have new skills/qualifications and may leave for better jobs

5.4 Career Development

Development can be thought of as bringing about capacities that go beyond those required by the
current job; it represents efforts to improve an employee’s ability to handle a variety of
assignments.
Development refers to formal education, job experiences, relationships, and assessment of
personality and abilities that help employees prepare for the future. Because it is future-oriented, it
involves learning that is not necessarily related to the employee’s current job.
Traditionally, training is focused in helping employees’ performance in their current jobs.
Development helps prepare them for other positions in the company and increases their ability to
move into jobs that may not yet exist.
Development also helps employees prepare for changes in their current job that may result from
new technology, work designs, new customers, or new product markets.
The development process . Development should begin with the HR plans of the firm. Such plans
deal with analyzing, forecasting, and identifying the organizational HR needs. Development allows
anticipation of the movement of people through the organization due to retirement, promotion, and
transfers. It helps identify the kinds of abilities needed and the development necessary to have
people with those abilities on hand when needed. The HR development processes are presented as
follows: identify necessary abilities and capacities. Such capacities can influence planning in
return. The specific abilities needed also influence decisions as to who will be promoted and what
succession of leaders will be in the organization. Those decisions both influence and are influenced
by an assessment of development needs in the organization. Various approaches to development
follow from this needs assessment. Finally, the process must be evaluated and changes made as
necessary overtime.
5.5 Evaluation of Training and Development

The evaluation step is the final phase of the training and/or development process. Cost-benefit
analysis generally is more feasible for training and development than for any other HRM
functions. Costs are relatively easy to compute: they equal direct costs of training (trainer,
materials, and lost productivity, if training is done on company time) plus indirect costs (a fair
share of the administrative overhead of the HR department).
Essentially, the evaluation should be made by comparing the results (the benefits) with the
objectives of the training and development program that were set in the assessment phase. It is
easier to evaluate the results of some programs (for example, typing) than others (for example,
training on leadership).
7|Page
Criteria for Evaluation: There are three types of criteria for evaluating training: internal, external,
and participants’ reaction. Internal criteria are directly associated with the content of the program –
for example, whether the employee learned the facts or guidelines covered in the program.
External criteria are related more to the ultimate purpose of the program – for example, improving
the effectiveness of the employee. Possible external criteria include job performance rating, the
degree of learning transferred from training and development sessions to on-the-job situations, and
increases in sales volume or decreases in turnover.
Participants’ reaction, or how the subjects feel about the benefits of a specific training or
development experience, is commonly used as an internal criterion. Most experts argue that it is
more effective to use multiple criteria to evaluate training. One view of a multiple-criteria
evaluation system was developed by Kirkpatrick. He suggests measuring the following:
Participants’ reaction – whether subjects like or dislike the program. The participant indicates
his/her satisfaction with the program.
Learning – the extent to which the subjects have assimilated the knowledge offered and skills
practiced in the training program. Does the participant score higher on the tests after the training or
development than before?
Behavior – an external measure of changes or lack of changes in job behavior; the ratings a
participant received in performance appraisal (comparison of “before” and “after” ratings).
Results – the effect of the program on or generational dimensions such as employee turnover,
productivity, volume of sales, or error-free letters typed.

8|Page