Critical Thinking
Common Logical Fallacies
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pdfs/introduction-fallacies.pdf
What is a Fallacy?
• A logical fallacy is an error in reasoning in an argument
• Formal fallacy
– A ‘formal fallacy’ is an error in the structure of an argument.
– Formal fallacies are used to analyze deductive arguments for
validity by means of symbolic logic
• Informal fallacy
– An ‘informal fallacy’ is an error in the content of an argument
• An argument with a fallacy is said to be ‘fallacious’.
Logical Fallacies…
• Flaws in an argument
• Often subtle
• Learning to recognize these will:
– Strengthen your own arguments
– Help you critique other’s arguments
– Useful for navigating disputes in both personal
and professional settings
– Identifying fallacious information in everyday
life
Slippery Slope
• If an outcome of a sequence of events is bad or negative, the original
event and idea for its inception was also bad
• No evidence or logical explanation to support why a sequence of events
occurred
"If we allow same-sex couples to marry, next thing you know, people will be
marrying animals and inanimate objects."
"If we legalize marijuana, the country will become a nation of drug addicts.”
"If we allow students to use smartphones in school, they'll become addicted
to technology and fail in their studies."
"If we raise the minimum wage, businesses will have to lay off employees,
leading to mass unemployment."
"If we give in to this small demand from protesters, they'll start making even
more extreme demands and disrupt society."
"If we start implementing stricter environmental regulations, businesses will
suffer, and the economy will collapse."
Halo Effect
• Generalization leveraging a positive reputation in one domain to argue for
its effectiveness in another domain
Physical Attractiveness Bias: Assuming that an attractive person is also
intelligent and morally upright, based only on appearance
Brand Reputation: well-known brand's new product will be superior in quality
simply because the brand has a positive reputation
Charitable Act Influence: person who engages in charitable acts is inherently
kind and trustworthy in all aspects of life
Prestigious Educational Background: Assuming that a person with a degree
from a prestigious university must be highly competent
Company Culture Perception: company with a fun/innovative corporate
culture must produce superior products
Positive First Impression: 1 positive interaction, not considering behavior in
other situations
Politician's Charisma
Influencer's Approval
Celebrity Endorsement
Red Herring
• An argument that focuses on an irrelevant issue to detract attention from
the real issue
– “red herring” comes from a 19th-century story about using the smell of
a herring to distract dogs from chasing a rabbit.
• During a political debate about government policy reform, candidate avoids
discussing specific policy details, instead brings up opponent's past financial
troubles
• In a court trial, defense attorney shifts focus from evidence/facts of guilt
to difficult childhood of the accused, trying to evoke sympathy
• During a family discussion about household chores, a family member starts
talking about unrelated matters, such as a recent vacation, to avoid the
topic of responsibilities
• Sales pitch for a product with potential flaws, presenter emphasizes brand's
long history/popularity, distracting customers from product's drawbacks
• Conversation about diet/exercise, person starts discussing busy work
schedule, trying to change topic instead of addressing lifestyle choices.
Appeal to Celebrity/ Authority
(Ad Verecundiam)
• Appeal to irrelevant authority, ‘authority’ who is not an authority in
the field (one we have no reason to believe to be such an authority)
• Ad Example:“If you want to be as cool as the people in this
commercial, then you have to drink the same beer that they do”
– Drink this beer because it has a great taste, is an excellent bargain
• Ad Example: “A commercial for a brand of toothpaste claims that
"four out of five dentists prefer our brand."
– Appeals to the idea that the toothpaste brand is popular with
experts in dental health
Hasty Generalization
• Generalization based on insufficient/unrepresented evidence
• “Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to be a
boring course.”
• “My friend took a biology class online and failed it. Online education
is ineffective.”
• Advertisement for a Skincare Product: "100% of users saw significant
improvement in just one week!“
• Cleaning Solution Commercial: "Our product is the only one you'll
ever need to clean your entire house!“
• Weight Loss Product Infomercial: "Lose 20 pounds in 2 weeks with
our revolutionary method!"
Straw Man Fallacy
• Straw man is an argument that is thin and has no substance
– Occurs when r opponent argues against a position you aren't even trying to present
• Misrepresent/alter the argument
– Rather than debating actual argument, attack weaker/untrue version
Parent: "I think we should limit the amount of time our children spend playing video games
to ensure a healthy balance with other activities."
Child: "You hate video games! You want me to have no fun and live in boredom!"
Environmentalist: "We should take steps to reduce plastic waste and promote recycling to
protect the environment."
Skeptic: "You want to ban all plastic products and bring us back to the Stone Age!"
Scientist: "Climate change is a significant concern, and we need to take action to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions."
Denier: "You believe that humans are solely responsible for all climate changes throughout
history."
Advocacy Group: "We're campaigning for better animal welfare standards in factory
farms."
Opponent: "You're trying to end all animal farming and put hardworking farmers out of
business."
Argument from Ignorance
• Proposition relies only on the fact that it has never been proven false;
argument based on lack of proof
– Other names: Argumentium ad Ignoratium
• Using the lack of evidence/knowledge to support a particular claim as
evidence for its truth
– Absence of evidence does not prove or disprove a claim's validity
“Nobody has proved to me there is a God so there is no God.”
"No one can prove that time travel is impossible, so it must be possible."
"Since we haven't found a cure for this disease, it must be incurable."
"Scientists can't explain how consciousness arises in the brain, so it must be a
result of a soul."
"No one has disproven the existence of telepathy, so mind reading must be
real."
"There is no evidence that alien abductions are false, so they must be
happening.“
Non Sequitur (Does Not Follow)
• A conclusion that does not follow logically from preceding
statements or that is based on irrelevant data
“Mary loves children, so will make an excellent school teacher.”
"She owns a luxury car, so she must be a successful businesswoman."
"He is always polite to everyone; therefore, he must be trustworthy."
"She is a famous actress; therefore, she must be an expert on climate
change."
"I saw a black cat this morning, and now I'm having a bad day."
"He's a vegetarian, so he must be a peaceful person."
"I bought this expensive watch, so I'll be more punctual from now on."
"Our team lost the game because the players didn't wear their lucky
socks."
"He has a high IQ, so he'll be the best leader for our organization."
False Analogy
• The assumption that because two things are alike in some respects,
they are alike in others.
“If we put humans on the moon, we should be able to find a cure for
the common cold.”
"Learning is like baking a cake; both require following a recipe for
success."
"Running a country is like running a business; a successful CEO can
make a successful president."
"Comparing climate change to a natural cycle is like comparing a cold
to a global pandemic."
"Banning plastic straws is like banning all forms of plastic; it won't
make any significant difference in environmental impact."
"Running a marathon is like taking a walk in the park; both involve
putting one foot in front of the other."
"Rejecting this new vaccination is like refusing life-saving surgery."
Appeal to the People, Bandwagon
• Fallacy argues that something is true because most people believe it
“Everyone knows that smoking marijuana is physically addictive and
psychologically harmful.”
"Everyone is watching this TV show, so it must be the best show on
television."
"Millions of people use this skincare product, so it must be the most
effective solution for flawless skin."
"All the cool kids are wearing this brand of sneakers, so they must be the
most stylish and comfortable shoes available."
"This politician has the most supporters at rallies, so they are the obvious
choice for the next president."
"This book has been on the bestseller list for weeks, so it must be the most
well-written and compelling story."
“Either… or” Fallacy
• The suggestion that only two alternatives exist when in fact there are
more.
“Either learn how to program a computer, or you won’t be able to
get a decent job after college.”
"You have two choices: be a workaholic and succeed in your career,
or prioritize your family and remain stuck in mediocrity.“
"You're either with us or against us. There is no middle ground."
"You can either study engineering or end up with a low-paying job in
the future."
"If you don't want to get sick, you must either take this vaccine or be
prepared to face severe health issues."
"You can either support this new law or be labeled as an enemy of
progress."
"Either you agree with my political ideology, or you're against the
welfare of the country."
False Cause (Post Hoc, Coincidence vs. Causality)
• Assumption that because one event follows another, first is the
cause of the second
“Since Governor Smith took office, the economy has increased
by seven percent. Governor Smith should be applauded for
increasing the economy.”
• “Every time I wash my car, it rains. I guess washing my car today
would be a bad idea, if we want to have fun in the sun.”
– Corrected: Every time I wash my car, it gets clean. On a
different topic, I hope it doesn’t rain today.
• Ad Example: A wellness company states that using their essential
oil blends in your bath reduces stress and increases wellness.
Although the essential oils may contribute to an atmosphere of
relaxation, they may not inherently cause stress reduction and
increased wellness.
Circular Reasoning/ Begging the Question
(Unsupported Assertion)
• An argument in which the writer, instead of applying evidence simply
restates the point in other language
“The Bible is the word of God because God inspired it."
• This argument assumes that God exists and inspired the Bible, using the
conclusion to support the premise.
"You can trust what I say because I'm always honest."
• This statement asserts the person's honesty without offering any evidence
to support the claim.
"The law is just because it's the law."
• This argument assumes that the law is inherently fair without providing any
external evidence or reasoning.
"Our product is the best because it's the greatest on the market."
• This claim uses circular reasoning by assuming the product's superiority
without offering any specific evidence or comparative analysis.
Argument to the Person (Ad Hominem)
• An attack on the person proposing an argument rather than on the
argument itself.
“Senator Jones was not a soldier and never served in the military, so his
proposal to limit military spending has no merit.”
Maxine should not get that job at the bank. “She has no taste in boyfriends
and her office is a mess.”
"You say that climate change is a significant issue, but you can't be trusted
because you failed science class in high school."
"The expert's opinion on the economy is meaningless because they belong to
a different political party."
"The opposition's proposal is invalid because they're a bunch of uneducated,
uninformed individuals."
"You're just saying that because you're a woman, and women always
overreact to these things."
"His criticism of the new policy is baseless because he's just bitter about not
getting a promotion."
"I don't need to listen to his advice; he's just a lazy, entitled millennial."
Force and Fear (Ad Baculum)
• The ad baculum fallacy is committed whenever the proponent of an
argument attempts to persuade the audience to accept the
conclusion… by predicting (or causing) unpleasant consequences if
it is not accepted.
“Better pay your taxes, because if not your salary and property will
be seized.“
Query: Why should people pay taxes?
"You must use the seat belt, otherwise the police will fine you.
Better put it on when you see a policeman on the street."
Query: argument is used not to protect driver’s life, but to
avoid a fine
Ad Example: A home security company airs a commercial in which
a burglar breaks into someone's house while their children are
home alone. Commercial appeals to viewer's fear that their
children may be in danger, offers product as solution to address
the fear.
Traditional Wisdom(Argumentum ad
Antiquitatem)
• Focuses on the assumption that because something was true in the
past, it also applies to the present
– Belief that doing something consistently for many years or
generations proves its validity
"Our society has always upheld the notion that certain gender roles
are superior. It's the way things have been for generations, and we
should continue to follow these traditional gender norms."
"Our ancestors lived without modern medicine, and they were just
fine. We should avoid vaccines and rely on natural remedies for our
health."
• In advertising, can appeal to a customer's sense of
nostalgia/tradition
Ad Example: The owner of a local restaurant advertises that 3
generations of his family have owned and operated the establishment.
Pity (Ad Misericordiam)
• Ad Misericordiam is an appeal to accept the truth of a conclusion
out of pity for the arguer or some third party. Either the arguer (or
someone else) is already an object of pity, or they will become one if
the conclusion is not accepted.
“If I don’t get at least a B in this course my GPA will drop below 2.0.
If that happens I’ll lose my scholarship and have to quit school, so I
ought to get a B in this course.”
“Dr. Smith, I know I missed the last test but I would really like you
to throw it out because my life has been a mess. My girlfriend
broke up with me, and my grandmother is ill.”
A celebrity facing criticism for their offensive behavior issues a
public apology, pleading for pity by revealing personal struggles,
claiming they didn't mean to cause harm, hoping the public will
overlook their actions.
“I finished 1 month of rehab.”
Classic: “The dog ate my homework.”
Contemporary: “My hard-drive crashed.”
Non-Disproof
• Some claim should be accepted because they have never been
disproved
– The move from ‘not disproved’ to ‘proved’ is invalid
"There is no evidence that aliens don't exist, so they must be real."
• Lack of evidence against something doesn't prove its truth
"Until someone proves that time travel is impossible, it must be a
plausible concept."
“There is no evidence that time travel does not exist, so time travel is
possible.”
Statement assumes as there's no evidence against time travel, it must
be possible, but the burden of proof lies on those claiming its feasibility
“No one has shown me God does not exist, so I believe in God”
Anecdotal Evidence Fallacy
• Rather than using hard facts/data, people using anecdotal evidence
arguments on their own experiences/limited examples
– Arguments focus on emotions over logic
"Whenever I use our email system, I always experience glitches. I think
we need to replace the entire system for the company."
"My grandfather smoked a pack of cigarettes every day and lived to be
90 years old, so smoking can't be that harmful."
"My neighbor's son never got vaccinated and never contracted any
serious diseases. Vaccinations must be unnecessary and potentially
harmful."
"I used this skincare product for a week, and my wrinkles disappeared.
It's a miracle product that defies aging."
Loaded Question
• Occurs when a question is asked that contains an unjustified
assumption, often in a way that forces the person being
questioned to defend themselves
“When did you stop beating your wife?”
"Have you stopped cheating on your exams?"
"Why do you hate poor people?“
"What did you do to upset her this time?"
Cherry Picking (Selective Evidence)
• Selectively presenting evidence that supports a particular argument,
while ignoring evidence that contradicts it
Business might only showcase most positive customer reviews for its
product, ignoring/hiding negative feedback
In competitive analysis, company selectively uses data showing product
performing well in a specific region, ignoring data from other regions
where product performs poorly
"Studies show that eating chocolate helps improve memory, so it must
be true for everyone.“
Fallacy of Composition
• One assumes that what is true for a part is true for the whole
"Each player on this football team is incredibly talented, so this team
must be the best in the league."
"This car has great gas mileage, so it must be a good car overall.“
Company assumes because a product is performing well in a small
segment of the market, it will automatically perform well in the entire
market
Company assumes if a few top-performing employees are achieving
excellent results, entire workforce is performing well
Fallacy of Missing the Point
• a/k/a irrelevant conclusion or ignoratio elenchi
• Argument presents evidence or reasoning that is unrelated to the original
issue/question
• Debating benefits of reducing carbon emissions to combat climate change, person
argues the economy will suffer if we invest in renewable energy.
– Does not address environmental benefits of reducing carbon emissions.
• Discussion of exercise for overall health, someone says they know a person who
smoked, lived to be 100.
– Irrelevant to the health benefits of exercise.
• Harmful effects of excessive sugar consumption, someone says fruit contains
natural sugars.
– Does not address the issue of added sugars in processed foods.
• Importance of vaccinations: argues some vaccines have minor side effects, all
vaccines should be avoided.
– Does not address the overall benefits and risks of vaccinations.
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