CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

Overview of Vocational Training Centers

Introduction
Vocational Training Centers (VTCs) are institutions designed to provide individuals with skills
and training specific to various trades or professions. These centers focus on practical and hands-
on training rather than academic learning, equipping learners with the capabilities required to
enter the workforce effectively. As economies evolve and labor markets become more
competitive, the significance of vocational training has gained unprecedented prominence
worldwide, especially as a means to reduce unemployment and enhance employability.
Vocational Training Centers (VTCs) serve as vital institutions within the educational
ecosystem, aiming to bridge the gap between academia and practical employment skills. Unlike
traditional educational models that emphasize theoretical knowledge, VTCs prioritize
apprenticeships and practical experiences aligned with specific trades and professions. This
approach enables learners to gain direct exposure to the tools, techniques, and technologies they
will encounter in their respective fields.
Vocational training centers serve a vital role in enhancing the skill sets of individuals,
particularly in developing regions. According to the United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO, 2014), vocational education provides learners with the
necessary skills, knowledge, and competencies required for specific trades or professions. These
centers facilitate hands-on training, which is fundamental in bridging the gap between education
and employment, contributing to economic growth (Ugochukwu & Awofisayo, 2017).
Research by Koutsou (2018) emphasizes the importance of creating conducive learning
environments within these centers. The architecture of vocational training facilities must support
a range of activities, from practical workshops to classrooms. The integration of sustainable and
climate-responsive design is essential, as highlighted by Mardaljevic et al. (2020), who argue
that engaging students in comfortable, well-designed environments can significantly improve
their learning outcomes and vocational development.
Global Overview
Globally, vocational training systems vary significantly. In industrialized nations like Germany
and Switzerland, dual education systems combine classroom learning with hands-on training in
workplaces, creating a highly skilled workforce. In contrast, developing regions often face
challenges such as inadequate infrastructure, funding, and access to quality training, impacting
their vocational education systems. Nevertheless, the global appreciation of vocational training
has grown due to its critical role in addressing unemployment and skill gaps.
 In a rapidly changing labor market, the role of Vocational Training Centers has become
increasingly critical. By focusing on practical skills and aligning training with industry needs,
VTCs not only empower individuals to build successful careers but also play a fundamental role
in driving economic development. As we look to the future, investment in vocational training
will be essential for creating resilient economies and ensuring that individuals have the skills
required to thrive in an ever-evolving job landscape.
Historical Perspective of Vocational Training in Africa
Vocational training in Africa has experienced considerable challenges, including insufficient
funding, poor infrastructure, and a lack of recognition of vocational education. Traditionally,
many African societies relied on informal apprenticeship systems, where skilled individuals
imparted knowledge to younger generations. However, colonial legacies and dependence on
formal education left vocational training underfunded and undervalued in national policies.
The post-colonial era saw many African governments recognizing the importance of vocational
education in economic development. Several countries have initiated programs to improve
vocational training, but challenges remain. International organizations, NGOs, and government
partnerships have increasingly focused on establishing vocational training centers to equip youth
with relevant skills.
Historical Perspective of Vocational Training in Nigeria
In Nigeria, vocational education can be traced back to the early days of colonial education,
which did not emphasize practical skills. The establishment of formal vocational institutions
began in the 1960s. The National Policy on Education in 1977 recognized the importance of
vocational education as part of the broader educational system. Despite periodic reforms and
initiatives, challenges such as inadequate funding, political instability, and a lack of alignment
with industry needs have hindered effective implementation.
In contemporary Nigeria, there have been renewed efforts to reform vocational training, with the
government and private sector engaging in partnerships to enhance training centers. Initiatives
like the National Open Apprenticeship Scheme (NOAS) aim to engage youths in skilled jobs,
addressing the high unemployment rate and fostering economic independence.

Skill Acquisition
Skill acquisition may be viewed as the process of making superlative output a general
characteristic of one’s behavior in a given field. It involves a gradual change from less effective
behavior to an extremely proficient one. A skilled worker is one who is adept in the trade or a
person who has attained excellence in a particular trade or undertaking. Skill acquisition,
therefore, involves painstaking effort, discipline, practice and drill as well as reviews. A skill can
be defined as the ability to do something well, usually gained through training or experience.
Skill acquisition, on the other hand, involves the development of a new skill, practice or a way of
doing things, usually gained through training or experience.
 Skill Acquisition is the science that underpins movement learning and execution and is
more commonly termed motor learning and control. There are basically three stages of skill
acquisition; the cognitive stage, associative stage, and the autonomous stage. The first stage is
when you are still battling with the skill, the second is when you are practicing the skill, and the
third is when you are already an expert of the skill.

Skill Acquisition is of two types; vocational and non-vocational skills.

 Vocational skills require knowledge and intelligence

 Non-vocational skills do not necessarily require knowledge and intelligence.

The importance of skills acquisition in Nigeria cannot be overemphasized. And for Nigeria to be
economically self-reliant, we must necessarily diversify our economy and as well encourage the
youth to embrace self-employment through skills acquisition, entrepreneurship, self-reliance and
financial empowerment. Skill is very important in the life of every citizen. The reason why many
technicians earn more than some university graduates is that the technicians acquired more skills
than the theories the graduates were fed with when they were in universities. It can take you to
places you do not expect you will ever find yourself.

Today, there are many unemployed graduates in the world. One of the problems of the education
system of Africa is that it does not give much room to skills development. There are so many
benefits gotten from skill acquisition, such as: Self-employment, Diverse job opportunities,
Employment generation, Effective function, Enhancement of activities, Crime reduction, and
Wealth creation.

Some of the skills needed for these benefits listed above are;

 adaptive thinking
 communication skills,
 collaboration skills,
 critical thinking and problem-solving skills,
 personal management
 inquiry skills,
 technology skills,
  creativity and innovation,
 soft skills,
 Empathy and perspective.

Origin of Skill Acquisition (Vocational Training)

Vocational education, the oldest form of education in the world (Roberts, 1971) has passed
through several stages of transformation both in nomenclature and in practice over the years to
be what it is today. It first started in an informal form within the family circle (between father
and son or between mother and daughter). This was known as home apprenticeship system. In
every culture, it took a unique approach which resulted in people working to satisfy their daily
needs as well as cope with their physical environment.

Vocational education with its characteristic comprehensiveness in nature and responsiveness to

emerging technologies remains a veritable tool for training manpower needed for national
development anywhere. As a workshop – based education, it is concerned with the methods of
processing materials using tools and equipment, into products of economic value. It is also
involved in providing services as in-home economics, health occupations and other service areas.
In the light of the foregoing, vocational education holds the key to national development.

Developmental Trends of Vocational Education in Nigeria

The origin of vocational education dates back to the beginning of human communities (Roberts,
1971). Vocational education existed in traditional forms and people had to work for their
survival. It was practiced within family circles. Under indigenous system or traditional
vocational education, the Nigerian child was taught various skills through weaving, sculpturing,
blacksmithing, carving, farming, fishing, cattle rearing, hair plaiting, dress making, bead
weaving, leatherwork, pottery, brick making, basket weaving, raffia works, mat weaving and
others (Nduka, 1982 and Fafunwa, 1995). The foregoing was forms of vocational education in
pre – colonial Nigeria. During the colonial era in Nigeria, vocational education was not
accorded a worthwhile recognition by the missionary school system. Education was literary as in
most former British colonies. For almost a hundred years in Nigeria, educated people were those
who read classics: Latin, Greek, Milton and Shakespeare. Most of Nigeria’s early scholars were
famous for their literary erudition or “much book learning” (Fafunwa, 1995).

In the light of the foregoing, vocational education had a very unpopular beginning in Nigeria. As
the “mother” of all forms of education, it was not given such an overwhelming official
recognition as was accorded grammar school education (Okoro, 1993; Ibritam, 2001; Datol,
Danwanzam and Associates, 2004). Many authors blamed this unfortunate situation on the
influence of missionary education in Nigeria. The missionary education system focused mainly
on training catechists and clerks. There was no programme for vocational skills training in the
formal education curriculum until 1909 when some form of vocational education programmes
were opened in the country. The Nassarawa School, opened in 1909 in the North, had a technical
wing attached to it: leatherwork, carpentry, smiting, weaving and book binding were taught. The
Hope Waddell Training Institute founded by the end of last century (1895), also had a technical
wing attached to it: tailoring, carpentry, among other crafts were taught to students.

These institutions were nevertheless pioneering in vocational education (Nduka, 1982). Other
early attempts at encouraging vocational education in Nigeria include: Boys’ Vocational School,
Ididep, Ibiono, Akwa Ibom State in the forties, trained teachers in various types of crafts
(erroneously called “Handwork”), making use of local raw materials; Blaize Memorial Industrial
School in Abeokuta ran a vocational programme for the youth. The foregoing were trends in the
evolution of vocational education between late 1800 and 1909 under the missionary era.

In 1925, Memorandum on education policy in British Tropical Africa was issued. The policy
statement invited governments to take a more active part in the provision of technical education
which required more costly equipment and properly qualified staff (Nduka, 1982). Sequel to the
foregoing the government opened trade centres and technical institutions. Yaba Higher College
was an instance of a technical education institution established in 1934 (Nduka, 1982; Okoro,
1993; Imarhiegbe, 2003). Technical and scientific education was provided by the government,
commercial and industrial organizations in Nigeria during the period under review. The
memorandum also encouraged the government to create departments for training technicians
required for national development. Public Works Department, the Post and Telegraph
Department, the Department of Agriculture, the Nigerian Railways and other commercial and
industrial ventures were among the government’s contributions towards the development of
vocational technical education in Nigeria.

Upon the official opening of the Yaba Higher College, engineering, medical, teacher training
courses and agriculture were offered to the first set of students. The ten-year development plan
established in 1946 recommended an expansion of technical education which led to the
establishment of 14 craft centres in the North, 9 in the East, and 2 in Lagos. The education given
at Yaba College was mainly vocational that led to the award of the college diploma. In 1946, the
ten-year development plan for the welfare of Nigerians was established. The plan recommended
an expansion of technical education to meet the demands for technicians and craftsmen.

By 1952 there were three technical institutions located at Yaba, Enugu and Kaduna and seven
trade centres and eighteen handicraft centres dotted all over the country. In 1953 the first
Nigerian College of Arts, Science and Technology was opened in Zaria. After a while, similar
colleges were opened in Enugu and Ibadan. These colleges offered courses in mechanical,
electrical and civil engineering, telecommunication, and agriculture. However, the Nigerian
College of Arts, Science and Technology was short-lived. The publication of Ashby Commission
Report in 1960 saw the opening of Universities in the North, East and West of the country. The
University of Nigeria, Nsukka in the East offered the first organized Vocational – Technical
Education (VTE) program to be seen in West Africa. The Commission report also recommended
the introduction of technical streams in the secondary schools and three levels of technical
education in the country namely: 1. Pre-vocational and Pre–technical levels of training for
secondary schools; 2. Craftsman training for technical colleges, trade centres and vocational
schools; 3. Technical training for Polytechnics and Colleges of Technology (Nduka, 1982,
Okoro, 1993 and Fafunwa, 1995).

In 1977 the Federal Government of Nigeria issued the first National Policy on Education. This
policy has favored the development of vocational education in the country since its formulation.
The current issue of this policy (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004) seeks to achieve the five
goals which emphasize technological development of Nigeria and subsequently provide solutions
to the prevailing economic problems.

To empower vocational education in the pursuit of the above goals and monitor its efforts in
achieving quality learning, the government has set up agents of quality assurance to do the job.
These agents are National commission for Colleges of Education (NCCE), the National Board
for Technical Education (NBTE) and the National Universities Commission (NUC). Each agent
has provided minimum standards for use by the training institutions.

In 2005 the National Council on Education (NCE) in response to government declaration of

a nine-year basic education program approved a new curriculum structure namely: lower basic
education curriculum (primaries 1-3), middle basic education curriculum (primaries 4-6), and
upper basic education curriculum (JSS 1-3) with subject listings. The Nigerian Education
Research and Development Council (NERDC), was mandated to re-structure the curriculum with
the following objectives in view: Develop interest in science and technology; Acquire basic
knowledge and skills in science and technology; Apply their scientific and technological
knowledge and skills to meet the needs of the society; Take advantage of the numerous career
opportunities offered by science and technology; and become prepared for further studies in
science technology.

Basic technology as pre-vocational education subject at the upper basic level is designed
to accomplish the following goals: inculcation of technological literacy, that is basic
understanding of and capability in technology; exposure of students to the world of work to
match their talents and interests for wise vocational choice and inculcation of positive attitudes
towards work as a source of human identity, livelihood and power (NERDC, 2007). The above
account indicates that vocational education is recognized as the key to technological
development of Nigeria and sequel to its official recognition, vocational education has made
some positive impacts on individuals and Nigeria as a nation.

Impact of Vocational Education in Nigeria

The impact of vocational education in Nigeria is enormous in socio-economic lives of the

people. Vocational education (formal and non-formal) is the best-known veritable tool for
training manpower for national growth. It has trained more manpower than other forms of
education. It also has the potential for developing manpower in over one thousand careers
represented in all departments of human endeavors (Usoro, Akpan and Otu, 2010). There is no
socio-economic sector of the nation that is does not benefit from vocational education. For
instance, the technical knowledge, technical information and the skills needed for effective
assimilation of the modern technological products are acquired through training and re-training
in vocational education.

In 2004 the Federal Government of Nigeria adopted the home-grown National Economic
Empowerment and Development Strategy (NEEDS) in response to global reforms in the social
and economic context. The core elements of NEEDS are value reorientation, poverty eradication,
job generation, wealth creation and using education to empower the people. Many Nigerians
have been empowered through various skills acquisition of that program. This can be noticed
everywhere as there are more self-employed young men and women now than was before as a
result of vocational training. Information communication Technology is an innovation to which
vocational education has responded. This innovation is increasing the potentials of vocational
education in its role in simplifying labor, improving standard of living and using computers to
solve problems of instruction and administration of vocational programs.

The quality services now offered in the nation’s medical institutions, agro based sector,
Information Communication Technology (ICT), auto-mechanical shops, construction industry,
entertainment industry, hospitality industry, transportation sector, are possible via vocational
education. In view of its impressive characteristics and potentials, vocational education has been
identified as an instrument for achieving Nigeria’s dream of industrialization: Vision 2020. The
prospects of vocational education in Nigeria lie in the aggressive control or eradication of
already identified constraints. Proper handling of constraints is apt to make Nigeria witness and
enjoy the prospects of vocational education. (Usoro,Usoro, Akpan & Otu, 2010).

These prospects include the potentials of vocational education to:

1) Create jobs for the jobless through entrepreneurial skills training

2) Reduce or eliminate complete dependence on paid job system

3) Train manpower in over one thousand vocational careers represented in Nigeria’s departments
of human endeavors.

4) Increase female participation in activities associated with national development.

5) Equip more individuals with balanced work behavior needed for employment success in the
world of work.
6) Bring basic technology (technical, agricultural, business, home economics etc.) to the door
steps of most Nigerian families.

7) Train individuals who will compete favorably with their counterparts from purely academic
disciplines.

8) Utilize locally available materials in training the youth in skills acquisition for the world of
work.

9) Create opportunities for meeting the occupational demands of special needs individuals in the
interest of national development.

More functional and state- of- the- art skills have been introduced into various levels of
vocational education curriculum which make product of the program better off than their
counterparts from grammar schools. Time is fast approaching when most Nigerians would want
to send their wards to vocational schools, because vocational education holds the key to
Nigeria’s developmental problems.

Constraints in the Development of Vocational Education in Nigeria

 Even though vocational education holds promise in the development of the nation, it
has equally faced offensive constraints in fulfilling its mission. Some of the constraints
have root causes in the past, while others are the consequences of social, political,
psychological and philosophical forces operating to its disfavor.
 After independence in 1960, the hangover of the colonial mentality with regard to
vocational education was still with the planners and providers of education in the post-
independence Nigeria. Most of the constraints against the development of vocational
education in Nigeria originated from the colonial era are now amplified into national
issues. The low regard accorded vocational education has affected its image, student’s
enrolment in vocational technical programs, and inadequately equipped workshops for
the development of occupational skills. Products of vocational education programs have
experienced discrimination when it comes to appointment of individuals into key
positions in the government establishments. Furthermore, vocational education is always
given the shorter end of the stick during statutory allocations of monies to government
organs in the nation. The instructional phase of vocational education has suffered a lot
 of disadvantages which include dearth of qualified teachers, lack of training materials and
genuine texts based on the familiar background of the Nigerian students. The snail –
paced progress of Vocational Technical Education has been blamed, among other factors,
on gender imbalance with respect to student enrolment in and practitioners of vocational
education. This imbalance has been the consequence of discriminatory attitudes of
colonial era and post independent Nigeria (Nduka, 1982; Fafunwa, 1995; Usoro, Ibritam
and Usoro, 2011 and Owenvbiugie, 2011). However, today, vocational education has
taken an improved posture, but with another level of constraints. The National Policy on
Education (FRN, 2004) has placed vocational education on an appreciable level of
recognition in view of its incomparable relevance to national growth. Ahmadu Bello
University, University of Port Harcourt, University of Uyo, Benue State University and
many other tertiary institutions and post primary institutions are offering organized
vocational – technical education to the Nigerian youth. However, one major constraint
still working against vocational education is that of poor funding (Duwa, 2009). Erratic
power supply or complete lack of power is yet another serious problem. Skills training in
vocational education involve operation of equipment, machines, and power tools to
process raw materials into products or provide services. The problem of power supply is
now a national issue which is detrimental to manpower production for national growth.
 There is the problem of dearth of qualified vocational education teachers. However,
in terms of number of available vocational teachers as already noted, there is no problem,
but when the issue of qualification is considered then most of the vocational teachers are
handicapped due to their lack of the needed skills (Ibritam, 2004). Other developmental
constraints are inadequate number of workshops, inadequately equipped laboratories,
absence of recognized legal status of vocational education, exodus of qualified teachers
to greener pastures, weak school – industry relationship, use of inadequate aptitude test to
select students for vocational training, inadequate curriculum for training teachers, and
lack of follow – up studies to monitor the performance of program products in the world
of work. Vocational education program in Nigeria has never enjoyed life insurance
coverage for both students and teachers.
Types of Vocational Education in Nigeria.

The vocational needs of Nigeria require not only that unskilled labor be reduced to a minimum,
but also that adequate engineering and science technician produced who can provide leadership
in their respective occupational fields. It is the duty of schools to provide youth in primary and
secondary schools with the educational experiences relevant to their future vocational schools to
give them the requisite training for competence in specific occupations. The major occupation
areas of vocational educations are:

- Trade and Industrial Education

- Health Occupation
- Technical Education
- Home Economies
- Business and Office Education
- Vocational Agriculture.
 Trade and Industrial Education: Training for such occupations as carpentry, electrical
and electronic mental work, hair dressing, barbing saloon, die-making, printer.
 Home Economic: Training for home making and occupations in such field as child care,
food services and interior decoration.
 Technical Education: Training for technical or semi-professional occupation technical
training normally covers one to three years of study beyond high school. It is generally
more theoretical than other vocational training. But less theoretical and more specific
than professional training. Technical and semi-professional occupations include such jobs
as data processor x-ray technician, electronic technician, craftsman production control
supervisor.
 Business and Office Education: Training for distributive and office occupations.
Descriptive education covers such subjects as mechanizing warehousing and export-input
trade. Office education includes such subject as typewriting, book keeping, use of
business machine and shorthand.
 Vocational Agriculture: Training for jobs on farms and for occupation in such fields as
processing food, marketing farm products and repairing farm equipment.
The Need for Vocational Education

The success of nations economic depends on the quality of its worker. Therefore, programmers
of vocational education should be designed to meet the educational and training need of the
youth. Such vocation programs must of necessity provide the youth with the knowledge, skills
and attitude that will enable them choose, enter into and progress in occupations of their choice.

Vocational education is needed for students attending post-secondary schools. These students
need vocation in order to enable them became skilled in trades and various technical
occupations. Young people who have left a full-time school career those employed and those
who have been rendered up-employed due to technological changes need vocation education.

Vocational education is needed by persons who because of academic socio- economic or other
handicaps, who cannot succeed in regular vocational programs. At present, dearly 70% of
elementary school leavers fail to enter secondary school. Graduates are unable to obtain
admission into Universities, generally, the schools are presently constituted do not equip the
student with suitable skills. Vocational education is therefore needed to prepare secondary school
student for gainful employment after graduation. Vocational education is necessary for the
acquisition of basic skills needed by must Nigeria student in order for them to meet the
challenges of the labor market.

Every citizen should be equipped to contribute to the welfare of the country. The highest
possible welfare is achieved only when each individual produces to the limit of his capacity.
Therefore, every citizen should be skilled in one type of occupation or the other. The economic
and social well-being of any society is dependent upon the quality of goods services available to
its citizens.

Most Nigerian work lack basic training in their respective fields, Modern technology requires
a high degree of operational efficiency. Productive farms must be maintained by workers who
possess managerial skills, knowledge of soils, crops fertilizer and pesticides, consumer good can
only be made available by trained men and women in both process and manufacture. There is
also the need to train individual in the field of home management, house hold- appliances,
clothing and catering.
 Modern construction requires efficient plumber, electrical installer ventilator and air
condition repair. Service occupations are expanding rapidly and with a rise in standard of living,
further expansion is expected.

Vocational Training: Definition and Different Types

There are several different career paths you can take in life. Vocational training can be a
desirable option for individuals entering a highly technical or hands-on field, as well as for those
who wish to develop new skills.
In this article, we define vocational training, explore some of the different types of vocational
training available, list skills acquired through vocational training and provide information about
jobs you can get with vocational training.

What is vocational training?

Vocational training refers to instructional programs or courses that focus on the skills required
for a particular job function or trade. In vocational training, education prepares students for
specific careers, disregarding traditional, unrelated academic subjects. Sometimes called
vocational education and training or career and technical education, vocational training provides
hands-on, job-specific instruction and can lead to certification, a diploma or even an associate’s
degree.
Students typically require vocational training to prepare for trades including, but not limited to:
Automotive repair
Plumbing
Culinary arts
Graphic design
Fashion design
Welding
Different types of vocational training
Vocational training can be accomplished through many channels, and at varying points in
someone’s career. Here are some different resources for receiving vocational training:
 High school career and technical education (CTE) programs
 Tech prep education
 Postsecondary vocational school
 Apprenticeship programs
  On-the-job training
 Continuous development
 Military training
 Distance learning programs
1. High school CTE programs
CTE programs are designed for high school students hoping to gain work experience in various
trades and continue their academic studies. This type of vocational training is often offered as
part of a high school curriculum, but students can also attend separate vocational training centers.
These vocational training programs allow students to explore different career choices and
prepare for industry-specific work or advanced education. In most vocational training programs
at this level, students continue to pursue their high school diploma while completing their
training.

2. Tech prep education

Tech prep programs serve as an intermediary between secondary and post-secondary vocational
training to prepare students for high-tech careers. Through collaboration between the two
institutions, tech prep programs combine at least two years of secondary and two years of
postsecondary education. The program usually results in either a certificate or an associate’s
degree in a particular field of study. Areas of focus include:
Engineering
Technology
Applied science
Health
Applied economics
3. Postsecondary vocational school
Sometimes referred to as trade schools, postsecondary vocational schools are another viable
option for individuals considering attending a community or four-year college. They offer degree
programs as well as vocational certificates and are usually designed to cater to working adults by
offering night and weekend course options. Attending a postsecondary vocational school is
typically required in trades such as:
Cosmetology
Massage therapy
Carpentry
Culinary arts
Auto mechanics
Many trade schools focus on a specific career or industry. Types of vocational schools include:
Mechanical and automotive schools
Business schools
Culinary schools
Art and design schools
Cosmetology schools
Education programs
Health care schools
Legal and criminal justice schools
Real estate schools
Technology schools
Travel and tourism schools
4. Apprenticeship programs
Apprenticeship programs are trade-specific and can last as long as four or five years. In these
types of programs, the apprentice works under the supervision of a professional in their trade,
and they are compensated for the work. This type of vocational training is most common in
highly skilled, hands-on professions.
Apprenticeships typically combine on-the-job training with classroom instruction. Because some
apprenticeships include classroom courses, they can result in a certification or degree. A major
benefit of this type of training is the fact that it is an educational program in which the student is
paid. Due to this, placement in apprenticeship programs is usually competitive.

5. On-the-job training
Most on-the-job training is either done through an employer or a third-party training provider
sourced by the employer. It’s common for companies to provide employees with job-specific
training as well as training in general employment skills, such as human resources training,
training on how to work well in a team or computer skills training. These skills can prove
valuable in an employee’s current position, as well as in any future employment opportunities.
When learning a skill through on-the-job training, new employees are often paired with someone
who is more experienced. Classroom instruction may also be utilized for on-the-job training, but
it’s typically only seen when a company develops its on-the-job training program into an
apprenticeship program.

6. Standalone courses
Professionals hoping to develop their skills and improve their marketability will often take
standalone courses. These courses are available to non-degree-seeking students. Reasons for
people to take this route for continuing their education and professional development include:
Fulfilling requirements for membership into professional organizations
Updating knowledge of current skills
Expanding skill sets
Learning a supplementary trade
7. Distance learning programs
Another great option for learning or expanding a set of skills is by enrolling in a distance
education program. Many distance learning programs allow students to work through materials
and lesson plans at their own pace, making it perfect for working professionals. However, some
distance learning programs will require students to be logged in at specific times or follow a
course schedule. Before signing up for a distance learning program, be sure to research the
institution thoroughly, making sure that they are legitimate as well as accredited.
Distance learning programs offer training and education in several different professions and
fields, including:
Bookkeeping
Carpentry
Home remodeling and repair
Computer programming
Web site design
Dressmaking
Pet grooming
Photography
Daycare management
Motorcycle or small engine repair
Court reporting
 8. Military training
The military offers a few vocational programs for enlisted individuals to prepare them for
advancement in their military careers or transitioning into civilian careers after enlistment. These
programs offer vocational and technical licensing and certification and are often referred to as
vo-tech programs. This type of training’s primary focus is to aid enlistees in making a smooth
transition to an occupation outside of the military.
Military personnel have access to several vo-tech programs, depending on the branch of the
military they’re enlisted in. Different vo-tech programs include:
USMAP
The United Services Military Apprenticeship Program, or USMAP, documents the training and
skills learned while enlisted in the Navy, Marine Corps and Coast Guard to gain national
certification for enlistees from the U.S. Department of Labor. The program combines the on-the-
job training that military personnel receive with technical instruction, much like a traditional
apprenticeship program. USMAP programs can last anywhere from one to four years or 2,000 to
8,000 hours of on-the-job training. The program can help military personnel advance their
military career or provide valuable training for finding work after enlistment.
COOL
The Credentialing Opportunities On-Line program, or COOL, helps members of the Army meet
certification and licensing requirements for their occupational specialty in the military. The
program is designed to help soldiers find the resources they need to successfully transition to a
civilian career in their specialty.
CCAF
The Community College of the Air Force, or CCAF, offers fields of study that are directly
related to Air Force specialties. The options for study tend to be highly technical. Individuals
currently enlisted in the Air Force can attend free of charge and will earn an associate’s degree
upon completion. Students can take part in the program online or via mail correspondence.
Skills you can learn through vocational training
Depending on your area of study, there are many skills that you could earn through vocational
training. Some of these include:
Carpentry
Masonry
Automotive repair
Cosmetology
Cooking
Design

Jobs You Can Land with Vocational Training

Here are some jobs you will be qualified for through vocational training:
1. HVAC technician
Primary duties: Heating, venting and air conditioning, or HVAC technicians install, repair and
maintain heating, cooling and ventilating units. Aside from a high school diploma, HVAC
technicians are usually required to complete two years of specialized education. This time
typically includes an apprenticeship that provides valuable on-the-job training.
2. Plumber
Primary duties: Plumbers are responsible for installing, repairing, testing and maintaining
plumbing systems. Plumbers must have a high school diploma and depending on location, they
can be required to obtain licensing. Training typically comes in the form of an apprenticeship.
3. Electrician
Primary duties: Electricians must have a high school diploma and complete an electrical
apprenticeship. Due to the complexity of electrical systems and the dangers associated with
working with them, apprenticeships to become an electrician can last up to four years. Licensure
is almost always required as well. Electricians repair, maintain and install wiring; read
blueprints; and test for electrical issues.
4. Respiratory therapist
Primary duties: Respiratory therapists must earn at least an associate’s degree and the
appropriate licensing. Their duties include performing treatments, developing treatment plans
and administering diagnostic testing.
5. Dental hygienist
Primary duties: To become a dental hygienist, you must at least earn an associate’s degree. Their
job responsibilities include taking patient X-rays, educating them about dental hygiene and
cleaning teeth.

Agencies Offering Vocational Education

Vocational education in the United States is available through a wide variety of schools and
agencies. The federal government gives financial aid to public secondary schools for certain
fields of vocational education. The government also provides funds that each state may use for
training programs below the professional and bachelor's degree level.

Public high schools are the main sources of vocational education. They offer high school student
full-time programs as well as work study programs. They alternate class work with part-time
employment in a co-operative business or industry. A number of high schools also offer evening
and part-time classes for out of school youth and adults. Regular or comprehensive, high schools
require students to take certain general courses for graduation but often offer vocational courses
as electric. Technical high schools prepare students for further study in scientific and engineering
fields. They require students to take shop work and mechanical drawing in addition to the
general courses.

Vocational high schools train student for specific trades and industries. They require student to
take intensive shop work as well as general courses required in regular high school. Technical
institutes are public or private post-secondary schools offering one, two- or three-year’s vocation
programs in engineering and science field. Other institutions providing vocational education
include the armed force schools, private correspondence schools, private vocational school and
colleges with one, two or three years vocational program including junior and community
colleges.

Safety in vocational training institute

Vocational training is a special school in which the nature of their occupancy and their usage
requires higher standard of safety than other types of buildings provisions for safety have the
highest priority and as well affects the entire design in plan, construction and choice of materials.

Sources of Accident in Vocational Training Institute

In order to achieve safety in vocational training institute, the factors responsible for accidents
must be identified and be taken conscious of these causes are as follows;

 Revolving machines such as drills

 Cutting machine

 Welding machines

 Corrugating machines

 Milling machines

 Fire outbreak in the workshop

Safety consideration

In other to ensure safety of lives in the workshop, either during fire outbreaks or from machines,
escape routes should be provided to help occupants move out of the workshop in case of any fire
outbreak and also a going way should be made available for free movement.

Health/ Safety Protections

In other to protect the health of the occupants in a vocational center, adequate ventilation must be
provided to prevent them from suffocating. Lighting is also another vital need in order to ensure
clear sight within the interior of the workshop and other accident-prone areas of the institute.

Accident prevention

In other to prevent accident in the workshop you must avoid the use of slippery material and
finishes on surface like doors, stair cases etc.

Another way it should be designed for easy, fast and safe movement of occupants in the institute.
The stair way should be design to climate traffic and should be guided on both ends by handrails
to prevent falling. Walk ways or passages should be made wide enough to accommodate large
number of people at certain time of movement.

Purpose and Function of Vocational Training Centers

The primary purpose of VTCs is to cultivate a well-trained workforce that meets the evolving
demands of various industries. By offering specialized training programs tailored to local and
global market needs, VTCs help prepare individuals for careers in areas such as construction,
healthcare, information technology, culinary arts, and many other trades. In doing so, they
contribute significantly to the overall economic development of a region by ensuring that
businesses have access to skilled labor.
Relevance of Vocational Training in a Country
Vocational training holds profound relevance for any nation, primarily for the following reasons:
 Employment and Economic Growth: VTCs contribute to reducing unemployment rates
by equipping individuals with job-ready skills, thereby feeding the labor market’s
demand for skilled workers.
 Skill Development and Competitiveness: A robust vocational training system enhances
the overall productivity of a workforce, leading to economic competitiveness on both
national and international scales.
 Support for Informal Economy: In many developing countries, a significant portion of
employment is in the informal sector. Vocational training centers can provide skills that
help individuals transition into more formal employment or start their own businesses.
 Social Stability and Community Development: By reducing unemployment, vocational
training can contribute to social stability, fostering community-based initiatives and
empowering individuals.

Significance of Vocational Training to the People

Vocational training has multifaceted significance for individuals and communities:
 Empowerment and Self-sufficiency: It equips individuals with marketable skills,
boosting self-esteem and enabling them to earn a living and support their families.
Opportunity for Marginalized Groups: VTCs often focus on empowering women, youth, and
other marginalized communities, providing them with the tools to break the cycle of poverty.
 Promoting Lifelong Learning: VTCs encourage continuous skill development, allowing
individuals to adapt to changing labor market demands.
 Social Mobility: Acquiring vocational skills can lead to better job opportunities and
improved quality of life, contributing to social mobility.

Relevance of Vocational Training in Kebbi State

In Kebbi State, Nigeria, vocational training centers have become increasingly important in
addressing local challenges related to youth unemployment and underemployment.
 Youth Empowerment: With a high population of young people, Kebbi has turned to
vocational training as a solution to provide youth with necessary skills, helping them to
find sustainable employment.
 Boosting Local Economy: VTCs in Kebbi can boost local economies by providing
training in agriculture, textiles, and crafts, reflecting the region’s economic activities.
  Addressing Skill Gaps: Vocational training centers can help bridge the gap between
education and employment, ensuring that individuals gain skills relevant to the local job
market.
 Promoting Entrepreneurship: By offering training in business management and
technical skills, vocational training centers encourage self-employment and
entrepreneurship, essential for economic growth in Kebbi State.
 Collaborative Efforts: The Kebbi State government, in partnership with international
organizations, has initiated programs aimed at enhancing the capacity and effectiveness
of VTCs, contributing to sustainable development in the region.
Vocational Training Programs
Vocational training programs typically encompass a range of methodologies, including:
 Hands-On Training: Emphasizing practical skills, students engage in workshops and
simulations that replicate real-world scenarios. This experiential learning fosters a deeper
understanding of the trade.
 Modular Courses: VTCs offer modular and flexible training options that allow learners
to acquire specific skills relevant to their desired profession. This adaptability helps
individuals fit education into their existing commitments.
 Industry Partnerships: Many VTCs collaborate with local businesses and industry
leaders to design curricula that reflect current market trends and requirements. These
partnerships also facilitate internships and job placements, enhancing students’
employment prospects.
References
ASHRAE. (2017). Handbook: Fundamentals. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and
Air-Conditioning Engineers.
Al-Homoud, M. (2005). Performance characteristics of thermal mass in building design.
Architectural Science Review, 48(2), 111-121.
Cohen, J., & +++ (2019). Integrating Architecture and Education: Case Studies in the Design of
Learning Spaces. Journal of Learning Spaces, 8(2).
Fanger, P. O. (1970). Thermal Comfort: Analysis and Applications in Environmental
Engineering. Danish Technical Press.
GhaffarianHoseini, A., GhaffarianHoseini, A., Nikanpour, A., & Zahraei, K. (2019). Building
performance: A comprehensive review of the thermal comfort in buildings. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, 99, 280-302.
Jiboye, A. D. (2021). Sustainable architecture in the Nigerian context: Lessons from the Abuja
Technology Village. Journal of Regional Development, 34(1), 8-25.
Kumar, P., Bansal, N., & Gupta, A. (2018). Passive solar design strategies for thermal comfort:
A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 81, 396-407.
Koutsou, S. (2018). Creating Effective Vocational Training Centers: Linking Architecture to
Educational Outcomes. International Journal of Lifelong Education, 37(1), 75-84.
Mardaljevic, J., et al. (2020). The need for climate-responsive design in educational facilities:
Towards better outcomes. Architectural Science Review, 63(3), 179-190.

Meyer, E. (2015). Biophilic design in architecture and urban planning: A new paradigm for
education. Sustainability, 7(4), 4755-4780.
Oladokun, M. A., & Nwankwo, C. (2020). Passive design strategies for thermal comfort in hot
climates: A case for Nigeria. Building and Environment, 164, 106812.
Olofin, G. (2019). Climatic conditions in Birnin Kebbi, Nigeria: Implications for architectural
design. Nigerian Journal of Environmental Studies, 10(1), 54-65.
Sinha, A., Saini, P., & Roy, M. (2021). Cross Ventilation Techniques for Improving Indoor
Climate: A Study on Thermal Comfort. Journal of Building Performance, 12(4), 135-144.
Ugochukwu, O. A., & Awofisayo, B. O. (2017). The role of vocational training centers in
economic development: A Nigerian Perspective. Journal of Technical Education and Training,
9(3), 70-84.