10

ACTIVITY ZONE
3. Name the type of reaction between magnesium and
oxygen.
ACTIVITY 1 Ans The reaction between magnesium and oxygen to form
magnesium oxide is a combination reaction.
Objective
4. Is the nature of magnesium oxide (MgO) acidic or basic?
To study the combustion reaction (exothermic) by taking the
example of burning of magnesium in air.
Ans Magnesium oxide is basic in nature and turns red litmus
Materials Required blue.
Magnesium ribbon (approximately 2 cm long), sandpaper, a 5. Burning of magnesium is an exothermic or endothermic
pair of tongs, burner and watch glass. reaction?
Ans Burning of magnesium is an exothermic reaction.
Procedure
1. Take a piece of magnesium ribbon of nearly 2 cm length
and rub it with a sandpaper.
2. Now, hold it with a pair of tongs and heat over the flame of
ACTIVITY 2
a burner. Objective
Tongs To study an exothermic combination reaction with the
help of the reaction between calcium oxide and water.
Materials Required
Burner
Magnesium ribbon Quicklime, water, beakers (2), thermometer and glass rod.
Watch glass Procedure
Magnesium oxide 1. Take a small amount (approximately 5 g) of quicklime
(White powder) (calcium oxide) in a beaker with a glass rod in it.
Burning of a magnesium ribbon in air and 2. Take some water in another beaker and measure its
collection of magnesium oxide in watch glass temperature.
3. Now, add water slowly to the beaker containing
Observation quicklime.
Magnesium ribbon burns with a dazzling or brilliant white 4. Observe the changes and note the temperature of the
flame and a white powder of magnesium oxide is formed. solution formed.
Chemical Reaction Glass rod
2Mg(s ) + O2 ( g ) → 2MgO(s ) + Heat
Magnesium ribbon Magnesium oxide Beaker
(From air)
(White powder) Water

Conclusion
Calcium oxide (quicklime)
Given reaction is a combustion (exothermic) reaction
accompanied by the evolution of heat and light. Moreover, Formation of slaked lime by the
here oxidation of magnesium occurs. reaction of calcium oxide with water

Note When MgO is dissolved in water, it forms magnesium Observation

hydroxide which is basic in nature, i.e. it turns red litmus blue
because of its basic nature. The reaction is vigorous and highly exothermic. The
temperature rises as the reaction proceeds.

Check Yourself Chemical Reaction

CaO(s ) + H 2O(l ) → Ca(OH)2 (aq ) + Heat
1. Combustion reaction is an example of physical change or Quicklime Water Slaked lime
chemical change.
Ans Combustion reaction is an example of chemical change. Conclusion
2. What are the burning characteristic of magnesium ribbon? It is a combination reaction which is exothermic in
Ans Magnesium ribbon burns in air with a dazzling white flame. nature.
 Chemical Reactions and Equations 11

Check Yourself Chemical Reactions

1. Write the chemical formula of quicklime. ∆

FeSO4 ⋅ 7H 2O(s ) → FeSO4 (s ) + 7H 2O( g )
Ans The chemical formula of quicklime is calcium oxide (CaO). (Green crystals) (Dirty white) Water

2. Name the product formed when quicklime reacts with water. 2FeSO4 (s ) Heat
→ Fe 2O3 (s ) + SO2 ( g ) + SO3 ( g )
Ans When quicklime reacts with water, slaked lime [Ca(OH) 2 ] is Ferrous Ferric oxide Sulphur Sulphur
sulphate (Brown) dioxide trioxide
formed.
3. Is there any change in temperature during the above Conclusion
reaction? This reaction is an example of dehydration and thermal
Ans Yes, the mixture will appear to be boiling thus, the decomposition as the crystals first lose water molecules
temperature will rise. then break into the constituents on heating.
4. A solution of a substance X is used for white washing. Name The characteristic odour of burning sulphur is due to SO2
the substance X. and SO3 gases.
Ans Substance X is quicklime (CaO) which is used for white
washing.
5. Name the compound used to test the evolution of carbon Check Yourself
dioxide gas.
Ans Calcium hydroxide solution [ Ca(OH) 2 ] (freshly prepared) is 1. What is the formula of crystalline ferrous sulphate?
used to test the evolution of CO2 gas. Ans FeSO4 ⋅7H2O
Ca(OH) 2( aq) + CO2 → CaCO3 ( s) + H2O
2. What is the other name of hydrated ferrous sulphate?
Ans Green vitriol
3. Name the products formed when anhydrous ferrous
ACTIVITY 3 sulphate is heated.
Ans On heating, anhydrous ferrous sulphate gives ferric oxide
Objective (Fe2O3), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3).
To study the decomposition of ferrous sulphate. 4. What is the type of reaction when crystals of ferrous
sulphate are heated strongly?
Materials Required
Ans Thermal decomposition reaction
Ferrous sulphate crystals ( 2 g), boiling tube, burner and a
pair of tong. 5. What is the valency of iron in ferrous sulphate?
Ans Valency of iron in ferrous sulphate is + 2, i.e. Fe 2+ .
Procedure
1. Take some ferrous sulphate crystals in a dry test
tube and heat it on the flame of a burner. ACTIVITY 4
2. Observe the changes. Objective To study the electrolysis of water.
Boiling tube
SO2 and SO3 gases Materials Required
Plastic mug with 2 holes, a few drops of concentrated
Ferrous sulphate sulphuric acid, 2 graphite rods, 2 test tubes, water, wires
crystals A pair of tong
and battery (6 V).
Procedure
1. Take a plastic mug, drill two holes at the base, fit rubber
Burner
stoppers in these holes and insert graphite rods (electrodes)
in these rubber stoppers.
Decomposition of ferrous sulphate crystals 2. Now connect these electrodes to a 6 V battery with the
help of wires.
3. Fill the mug (upto half ) with acidulated water.
Observation Remember, that the electrodes should be immersed in
When green coloured ferrous sulphate crystals are heated, water.
first a dirty white powder is formed (anhydrous salt), then on 4. Now take two test tubes filled with water and invert
further heating, a brown residue is formed and characteristic them over the two graphite electrodes. Test the gases
odour of sulphur is observed. evolved in test tubes.
 12

Plastic mug
Oxygen
Test tube
Hydrogen ACTIVITY 5
Water Objective
Graphite To study the effect of sunlight on silver chloride.
rod Rubber
stopper Materials Required
Anode Cathode Silver chloride and China dish.
6V
Switch Battery Procedure
Electrolysis of water 1. Place a small amount of
silver chloride (about 2
Observation g) in a China dish.
Observe its colour. Sunlight
After some time, some gas bubbles arising in water at both
the electrodes. 2. Place this China dish in China dish
The gases formed at two electrodes go on collecting in the sunlight for some time. Silver chloride
top parts of the inverted test tubes. In one test tube Observe the colour
(at cathode), the volume of the gas (H 2 ) is double than the change.
other (O2 ) at anode.
Observation
Chemical Reaction After some time, the colour of the material changes
2H 2O(l )  Electric
 → 2H 2 ( g ) + O2 ( g ) (to grey).
current
Water Hydrogen Oxygen
Chemical Reaction
Conclusion Sunlight
2AgCl(s ) → 2Ag(s ) + Cl 2 ( g )
This reaction is an example of decomposition. As it Silver chloride Silver Chlorine
takes place by passing electric current, so it is called (White) (Grey)
electrolysis. In water, H 2 and O2 gases are present in ratio
2 : 1 by volume. Conclusion
This is a decomposition reaction. As it takes place in the
Note A few drops of acid are added to water that make it good
presence of light, so it is also called photolysis or
conductor of electricity.
photochemical decomposition.

Check Yourself Check Yourself

1. Which one is a chemical change, electrolysis of water or 1. What change in colour is observed when white silver
sodium chloride exposed in sunlight? chloride (AgCl) is left exposed to sunlight?
Ans Electrolysis of water is a chemical change. Ans The white solid silver chloride turns grey when exposed
to sunlight.
2. In what ratio H2 and O 2 are present in electrolytic
decomposition of water? 2. What type of chemical reaction is this?
Ans In electrolytic decomposition of water, H2 and O2 are present Ans Photodecomposition reaction.
in 2 : 1 ratio by volume. 3. Name the products obtained when silver chloride is
3. Why decomposition reaction of water is called electrolysis exposed to sunlight.
of water? Ans Silver and chlorine.
Ans This decomposition reaction takes place by the action of 4. Name two salts that are used in black and white
electricity. So, it is called electrolysis of water. photography.
4. What conclusion can you draw from electrolysis of water? Ans Silver chloride (AgCl) and silver bromide (AgBr).
Ans Electrolysis of water shows that water is a compound made up 5. Write the decomposition reaction of silver bromide (AgBr).
of 2 parts of hydrogen and 1 part of oxygen. So, the formula Light
of water is H2O. Ans 2AgBr ( s)  → 2Ag( s) + Br2( g)
(Decomposition) Silver Bromine
Silver
5. Name the gas which burns with pop sound. bromide
Ans Hydrogen gas.
 Chemical Reactions and Equations 13

Observation
ACTIVITY 6 The blue colour of copper sulphate solution in test tube B
fades away, while the blue colour in test tube A remains as
Objective
such.
To study displacement reaction of copper by iron in copper The brown deposits appeared on the iron nail that is taken
sulphate solution. out from test tube B.
Materials Required Chemical Reaction
Iron nails (2), test tubes (2) and copper sulphate solution. Fe(s ) + CuSO4 (aq ) → Cu(s ) + FeSO4 (aq )
Procedure Iron Copper sulphate Copper Ferrous sulphate
(Blue) (Light green colour)
1. Take two iron nails and clean them by rubbing with
sandpaper.
2. Take two test tubes marked as A and B and put Conclusion
10 mL CuSO4 in both. The more reactive element, iron, displaces copper from
3. Tie one iron nail with a thread and immerse it in test copper sulphate solution. This is a displacement reaction.
tube B, for about 20 min.
Check Yourself
4. Keep solution A as such and second iron nail aside for
comparison. 1. What changes in the colour of iron nails and copper
sulphate solution do you observe after keeping the iron
nails dipped in copper sulphate solution for about 20 min?
Test tube (B) Ans Iron nails become brownish in colour and the blue colour of
Thread copper sulphate solution fade.
2. Why the blue colour of copper sulphate fades by adding
Copper sulphate iron nails in it?
solution (blue)
Stand Ans This happens because iron being more reactive than Cu,
Iron nail displaces Cu from CuSO4 solution and forms new products,
iron sulphate (FeSO4 ) and copper metal.
3. What is the formula of crystalline copper sulphate?
Ans CuSO4 ⋅5H2O
(a ) 4. Is it safe to store the solution of iron (II) sulphate in a
(a) Iron nail dipped in copper sulphate copper vessel?
solution in test tube B Ans Yes, it is safe to store iron (II) sulphate solution in a copper
vessel because copper is less reactive than iron.
Iron nail Iron nail taken
(before experiment) out from copper 5. Name the type of reaction in the above activity.
sulphate solution Ans The reaction is a redox displacement reaction.
(Brown deposit)

A B ACTIVITY 7
Ferrous sulphate Objective
Copper solution (green)
sulphate
To study the double displacement reaction of barium
Test tube stand
solution chloride and sodium sulphate solution.
(blue)
Materials Required
Test tubes (2), 3 mL barium chloride solution and 3 mL
(b) sodium sulphate solution, stirrer rod and conical flask.
(b) Iron nails and copper sulphate solutions
compared before and after the experiment
 14

Procedure Check Yourself

1. Take 3 mL of sodium sulphate solution in one test
tube and 3 mL of barium chloride solution in another
1. Name the reaction in which two compounds exchange their
ions to form two new compounds.
test tube.
Ans Double displacement reaction.
2. Then add these two solutions in conical flask and
stirrer it by using stirrer rod. 2. What is the insoluble substance formed in a reaction between
barium chloride and sodium sulphate?
Observation Ans In a reaction between barium chloride and sodium sulphate, a
A white substance, which is insoluble in water is precipitate of barium sulphate (BaSO4 ) is formed which is
formed. This insoluble substance is a precipitate of insoluble.
barium sulphate (BaSO4 ). 3. What is the colour of barium sulphate precipitate in a reaction?
Chemical Reaction Ans A white precipitate of barium sulphate (BaSO4 ) is formed.

Na 2 SO4 (aq ) + BaCl 2 (aq ) → BaSO4 ↓

4. State the physical conditions of reactants in which the reaction
between barium chloride and sodium sulphate will not take place.
Sodium sulphate Barium chloride Barium
sulphate Ans Reaction will not take place if the two reactants are in the solid
(White ppt .) state.
5. Write a chemical equation if ammonium sulphate is used in place
+ 2NaCl (aq ) of sodium sulphate in above activity.
Sodium chloride
Conclusion Ans (NH4 ) 2 SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4 ↓ + 2NH4 Cl
Ammonium Barium Barium Ammonium
The reaction is an example of double displacement sulphate chloride sulphate chloride
(white ppt. )
reaction and precipitation reaction.
 Acids, Bases and Salts 43

ACTIVITY ZONE
M (s ) + 2HCl(aq ) → M Cl 2 (aq ) + H2( g )
ACTIVITY 1 2M (s ) + H2SO4 (aq ) → M 2SO4 (aq ) + H2( g )
Objective M (s ) + 2CH3COOH(aq ) → (CH3COO)2 M (aq )
To study the reaction of acids or bases with active metals. + H2( g )
Zn(s ) + Ca (OH )2 → No reaction
Materials Required
Zn (s ) + 2NaOH(aq ) → Na 2 ZnO2(s ) + H2( g )
Zinc granules, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, Zinc Sodium Hydrogen
Sodium
sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, test tube, test tube stand, hydroxide zincate gas
delivery tube, soap, water, trough, cork and candle. (Strong base)

Procedure
1. Take some zinc granules in the test tube and then add dilute Check Yourself
sulphuric acid to it. Set the apparatus as shown below.
1. Which gas is produced by the reaction of zinc and
2. Observe the surface of zinc granules. Take a burning candle dilute sulphuric acid?
near the soap bubbles filled with the gas and observe. Ans When zinc reacts with dilute sulphuric acid then
3. Repeat the same procedure with hydrochloric acid, acetic hydrogen gas (H2) is produced.
acid, sodium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide and observe
2. How will you test for the presence of the gas
the result in each case. produced?
Delivery Ans When a burning candle is brought near the soap
tube Burning of hydrogen bubbles produced filled with gas, hydrogen gas burns
Stand gas with a pop sound with a pop sound.
3. Why zinc granules are preferred over zinc strip for
Candle the reaction of Zn with HCl?
Test tube Hydrogen Ans Zn granules are preferred because it provides large
Dilute gas surface area (as it is present in powdered form) to react
sulphuric bubbles with dilute HCl.
acid
Zinc Soap bubble 4. Name the salt produced when zinc metal reacts with
granules filled with sodium hydroxide solution to produce hydrogen gas.
hydrogen Ans When zinc metal reacts with sodium hydroxide
gas solution then sodium zincate is formed.
Soap 5. Can all bases react with active metals to produce
solution hydrogen gas?
Reaction of zinc granules with dilute sulphuric Ans No, only strong base like sodium hydroxide is capable
acid and testing the gas evolved to release hydrogen gas with active metals.

Observation
Some effervescence is observed near zinc surface and the soap
bubbles which burst with ‘pop’ sound are obtained when
ACTIVITY 2
sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, acetic acid and sodium Objective
hydroxide is used but no bubble is produced with calcium To study the reaction of metal carbonates and
hydroxide.
bicarbonates with acids.
Conclusion
Materials Required
Active metals evolve hydrogen gas with all acids but not with all
Marble pieces (calcium carbonate, CaCO3), baking
bases. In case of base, only strong base like sodium hydroxide is
soda (sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3), dilute
capable to release hydrogen gas with active metals.
hydrochloric acid (HCl), lime water, test tubes, thistle
funnel and delivery tube (bent at two places).
 44

Procedure 3. What is the nature of carbon dioxide gas evolved?

1. Take some marble pieces in the test tube and set the Ans The nature of carbon dioxide gas is acidic.
apparatus, as shown in the figure 4. Why the lime water turns milky in this activity?
Thistle funnel Ans The lime water turns milky due to the formation of calcium
Delivery carbonate.
tube
Stand Ca(OH) 2 + CO2( g ) → CaCO3 ↓ + H2 O(l )
Cork Slaked Carbon Calcium Water
lime dioxide carbonate
(White ppt.)
Test tube
Test tube
5. What happens when CO 2 gas is passed for a longer time?
Carbon dioxide
gas Calcium Ans If the CO2 gas is passed for a longer time, milkiness disappears
Dilute hydroxide due to the formation of soluble calcium bicarbonate.
hydrochloric solution
acid Calcium CaCO3 + H2 O + CO2( g ) → Ca(HCO3) 2
carbonate Calcium Water Carbon Calcium bicarbonate
(marble pieces) carbonate dioxide ( Soluble)

Passing carbon dioxide gas through

calcium hydroxide solution ACTIVITY 3
2. Now add dilute HCl with the help of thistle funnel and Objective
pass the gas evolved in lime water. Observe the colour of To study the neutralisation reaction of an acid and a base.
lime water.
3. Repeat the same experiment with baking soda. Materials Required
Dilute sodium hydroxide solution, dilute hydrochloric acid,
Observation phenolphthalein, test tube, test tube stand and dropper.
The lime water turns milky due to the formation of calcium
carbonate. If the gas is passed for a longer time, milkiness Procedure
disappears due to the conversion of white calcium 1. Take some sodium hydroxide solution in a test tube and
carbonate into soluble calcium bicarbonate. add a few (one or two) drops of phenolphthalein.
CO2 ( g ) + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 (s ) + H2O(l ) 2. Observe the colour.
Carbon Lime water Calcium Water 3. Now add hydrochloric acid drop by drop with the help
dioxide carbonate
(White ppt.)
of a dropper and observe the change.
CaCO3 (s ) + H2O(l ) + CO2 ( g ) → Ca(HCO3 )2 Observation
Calcium Water Carbon Calcium When phenolphthalein is added to sodium hydroxide
carbonate dioxide bicarbonate
(Soluble) solution, violet colour is obtained which gets disappeared
Conclusion when hydrochloric acid is added in excess. The violet
Carbon dioxide gas is evolved when metal carbonates and colour reappear if sodium hydroxide is added again to
bicarbonates react with acids. resulted solution.
CaCO3 + 2HCl(dil.) → CaCl 2 (aq ) + H2O(l ) + CO2 ( g )
Calcium Hydrochloric Calcium Water Carbon Conclusion
Carbonate acid chloride dioxide Acid nullified the effect of a base and base nullified the effect
(Marble)
of an acid. This reaction is called neutralisation reaction.
2NaHCO3 + 2HCl(dil.) → 2 NaCl(aq ) + 2H2O(l )
Sodium Salt Water NaOH(aq ) + HCl(aq ) → NaCl(aq ) + H2O(l )
Hydrochloric
bicarbonate Base Acid Salt Water
acid + 2CO2 ( g )
Carbon
dioxide
Check Yourself
Check Yourself 1. Write the products formed when an acid reacts with a
1. Which gas is evolved when calcium carbonate reacts with base.
hydrochloric acid? Ans When an acid reacts with a base then salt and water are
Ans Carbon dioxide gas is evolved when calcium carbonate reacts formed.
with hydrochloric acid. Acid + Base → Salt + Water
2. How will you test for the presence of carbon dioxide gas 2. Write the equation of an acid (HCl) with a base (NaOH).
(CO 2 )? Ans HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2 O
Ans Carbon dioxide does not support combustion. Therefore, Hydrochloric Sodium Sodium Water
carbon dioxide gas can extinguish a burning candle if brought acid hydroxide chloride
(Acid) (Base) (Salt)
near to it.
 Acids, Bases and Salts 45

3. Write the colour of phenolphthalein indicator in sodium

hydroxide solution. Observation and Explanation
Ans When phenolphthalein is added to NaOH, violet colour is
obtained. Glucose Ethanol HCl H2SO 4
S.No. Solutions solution solution solution
4. What happens if we add dilute HCl in the above solution
drop by drop? 1. Bulb does Bulb does Bulb Bulb
Observation
Ans Violet colour obtained in the above solution disappears when not glow not glow glows glows
dilute HCl is added in the solution drop by drop.
5. What change in colour you observed when sodium 2. Ions Ions Ions Ions
Reason
hydroxide solution is added again to the above test tube absent absent present present
solution?
Ans When some sodium hydroxide solution is added to the test Conclusion
tube, then violet colour reappears. Whether a solution will conduct electricity or not
6. What conclusion can you draw from this activity? depends on the presence or absence of ions in it. As
Ans The conclusion drawn from this activity is that acid nullified the glucose and ethanol are covalent compounds, they do not
effect of a base and base nullified the effect of an acid. conduct electricity but ionic compounds such as HCl and
H 2SO4 conduct electricity.

ACTIVITY 4 Check Yourself

Objective
To differentiate between the nature of ionic and covalent 1. Why do HCl, HNO 3 etc. show acidic character in aqueous
compounds on the basis of electrical conductivity. solution?
Ans HCl and HNO3 furnish H + ( aq ) ions on dissolving in water
Materials Required
which are responsible for their acidic character.
Glucose, ethanol (ethyl alcohol), hydrochloric acid, sulphuric
acid, beakers, wires, metal strips/nails (iron), rubber cork, 2. Why do compounds like alcohol and glucose do not
one bulb, a 6 V battery and switch. show acidic character?
Ans Alcohol and glucose do not furnish H+ ( aq) ion on dissolving
Procedure
in water and hence, these solutions do not show acidic
1. Take aqueous solution of HCl in a beaker and set the character.
apparatus, as shown in the diagram given below. As
3. Why does an aqueous solution of an acid conduct
current flows through the solution, observe the bulb and electricity?
record the observations.
Ans The separation of H + ion from an acid occurs in the
2. Repeat the same experiment using glucose, H 2SO4 and presence of water. The hydrogen ions produced are
ethyl alcohol solution. responsible for the conduction of electricity.
Battery 6V 4. If we take benzene (C6H6 ) in the above experiment, bulb
Bulb
will glow or not?
Switch
Ans If we take benzene (C6H6), the bulb will not glow because
no H + ( aq) ions will be produced. This suggests that the
Beaker solution would be non-conducting.
5. Which type of compound shows electrical conductivity?
Iron nail Ans Ionic compounds like HCl, H2 SO4 , NaOH etc., show
Dil. HCl solution electrical conductivity in water due to the presence of ions
Rubber cork in it.

Acid solution in water

conducts electricity
 46

3. Name the acid formed when the chlorine gas is

ACTIVITY 5 dissolved in water.
Ans Hydrochloric acid.
Objective
To study the effect of dry and wet blue litmus paper on
(i) dry HCl gas (ii) HCl solution. ACTIVITY 6
Materials Required Objective
Test tubes, NaCl salt, conc. H 2SO4 , dry and wet litmus paper
strips, delivery tube and one cork.
To study the reaction of metallic oxide with an acid.

Procedure Materials Required

Take about 1g solid NaCl in a clean and dry test tube. Add a Copper oxide, dilute hydrochloric acid, beaker and
small amount of conc. H 2SO4 to the test tube. A gas is evolved. stirrer.
Test it with dry and wet litmus papers. Record the observations.
Procedure
Moist litmus
1. Take 1g of copper oxide in a beaker.
paper
2. Now, add dilute acid such as dil. HCl to it with
Delivery tube constant stirring.
Cork
Conical flask
Test tube
3. Observe the change in the reaction mixture.
containing
conc. Guard tube containing
H2SO4 Observation
calcium chloride
Test tube The colour of the solution becomes blue-green due to
Sodium the formation of copper (II) chloride.
chloride
Preparation of HCl gas CuO(s ) + 2HCl (aq ) → CuCl 2(aq ) + H 2O(l )
Copper Hydrochloric Copper (II) Water
oxide acid chloride
Note If the climate is very humid, the students should pass the gas (Blue-green)
produced through a guard tube (drying tube) containing calcium
chloride to dry the gas. Conclusion
Observation Metallic oxide, i.e. CuO behaves as a base and forms
(i) Dry HCl gas salt and water when it reacts with an acid like HCl. In
other words, a metallic oxide is basic in nature.
• Only the colour of wet (moist) blue litmus paper turns to
red.
• No change occur in dry blue litmus paper.
(ii) HCl solution
Check Yourself
The colour of both wet and dry blue litmus papers turns to 1. What happens when metal oxides react with acids?
red. Ans Acids react with metal oxides to form their respective salts
and water as the only products.
Conclusion Metal oxide + Acid → Metal salt + Water
This experiment suggests that hydrogen ion in HCl are
produced in the presence of water. The separation of H + ion 2. Write the reaction of magnesium oxide with
from HCl molecules cannot occur in the absence of water. As hydrochloric acid.
only colour of wet (moist) blue litmus paper change to red, no Ans MgO + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2 O
change is occur in dry litmus paper. Magnesium Hydrochloric Magnesium Water
oxide acid chloride

Check Yourself 3. What is the nature of metallic oxides?

Ans Metallic oxides are basic in nature.
1. What is the effect of dry HCl gas on (i) dry litmus paper (ii) 4. What colour is observed when hydrochloric acid is
moist litmus paper? mixed with copper oxide?
Ans (i) No effect (ii) Blue litmus paper turns red Ans The colour of the solution becomes blue-green due to the
2. Write the chemical equation for the preparation of HCl gas formation of copper (II) chloride.
and also give the role of CaCl 2 taken in the guard tube. 5. What is the nature of non-metallic oxides?
Ans 2NaCl ( s) + H2 SO4 ( aq) → Na 2 SO4 ( aq) + 2HCl ( g) Ans Non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature.
Role of CaCl 2 : To absorb moisture.
 Acids, Bases and Salts 47

ACTIVITY 7 ACTIVITY 8
Objective Objective
To study the reaction of dissolution of concentrated To study the effect of indicators on the given samples of
sulphuric acid (or any other) with water. acids and bases.
Materials Required Materials Required
Water, conc. H2SO4, beaker, thermometer, stand, test tube HCl, H2SO4 , HNO3 , CH3COOH, NaOH, Ca(OH)2 , Mg(OH)2 ,
and glass rod. KOH, NH4OH, litmus (blue and red) solutions,
Procedure phenolphthalein, methyl orange, test tube stand and test
1. Take water in a beaker. tubes.
2. Note the initial Procedure
temperature with the
1. Take all acid and base solutions in separate test tubes.
help of a thermometer.
2. Now add a few drops of red litmus solution to each.
3. Take a small amount of Water
conc. H2SO4 in a test tube 3. Note down the colour change.
+ H2SO4
and pour it drop by drop 4. Repeat the same procedure with blue litmus solution,
in the beaker (very phenolphthalein and methyl orange for every acid and
slowly) along its sides. base solution.

4. Continue to stir the Observation

mixture with the help of a glass rod. Again note down
Methyl
the temperature. Sample Red litmus Blue litmus Phenolphthalein
orange
solutions solution solution solution
solution
Note As the reaction is too vigorous, safety tips must be taken.
HCl — — — —
Observation
H2SO 4 — — — —
A rise in temperature is observed.
HNO 3 — — — —
Conclusion
Dissolution of conc. H2SO4 in water is an exothermic CH3COOH — — — —
reaction, as heat is evolved in the reaction. NaOH — — — —

Ca(OH)2 — — — —

Check Yourself Mg(OH)2 — — — —

1. Name the type of reaction between any concentrated acid KOH — — — —

and water. NH4 OH — — — —
Ans The reaction between any concentrated acid and water is
exothermic reaction.
2. What precautions must be taken while mixing Conclusion
conc. H2SO 4 with water? Acid solutions turn blue litmus red. Basic solutions turn red
Ans The acid must always be added slowly to water with constant litmus blue. Phenolphthalein is colourless in acids while
stirring. pink in bases. Methyl orange gives red colour in acids and
yellow in basic solutions.
3. What happens when water is added to concentrated acid?
Ans If water is added to a concentrated acid, the heat generated is
too large which may cause the mixture to splash out and Check Yourself
cause burns.
1. What is the effect of litmus paper on curd and lemon?
4. Is there any change in temperature during this activity? Ans Both curd and lemon are acidic in nature contain natural
Ans Yes, rise in temperature is observed. acids, i.e. lactic acid and citric acid respectively. Therefore,
only the colour of blue litmus paper turns red.
5. What conclusion can you draw from this experiment?
Ans A rise in temperature shows that dissolution of conc. H2 SO4 in 2. Methyl orange is added to a solution and the solution
turns red. What information do you get about the
water is an exothermic reaction, as heat is evolved in the
solution?
reaction.
 48

Ans Methyl orange turns red in a solution. It shows that the

solution is an acid. ACTIVITY 10
3. Which acid is present in vinegar?
Ans Acetic acid (CH3 COOH). Objective
To test the given samples of acids and bases with the help
4. If the aqueous solution of slaked lime is tested with methyl
orange. It produces yellow colour. What is the nature of of olfactory indicators.
slaked lime solution? Materials Required
Ans Methyl orange solution turns slaked lime solution to yellow,
Dilute hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide solution,
this suggests that slaked lime solution is basic in nature.
onion juice, clove oil, dilute vanilla essence and test tubes.
Procedure
ACTIVITY 9 1. Check the odour of onion juice and add its few
(but equal) drops in dil. HCl and dil. NaOH solutions
Objective taken in different test tubes.
To test the given samples of water, acid and base with the 2. Again check the odour.
turmeric (haldi) solution, a natural indicator. 3. Repeat the same procedure with clove oil and dilute
vanilla essence.
Materials Required
Lemon, soap, water and turmeric solution. Observation
Odour of onion, clove oil and vanilla essence get
Procedure diminished in a base but remains unaffected in an acid.
1. Take the samples of lemon juice and soap solution in
separate test tubes. Conclusion
2. In a separate test tube, take a sample of water too. Onion juice, clove oil, dilute vanilla essence all are olfactory
3. Now add a few drops of turmeric solution (in water) in all indicators as they have lost their smell in one of the media
the test tubes. (either acidic or basic).
4. Record the observations.
Observation Check Yourself
The colour of turmeric is yellow in lemon and water but
turns red in soap solution. 1. What is the odour of onion juice in dilute hydrochloric acid?
Ans The odour of onion juice in dilute hydrochloric acid remains
Conclusion same.
Turmeric is a natural indicator. It gives yellow colour in
2. What is the odour of onion juice in sodium hydroxide
acid solution (lemon) as well as in water while gives red solution?
colour in basic solution (soap).
Ans Odour of onion juice in sodium hydroxide solution gets
diminished.
3. How olfactory indicator can be used as an acid-base
Check Yourself indicator by visually impaired student?
Ans Olfactory indicator smells different in acidic and basic media
1. When yellow stain of turmeric rubbed with soap. What will which can be detected easily by a visually impaired student,
you observe? What is the nature of soap?
e.g. if basic solution is added to vanilla extract then we cannot
Ans The yellow stain of turmeric turns red when rubbed with detect the characteristic smell of vanilla extract, whereas, if
soap. Soap is alkaline in nature, since turmeric (an indicator) acidic solution is added, the smell of vanilla extract does not
changes to red colour in the presence of OH− ions. destroy.
2. What is the colour of turmeric in acid solution? 4. Write the odour test for clove oil in dil. HCl and dil. NaOH
Ans Turmeric (a natural indicator) gives yellow colour in acid solution.
solution. Ans In dil. HCl, there is no change of odour of clove oil. In dil.
3. What colour is obtained when turmeric is mixed with NaOH, there is change in odour of clove oil.
water? 5. A strip of absolutely clear cloth is sprayed with onion juice.
Ans The colour of turmeric remains yellow in water. The strip is then rubbed with few drops of hydrochloric
4. What is the colour of turmeric in basic solution? acid. Will the strip smell like onion?
Ans Turmeric gives red colour in basic solution. Ans Yes, the strip will smell like onion. An acidic solution, like
hydrochloric acid does not destroy the smell of onion.
 Acids, Bases and Salts 49

ACTIVITY 11 Check Yourself

Objective 1. Which one is a stronger acid, acid with pH = 5 or with pH = 2 ?
To determine the pH values of the given solutions Ans pH = 2, because lower the pH, stronger is the acid.
with the help of pH paper. 2. What is the pH of distilled water and common salt solution?
Materials Required Ans pH of distilled water = 7, pH of common salt solution = 7
[As common salt (NaCl) is neutral].
Lemon juice, tomato juice, saliva, carrot juice, soda
water, coffee, tea, tap water, 1 M NaOH solution, 3. What is the colour of tomato juice on pH paper?
1 M HCl solution and pH paper. Ans The colour of tomato juice on pH paper is orange.
Procedure 4. What is the minimum and maximum value of pH scale?
1. Take different solutions in different test tubes. Ans Minimum value = 0 and maximum value = 14.
2. Now, place one or two drops of lemon juice on a 5. According to pH scale, which solutions are acid and base?
pH paper strip. Ans Solutions having pH value less than 7 are acidic while those having
3. Note the colour obtained. pH value greater than 7 are basic in nature.
4. Repeat the same procedure with each given solution 6. What is the colour of pH paper in water?
using a new pH paper strip and note the colours Ans pH paper shows green colour in water.
obtained.
Red Yellow Green Blue

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ACTIVITY 12
Objective
To observe water of crystallisation in copper sulphate crystals.
Gastric juice Lemon juice Pure water, Milk of magnesia Sodium hydroxide Materials Required
(about 1.2) (about 2.2) blood (7.4) (10) solution (about 14)
Boiling tube, test tube holder, copper sulphate crystals and
pH paper chart showing colours for different pH values Bunsen burner.

Observation Procedure
1. Take about 2 g crystals of copper sulphate salt in a dry
Nature boiling tube and note the colour of crystals.
Colour of Approximate
S. No. Solution of the
pH paper pH value
solution

1. Lemon juice
Test tube holder
2. Tomato juice
3. Saliva
4. Carrot juice
5. Soda water
6. Coffee
7. Tea
8. NaOH
9. HCl Removing water of crystallisation

10. Tap water

2. Heat the boiling tube containing copper sulphate crystals
and observe the changes occur.
Conclusion
3. Some water droplets are formed in the boiling tube.
Solutions having pH value less than 7 are acidic while
those having pH value greater than 7 are basic in 4. Put off the burner after few minutes of heating. And add 2-3
nature. As pH value of water is 7, therefore it is drops of water in same sample.
considered neither acidic nor basic but neutral. 5. Observe the colour change after addition of 2-3 drops of
water.
 50

(ii) Note down, whether the salt is soluble or not; and if

Observation soluble, then upto what extent.
Before heating The copper sulphate crystals which seems (iii) Now, test all the solutions with the help of pH paper as in
to be dry, contain water of crystallisation that’s why, salt is the activity 8 and record the observations.
blue in colour.
After heating On heating, this water (hydrated CuSO4 ) is Observation
removed and the salt turns white.
Salt Solubility Colour with pH Acidic/ Acid and base
And when crystals are again moisten with few drops of in water paper and pH basic from which salt
water, blue colour of the crystals reappears. is formed
Chemical formula of hydrated copper sulphate is NaCl HCl + NaOH
CuSO4 ⋅ 5H 2O.
∆
−5H 2 O KNO 3 HNO 3 + KOH
CuSO4 ⋅ 5H 2O s CuSO4 AlCl 3 HCl + Al(OH)3
(Blue) +5 H 2 O (White)
ZnSO 4 H2SO 4 + Zn(OH)2
Conclusion CuSO 4 H2SO 4 + Cu(OH)2
The blue colour of copper sulphate is due to the presence of
CH3COONa CH3COOH+NaOH
water of crystallisation, which can be removed by heating.
Na 2CO 3 H2CO 3 + NaOH
NaHCO 3 H2CO 3 + NaOH
Check Yourself
Conclusion
1. What do you mean by water of crystallisation? This activity shows that nature of salt depends on its origin.
Ans Crystals of some compounds seen to be dry (or anhydrous) It means that salts have four categories:
but actually contain some water molecules, attached to them.
(i ) Salt of strong acid and strong base = Neutral (pH = 7).
This water is called water of crystallisation and such salts are
called hydrated salts. (ii ) Salt of weak acid and strong base = Basic (pH > 7).
2. Name the chemical formula of hydrated copper sulphate (iii ) Salt of strong acid and weak base = Acidic (pH < 7).
salt. (iv ) Salt of weak acid and weak base = Neutral (pH = 7).
Ans The chemical formula of hydrated copper sulphate is
CuSO4 ⋅ 5H2 O.
Check Yourself
3. Name one salt (other than hydrated copper sulphate)
which show water of crystallisation.
1. Give two examples of:
Ans Hydrated sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO3 ⋅10H2 O).
(i) soluble bases
4. In the above activity, water droplets are formed near the (ii) partially soluble bases
mouth of the boiling tube. What does it indicate?
(iii) insoluble bases
Ans It indicates that the sample present in the boiling tube is a
hydrated salt (i.e. contain water of crystallisation). Ans (i) Soluble bases Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and
potassium hydroxide (KOH).
(ii) Partially soluble bases Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH) 2 ] and

ACTIVITY 13 magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH) 2 ].

(iii) Insoluble bases Zinc hydroxide [Zn(OH) 2 ] and
Objective copper (II) hydroxide [Cu(OH) 2 ].
To determine (a) the pH value and nature (b) solubility 2. The pH of an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid is 2.
of the given samples of salts. What will be the pH of the acid after the addition of 10 g
of sodium chloride?
Materials Required Ans Sodium chloride (NaCl) is a neutral salt, that dissolves to form
Sodium chloride, potassium nitrate, aluminium chloride, a neutral salt solution. Hence, the pH will not be affected.
zinc sulphate, copper sulphate, sodium acetate, sodium 3. Arrange the following solutions in the order of decreasing
carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, water, test tubes H + (aq) ions concentration.
and pH paper. (i) Ammonium hydroxide (ii) Gastric juice
Procedure (iii) Vinegar (iv) Sodium hydroxide
(i) Make the solutions of the given salts in different test Ans Gastric juice > Vinegar > Ammonium hydroxide > Sodium
tubes by dissolving them in water. hydroxide.
 Metals and Non-Metals 87

ACTIVITY ZONE
Check Yourself
ACTIVITY 1 (a) 1. What happens when we rub the surface of the metals with
sand paper?
Aim
Ans Metals regain their original shine when rubbed with sand paper
To study the following physical properties of metals (in most of the cases).
Ä Metallic lustre Ä Hardness 2. Name a metal which can be cut with a knife.
Ä Malleability Ä Ductility Ans Sodium metal is soft and can be easily cut with a knife.
Ä Sonority
3. Aluminium is used for making cooking utensils.
Materials Required Which properties of aluminium are responsible for the same?
Samples (ribbon/pieces/wires) of some metals like Fe, Ans Due to good thermal conductivity and high melting point,
aluminium metal is used for making utensils.
Cu, Al, Mg, Pb, Zn, Na etc., sand paper, knife, filter
paper and hammer. 4. What is ductility?
Ans The ability of metals to be drawn into thin wire is known as
Procedure ductility.
1. Initially note the appearance, i.e. brightness of the
5. Name the property of metals of producing sound.
surface of each metal. Then, rub their surfaces with
the sand paper and note the changes observed. Ans The property of metals of producing sound is called sonority.
2. Take small pieces of Fe, Al and Mg. Try to cut them
with a knife to check their hardness. Then, take a
piece of sodium out of kerosene and dry it with a filter ACTIVITY 1(b)
paper. Then, try to cut it with a knife and note down
all observations. Aim
3. Take small blocks of Fe, Zn, Pb and Cu metals and To study the (i ) electrical conductivity (ii ) thermal
place Zn, Pb and Cu pieces over the block of iron conductivity in metals.
one by one and strike them with the help of a
hammer for 4-5 times. Observe and note the changes Materials Required
in the shape of these metals. Also note, if any sound is Wires of metals like Al, Cu etc., stand, burner, pin, wax, battery,
produced. metal wire or piece (to be tested), clips, switch and bulb.
4. Collect some metals which are available in the form Procedure
of wires. Note down the names of these metals. 1. Activity (i ) Take an aluminium or copper wire and
Observations and Conclusions arrange the electric circuit as shown in the diagram given
1. Metals have metallic lustre. If some layer of oxide below. Placed the metal wire in between the terminals of
covers the surface and hides its lustre then remove it A and B, record the observations, whether the bulb glows or
with sand paper to bring the original lustre back. not.
2. Iron, aluminium and magnesium metals are hard but Battery
their degree of hardness vary. Mg can also be cut with Bulb
knife but with some difficulty. Sodium metal is soft
and can be easily cut with knife. It shows that metals
are generally hard (except sodium or other alkali Switch
Clips
metals).
A B
3. Metals are sonorous, i.e. they produce sound when
struck with a hard object like hammer. Metals are Insert sample
also malleable as they can be converted into sheets to be tested
when hammered. Electrical circuit diagram to show metals
4. Metals are generally ductile. Most of the metals are are good conductors of electricit
available as wires like Cu, Al, Ag, Au, Pt, Fe etc.
 88

2. Activity (ii ) Take a stand and fix an

aluminium or copper wire to it with the help
of clamp. Fix a pin to the free end of the wire
ACTIVITY 2
with the help of wax. Heat the wire near the Aim
place where it is clamped. To study
Record the changes. (i) the physical properties of non-metals and compare them with
Metal wire those of metals.
Stand
Clamp
(ii) the chemical properties of metals and non-metals and compare
Free end of wire
Wax them with each other.
Pin
Materials Required
Burner
Iron, sodium, silver, coal or graphite (carbon), sulphur, iodine,
magnesium ribbon, water, dil. HCl, litmus (red and blue), burner, a
pair of tongs and test tubes.
Procedure
Experimental set up to show that metals are 1. Take coal/graphite (carbon), sulphur and iodine as the samples of
good conductors of heat non-metals. Examine them as described in Activity 1 (a) and 1 (b)
Note their physical properties and make a comparative chart of the
physical properties of metals and non-metals.
Observations and Conclusions 2. Take a magnesium ribbon and sulphur powder.
1. Activity (i ) When a metal wire is placed ( i ) First hold the magnesium ribbon with a pair of tongs over
between the terminals A and B, the bulb will flame and let it burn. Collect the ashes formed and dissolve them
glow. It shows that the metals are good in water.
conductors of electricity. Test this solution with litmus and note the observations.
2. Activity (ii ) The wax melts and pin falls ( ii ) Take some sulphur powder in a dry test tube and heat it over
down but metal does not melt (except tin). It flame. Collect the fumes produced in another test tube by
inverting the test tube over the fumes. Then, add some water to the
shows that given metals are good conductors
test tube with fumes and shake it. Test this solution with litmus and
of heat. Metals also have high melting points note the observations.
in most of the cases (as metal wires does not
3. Take some samples of metals like Na, Fe, Ag and non-metals like
melt on heating).
sulphur, iodine, graphite (C) and put small pieces of these samples
in beaker half filled with cold water and observe reactivity of each.
Check Yourself Put the unreacted samples in beaker half filled with cold water and
observe. Again, put still unreacted samples in the apparatus for
1. When the copper wire is placed between the studying their reaction with steam.
terminals A and B in the given activity (i), the
bulb glows. Which property of metals are
shown by this? Metal sample
Hydrogen
Ans This suggests that metals like Cu are good
conductor of electricity. Glass wool
soaked in Cork
2. Name the metal which is the best conductor of Water
water
electricity. Burner Stand Delivery
Ans Silver (Ag) is the best conductor of electricity. tube
3. What is thermal conductivity?
Ans It is the property due to which metals can conduct
heat. Diagram of apparatus to study action of
e.g. Cu, Al, Fe etc., are good conductors of heat. steam on a metal

4. Aluminium metal does not melt in the given

activity (ii). Why? Note In the same way, perform the experiments with water, dilute acids and
Ans Aluminium metal has high melting point, that’s other salt solutions. Record the results in the table.
why, it does not melt in the given activity. 4. Take all the samples given in point 3 except sodium (Na) and clean
5. Name the metals which have low melting point. them with sand paper (if tarnished) and put them one by one
Ans Gallium and caesium metals have low melting separately in test tubes containing dilute hydrochloric acid.
points. Suspend thermometers in the test tubes, so that their bulbs are
dipped in the acid.
 Metals and Non-Metals 89

Observations
1. Physical properties of metals and non-metals
Element Lustre Hardness Malleability Ductility Conductivity Sonority
Carbon Diamond has lustre Diamond is hard No Diamond is ductile Poor No
(Diamond/graphite)
Sulphur No Soft No No Poor No
Iodine Yes Soft No No Poor No
Sodium Yes Soft Yes Yes Good Yes
Iron Yes Hard Yes Yes Good Yes
Silver Yes Hard Yes Yes Good Yes
2. Chemical properties of metals and non-metals.

M + O2 → MOX M + H2O → M(OH)X + H2 M + HA → MA + H2

Element Reaction with oxygen Reaction with water Reaction with dilute acids

C Reacts on heating No reaction to give H2 No reaction to give H2

S Reacts on heating No reaction to give H2 No reaction to give H2
I Reacts on heating No reaction to give H2 No reaction to give H2
Na Vigorous at room temperature Vigorous at room temperature Reacts to give H2
Fe Vigorous for Fe filings Reacts with steam Reacts to give H2
Ag No reaction, even at high temperature. No reaction No reaction

Conclusions
1. Most non-metals do not have lustre. Most of Check Yourself
non-metals are soft (if solid) except 1. Generally non-metals are non-lustrous. Which non-metal have lustrous
diamond (hardest known substance) and appearance?
brittle.
Ans Iodine is a non-metal having lustrous appearance.
2. Non-metals are neither malleable nor
ductile. If sulphur is hammered, it breaks 2. Name the non-metal which is in liquid state at room temperature.
into pieces. Diamond is ductile (Q hard). Ans Bromine (Br2) is found in the liquid state at room temperature.
3. Non-metals are non-sonorous, poor 3. Write the nature of oxides of metals and non-metals.
conductors of heat and electricity, have low
Ans Most of the metallic oxides are basic in nature and non-metallic oxides are
melting and boiling points. But solid acidic in nature.
non-metals have comparatively high
boiling points. 4. Name the non-metal which is very hard.
4. Metals form basic oxides (turns red litmus Ans Diamond, the allotropic form of carbon, which is very hard.
blue) and non-metals form acidic oxides 5. What happens when metals react with dilute acids?
(turns blue litmus red) on burning in air. Ans Active metals evolve hydrogen gas on reaction with dil. HCl or dil.H2 SO4 .
5. Metals release H 2 when reacts with water
whereas non-metals do not react with water
to release hydrogen. Similarly, when metals
react with dilute acids, they again release ACTIVITY 3
hydrogen gas whereas non-metals do not Aim
release hydrogen on reaction with dilute
acids. This is due to the fact that non-metals To study the properties of ionic compounds.
are electron acceptors and cannot give Materials Required
electrons to hydrogen ions to from H 2 gas
Sodium chloride, potassium chloride, burner, spatula, beaker,
(whereas metals are electron donors).
electrodes, battery, bulb, switch, test tubes, water, petrol etc.
 90

Procedure
1. Take the samples of some salts like sodium chloride, potassium chloride etc.
2. Examine the physical state of these salts.
3. Take a small amount of a sample on spatula and heat it over the flame.
Repeat the process with the other sample too.
Spatula containing
sample

Burner

Heating a salt sample on a spatula

4. Try to dissolve these samples in water and petrol in separate test tubes. Note their solubility.
5. Make a circuit as shown in the figure and insert the electrodes in the solution of one salt. Note if the bulb glows. Repeat the
process with other salt solution too.
Battery Bulb
(–) (+) Switch

Beaker
Graphite rod
Salt solution
under test

Testing the conductivity of a salt solution

Observations
1. Physical state of ionic compounds is solid.
2. These are water soluble and insoluble in petrol.
3. These have high melting point.
4. These are good conductors of electricity in aqueous solution.

Check Yourself
1. Why does sodium chloride conduct electricity in aqueous solution but not in solid state?
Ans Sodium chloride conducts electricity in molten state because of the presence of free ions in the solution while in solid state, there are
no free ions.
2. Melting points of ionic compounds are ............... (high/low).
Ans Melting points of ionic compounds are high.
3. Dissolve the sample of sodium chloride in water and petrol in separate test tubes. In which test tube, sodium chloride is soluble?
Ans Sodium chloride is soluble in water and insoluble in petrol.
4. What is the physical state of ionic compounds?
Ans Ionic compounds are crystalline solids.
5. Take the sugar solution in water and test the conductivity, will the bulb glow?
Ans No, the bulb will not glow. Sugar solution is not an ionic compound because it does not give free ions in the solution. Hence, there will be
no electrical conductivity.
ACTIVITY ZONE
ACTIVITY 1 3. Out of pen, tumbler, fan, spoon which material is made up
of glass?
Objective Ans Tumbler is made up of glass.
To identify the composition of items present in house
4. Name the source from which paper is obtained?
(presence of carbon). Ans Paper is obtained from wood.
Procedure 5. Write some compounds which are not made up of carbon.
Make a list of 10 things that are used or consumed daily and Ans Water (H2O) and cooking utensils (made of metals, glass/clay
also mention their constituents with the help of your teacher or ceramics) are not made up of carbon.
and parents.
Observation
The list of ten things used or consumed daily are mentioned
below:
ACTIVITY 2
Objective
Things Metals Clay/Glass Other materials To show that successive members of a homologous series
Toothbrush — — Plastic, nylon differ by a  CH 2 unit in formula and by 14-unit in
(carbon)
molecular mass.
Fan Aluminium/ Iron — —
Spoon Stainless steel — — Procedure
Calculate the difference in the formulae and molecular
Tumbler — Glass —
masses for (a) CH 3OH and C 2H 5OH, (b) C 2H 5OH and
Pencil Graphite — Wood (carbon)
C 3H7 OH and (c) C 3H7 OH and C 4H 9OH.
(carbon)
Books — — Paper obtained from Observation
woods (carbon) (a) CH 3OH and C 2H 5OH
Bread — — Wheat (carbon) These differ by a CH 2 unit.
Pen Steel — Plastic (carbon) Mass of CH 3OH
Bed — — Wood (carbon) = (12 × 1) + (1 × 3 ) + (16 × 1) + (1 × 1) = 32 u
Mass of C 2H 5OH
Clothes — — Cotton (carbon)
= (12 × 2) + (1 × 5) + (16 × 1) + (1 × 1) = 46 u
Note You can also mention any substance different from the above. Difference = (46 − 32) u = 14 u
Result (b) C 2H 5OH and C 3H7 OH
It can be clearly seen that most of the substances contain These differ by a — CH 2 unit.
carbon in it. Mass of C 2H 5OH = 46 u
Mass of C 3H7 OH
Check Yourself = (12 × 3) + (1 × 7) + (16 × 1) + (1 × 1) = 60 u
Difference = (60 − 46) u = 14 u
1. Write some materials which are made up of wood only. (c) C 3H7 OH and C 4H 9OH
Ans Pencil, book, cricket bat, table, chair etc., items are made up These also differ by a — CH 2 unit.
of wood only. Mass of C 3H7 OH = 60 u
2. Most of the items that are found around us are made up of Mass of C 4H 9OH
.............. . = (12 × 4) + (1 × 9) + (16 × 1) + (1 × 1) = 74 u
Ans Most of the items that are found around us are made up of
carbon. Difference = (74 − 60 ) u = 14 u
...........
 50 Class 10th Term II

Result Procedure
All of the three groups possess a similarity, i.e. two Take some carbon compounds (naphthalene, camphor,
consecutive members differ by a —CH 2 group and in alcohol) one by one on a spatula and burn them.
molecular mass by 14 u.
Observation
Other homologous series that you can considered are:
On heating these carbon compounds, following observations
Chloroalkane Aldehyde Ketone
Carboxylic were made.
acid
Deposits on
O Carbon compounds Nature of flame
spatula

CH3Cl HCHO CH3 C CH3 HCOOH Naphthalene Smoky flame Carbon deposits

O Camphor Smoky flame Carbon deposits

 Alcohol Non-sooty flame No carbon
C 2H5Cl CH3CHO C 2H5 C CH3 CH3COOH
O Result
 Non-sooty flame of alcohol indicates complete combustion or
C 3H7Cl C 2H5CHO C 3H7 C CH3 C 2H5COOH
saturated nature whereas smoky flame of camphor and
O naphthalene indicates incomplete combustion or presence of
 multiple bonds.
C 4H9Cl C 3H7CHO C 4H9 C CH3 C 3H7COOH

Check Yourself
Check Yourself 1. How can saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons be
differentiated on the basis of combustion?
1. By how many carbon and hydrogen atoms, do any two Ans Saturated hydrocarbons burn with non-sooty flame indicating
adjacent numbers homologous series differ? the complete combustion. Unsaturated hydrocarbons always
Ans One carbon and two hydrogen atoms. burns with smoky flame indicating the incomplete combustion.
2. Which two of the following compounds could belong to 2. Why unsaturated hydrocarbons burn with a sooty flame?
the same homologous series? Ans Due to higher content of carbon than hydrogen, unsaturated
C2H6O 2 ,C2H6O ,C2H5 ,CH4O hydrocarbons burn with a sooty flame.
Ans Both CH4 O and C2H6 O can be represented by the same 3. Which type of bond indicates the incomplete combustion?
general formula, CnH2n + 1OH (where, n = 1 and 2) hence, Ans Multiple bond (double or triple or both) indicates the
belong to the same homologous series of alcohols. incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons.
3. Give the formulae of two higher homologues of 4. Write the chemical structure of naphthalene.
methane. Ans Chemical structure of naphthalene is
Ans C2H6 (ethane) and C3H8 (propane).
4. Name the second member of alkyne homologous series.
Give its structure.
Ans The second member of alkyne homologous family is Naphthalene
propyne. Its structural formula is H3 C  C ≡≡ CH .
5. Out of saturated and unsaturated compounds, which are
5. Give the IUPAC name of HCOOH. usually not very reactive?
Ans Methanoic acid. Ans Saturated compounds are usually not very reactive because
carbon-carbon single bonds are very strong.

ACTIVITY 3 ACTIVITY 4
Objective
Objective
To study the nature of compound, whether it is To check the conditions in which complete or incomplete
saturated or unsaturated by burning. combustion of fuels occurs.
Materials Required Materials Required
Naphthalene, camphor, alcohol, spatula, heating Bunsen burner, controller to control the amount of gas
appliances like spirit lamp, burner. coming out of the burner.
Carbon and Its Compounds 51

Procedure Observation
Light a Bunsen burner and adjust the air hole at the base to get The colour of KMnO4 slowly fades and gradually it
different types of flames in the presence of smoke. disappears completely. When excess of KMnO4 is added,
the colour will not disappear.
Observation
l If hole is closed, yellow, sooty flame is produced and on Result
placing a spoon above the flame, black deposits of carbon Alcohol decolourises KMnO4 but acid does not . In
is obtained. excess of KMnO4 , alcohol gets completely converted into
l If hole is open, blue flame is produced and on placing a acid which does not decolourise KMnO4 .
spoon above the flame, no deposit is obtained.
Reaction Involved
Result Alk. KMnO 4
In excess of air, complete combustion takes place and blue CH 3CH 2 OH → CH 3COOH
∆
flame is produced. If there is insufficient supply of air, incomplete Ethanol Ethanoic acid

combustion takes place and yellow flame is produced.

Check Yourself
Check Yourself
1. What is the colour of KMnO 4 solution?
1. On placing a spatula above the flame (if hole is closed), the Ans The colour of KMnO4 solution is purple.
black deposits of ............... are obtained.
Ans On placing a spatula above the flame (if hole is closed), the 2. Which acid is formed, when excess of KMnO 4 is added
black deposits of ...........
carbon are obtained. to the ethanol?
Ans Ethanoic acid ( CH3 COOH) is formed, when excess of
2. On closing the hole, we get yellow sooty flame, why?
Ans On closing the hole, there is insufficient supply of air so, KMnO4 is added to the ethanol (CH3 CH2OH).
incomplete combustion takes place and yellow flame is 3. Which reaction is involved in the conversion of alcohol
produced. to carboxylic acid?
3. What is the advantage of air hole (inlet) in the Bunsen Ans Oxidation reaction is involved in the conversion of alcohol
burner? to carboxylic acid.
Ans The inlets (or air hole) present in burner provide sufficient 4. Name the substance used for the oxidation of ethanol.
supply of oxygen for the complete combustion of fuel. Ans Alk. KMnO4 or acidified K 2Cr2O7 is used for oxidation of
4. Which gas is produced during incomplete combustion of ethanol.
fuels?
5. Name the compound formed on oxidation of ethanol.
Ans Carbon monoxide (CO) gas is produced during incomplete
Ans The compound formed on oxidation of ethanol is ethanoic
combustion of fuels.
acid ( CH3 COOH ).
5. Which gas is produced during the complete combustion of
fuels?
Ans Carbon dioxide ( CO2) gas is produced during the complete
combustion of fuels.
ACTIVITY 6
Objective
To show that hydrogen gas is evolved when alcohol is
ACTIVITY 5 (NCERT Pg 70)
treated with sodium metal or to check the acidic nature
of alcohol (ethanol).
Objective Materials Required
To study the oxidising properties of KMnO 4 . Piece of sodium, ethanol, test tubes, matchstick.
Procedure
Materials Required
1. Drop a small piece of sodium, about the size of a
Ethanol, 5% alk. KMnO4 , beaker, dropper, test tubes.
couple of grains of rice, into ethanol (taken in a test tube).
Procedure 2. Bring a matchstick near the mouth of the test tube.
1. Take about 3 mL of ethanol in a test tube and warm it
gently in a water bath. Observation
A gas is evolved which burns with pop sound.
2. Add 5% solution of alkaline potassium permanganate drop
by drop to this solution.
 52 Class 10th Term II

Result 3. Pour into a beaker containing 20-50 mL of water and smell

Since, the evolved gas burns with ‘pop’ sound, so it is the resulting mixture.
hydrogen and evolution of hydrogen gas when alcohol
is treated with metal shows its acidic nature. Test tube
containing
Reaction reaction
– mixture
2 C 2 H 5OH + 2Na → 2C 2 H 5 ONa+ + H 2 ↑
Ethanol Sodium Sodium ethoxide Hydrogen Beaker
metal gas
Water
Wire gauze
Check Yourself
Tripod stand
1. Which gas is evolved on adding sodium metal into
ethanol? Burner
Ans When sodium (Na) metal reacts with ethanol, hydrogen
(H2) gas is evolved.
2. How will you test the presence of H2 gas?
Ans When a burning matchstick is brought near the mouth of
a test tube, the evolved gas burns with a pop sound. This Formation of ester
indicates the presence of hydrogen gas.
Result
3. How sodium ethoxide is formed? Write the reaction. A compound having pleasant fruity smell is obtained, which is
Ans When sodium metal reacts with ethanol then sodium
known as ester. This process is called esterification.
ethoxide is formed.
2Na + 2C2H5 OH → 2C2H5 ONa + H2↑ Reaction Involved
Sodium Ethanol Sodium Hydrogen
conc . H SO
ethoxide CH 3  COOH + C 2 H 5  OH →
2 4

Acetic acid Ethanol Dehydrating agent

4. If the same experiment is repeated with acetic acid,
what happens? CH 3COOC 2H 5 + H 2O
Ans If the experiment is repeated with acetic acid then, same Ester Water
result is obtained.
5. Write the reaction of sodium metal with ethanoic acid. Check Yourself
Ans 2CH3 COOH + 2Na → 2CH3 COONa + H2 ↑
Ethanoic acid Sodium Sodium ethanoate Hydrogen
1. What is glacial acetic acid?
Ans Pure (100%) ethanoic acid is called glacial acetic acid.

ACTIVITY 7 2. What are esters?

Ans Esters are organic compounds having the general formula RCOOR′
Objective where, R is H or any alkyl group, while R′ is always an alkyl group.

To study the formation of esters. 3. Complete the equation,

Dehydrating
Materials Required Acid + Alcohol →
agent
Glacial acetic acid, absolute alcohol, conc. H 2 SO4 , Dehydrating
test tubes, beaker, wire gauze, tripod stand, burner, Ans Acid + Alcohol → Ester
agent
water bath.
4. Name the process of ester formation from acid and alcohol in
Procedure the presence of H2SO 4 .
1. Take 1 mL ethanol (absolute alcohol) and 1 mL Ans The process of ester formation is known as esterification.
glacial acetic acid alongwith a few drops of 5. What is the role of concentrated sulphuric acid in an
concentrated sulphuric acid in a test tube. esterification reaction?
2. Warm in a water bath for atleast five minutes as Ans Concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4 ) acts as a catalyst
shown in the figure. (dehydrating agent) in the esterification reaction.
Carbon and Its Compounds 53

ACTIVITY 8 ACTIVITY 9
Objective Objective
To compare the acidity of dilute acetic acid and To show that carbon dioxide gas is evolved when ethanoic acid is
hydrochloric acid. treated with sodium carbonates and bicarbonates.
Materials Required Materials Required
Dil. acetic acid, dil. HCl, universal pH indicator, Sodium carbonate, dilute ethanoic acid, sodium hydrogen carbonate,
litmus paper, test tubes. lime water, test tubes, spatula, stand, cork, thistle funnel, delivery
tube.
Procedure
Compare the pH of dilute acetic acid and dilute Procedure
hydrochloric acid using both, litmus paper and 1. Take a spatula full of sodium carbonate in a test tube and add 2 mL
universal indicator. of dilute ethanoic acid.
2. Pass the gas produced through freshly prepared lime water.
Observation
3. Repeat the above procedure with sodium hydrogen carbonate
Acid pH Litmus test instead of sodium carbonate.
Dil. HCl 2-3 (more acidic) Blue litmus turns red Observation
Dil. CH3COOH 5-6 (less acidic) Blue litmus turns red
Brisk effervescence is produced and lime water turns milky.
Result
Result The brisk effervescence of carbon dioxide gas is produced which on
Dil. HCl is more acidic than the dilute acetic acid passing through lime water turns it milky.
as pH of dil. HCl is less than dilute acetic acid.
Reaction Involved
– +
Check Yourself 2CH 3COOH+Na 2CO3 → 2CH 3COONa + H 2O +CO2 ↑
Acetic acid Sodium Sodium Carbon
carbonate acetate dioxide
1. Two acids A and B have pH values of 2 and 6
– +
respectively. Which of the two will be more CH 3COOH +NaHCO3 → CH 3COONa
acidic? Acetic acid Sodium Sodium
carbonate acetate
Ans Acid A with pH value 2 will be more acidic.
+ H 2O +CO2 ↑
2. Write the correct order of pH values for acid and Carbon
dioxide
base solution.
Ans For acid solution, pH value is less than 7, i.e. Thistle funnel
pH < 7. Delivery tube
For basic solution, pH value is greater than 7, i.e. Stand
pH > 7. Cork Test tube
3. What is the pH value of a neutral solution? Calcium
hydroxide
Ans pH value of a neutral solution is 7. solution
4. What change in colour is observed when red Carbon dioxide gas
litmus paper is dipped in acidic solution?
Ans Red litmus paper remains red in acidic solution. Ethanoic acid
Test tube
So, no change in colour is observed.
5. Why ethanoic acid is a weak acid? Sodium
Ans Ethanoic acid is a weak acid as it is partially ionised carbonate
in the aqueous solution as
Showing the release of carbon dioxide gas when
CH3 COOH ( aq) 5 H+ ( aq) + CH3 COO− ( aq)
Partially ionised
ethanoic acid is treated with sodium carbonate
 54 Class 10th Term II

Check Yourself Check Yourself

1. What will you get when dilute ethanoic acid is treated with 1. Which end of soap bonds with dirt?
sodium carbonate? Write the reaction. Ans The structure of soap molecules is
Ans Sodium acetate, the reaction is –
Na+
2 CH3 COOH + Na 2CO3 → 2 CH3 COONa + H2O + CO2 ↑
Acetic acid Sodium Sodium
carbonate acetate
Long hydrocarbon chain Ionic part
(Hydrophobic) (Hydrophilic)
2. The formation of brisk effervescence indicates the presence of
which gas? 2. Why does soap solutions appear cloudy?
Ans Brisk effervescence indicates the presence of CO2 Ans A soap solution appears cloudy because of the formation
(carbon dioxide) gas. of the micelles and they are large enough to scatter light.
3. What happens when lighted splinter is brought near the 3. How the soap molecules are arranged in a soap micelle?
mouth of CO 2 gas? Ans In a soap micelle, hydrocarbon ends directed towards the
Ans Lighted splinter gets extinguished. centre and ionic ends directed outwards.
4. Which type of bonds are present between atoms of carboxylic 4. Name the hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends of a soap?
acid?
Ans The straight long hydrocarbon chain which is insoluble in
Ans Carboxylic acids have covalent bonds between their atoms.
water is the hydrophobic part while ionic part which
5. What happens when same procedure is repeated with sodium dissolves in water is the hydrophilic part.
bicarbonate?
Ans When ethanoic acid is treated with sodium bicarbonate then 5. What is a micelle?
same result is obtained, i.e. CO2 gas is produced. Ans A spherical aggregate of soap molecule in the soap
solution in water is called a ‘micelle’.

ACTIVITY 10 ACTIVITY 11
Objective Objective
To study the phenomenon of dirt cleaning by soap. To study the working of soap with soft and hard water.
Materials Required Materials Required
Water, soap or detergent, oil, test tubes. Distilled water, hard water, soap solution, test tubes.
Procedure Procedure
1. Take about 10 mL of water each in two test tubes. 1. Take about 10 mL of distilled water (or rain water)
2. Add a drop of oil (cooking oil) to both the test tubes and and 10 mL hard water (from a tubewell or
label them as A and B. To test tube B, add a few drops of handpump) in separate test tubes.
soap solution. 2. Add a couple of drops of soap solution to both.
3. Now, shake both the test tubes vigorously for the same 3. Shake the test tubes vigorously for an equal period of
period of time. time.
4. Now leave them undisturbed for some time.
Observation
Observation Test tube containing hard water, produces curdy white
In test tube A , oil and water form separate layers and no such precipitate while the test tube containing distilled water,
layer is formed in test tube B. produces foam.
Result Result
This shows the phenomena of dirt-cleaning by soap. As we Soaps work well with soft water but form scum
know, dirt is oily in nature. Hydrophobic part of soap bonds (insoluble substance) with hard water.
with dirt and hence, dirty clothes are cleaned.
Carbon and Its Compounds 55

Check Yourself Procedure

1. Take two test tubes with about 10 mL of hard water in each and
1. Write the name of species responsible for the
hardness of water. label them as A and B.
Ans Calcium and magnesium ions are responsible for the 2. Add five drops of soap solution to test tube A and five drops of
hardness of water. detergent solution to the other test tube B.
2. When soap is dissolved in hard water, what 3. Shake both the test tubes for the same period.
happens?
Observation
Ans When soap is dissolved in hard water then a curdy
white precipitate (or scum) is formed. Same amount of foam is not produced in both the test tubes. Solution
of detergent and hard water forms foam, while solution of soap and
3. What are soaps? hard water produces curdy white precipitate.
Ans A soap is the sodium salt (or potassium salt) of a long
chain carboxylic acid (fatty acid) which has cleansing Result
properties in water. Detergent works better in hard water in comparison to soap.
4. How can hardness of water be tested with the help
of soap solution?
Ans Soaps do not form lather with hard water.
Check Yourself
5. Why washing of clothes with hard water is difficult? 1. What will you get on treating soaps and detergents with hard
Ans The scum (or curdy precipitate) formed by the action water, separately?
of hard water on soap, sticks to the clothes being Ans With hard water soap solution will form curdy white precipitate and
washed and interferes with the cleaning ability of the detergent solution will form foam.
additional soap. This makes the cleaning of clothes
difficult. 2. What are detergents?
Ans Detergents are the sodium salt of a long chain benzene sulphonic
acid.

ACTIVITY 12 3. Which process is involved in dirt cleaning?

Ans Emulsification process is involved in dirt cleaning.
Objective 4. Why washing clothes with hard water is not effective?
To compare the cleansing action of soaps and Ans Hard water contains Ca 2+ and Mg2+ ions which react with soap and
detergents with hard water. form scum. So, soap is not able to form lather and goes waste.

Materials Required 5. What is the advantage of detergents over soaps for washing
clothes?
Detergent, soap, sample of hard water, test tubes. Ans Detergents have a stronger cleansing action than soaps as it works
effectively in hard water.
 Life Processes: Nutrition 131
ACTIVITY ZONE
Conclusion
This experiment proves that only chlorophyll containing areas,
ACTIVITY 1 i.e. green parts of the leaf produces starch, which is a product of
photosynthesis. Thus, chlorophyll is essential for
Aim photosynthesis.
To show that chlorophyll is essential for
photosynthesis.
Check Yourself
Materials Required
A potted plant of variegated leaves such as money plant 1. Why plants are green in colour?
or crotons, white paper sheet, pencil, beaker, water, Ans Chlorophyll is a green coloured pigment, which imparts green
water bath, iodine solution and alcohol. colour to the plants.
2. In which form, food is stored in the plants?
Procedure
Ans Food is stored in the plants in the form of starch, a complex
1. Keep the plant in a dark room for three days so that carbohydrate, which further breaks down into monomers, that
all the starch gets used up (destarching). ultimately releases energy.
2. Now, keep this plant in sunlight for about six hours. 3. Name a process performed by the green plants to synthesise
3. Pluck a variegated leaf from the plant. Mark the their food.
green areas in it and trace them on a sheet of paper. Ans Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants synthesise
4. Dip the leaf in boiling water for few minutes and organic food in the form of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide
and water in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
then immerse it in a beaker containing alcohol.
5. Boil the beaker in a water bath till the leaf gets 4. Why alcohol is used in the experiment?
decolourised. Ans Alcohol is used in the experiment because it removes chlorophyll
from leaves. Due to which, the leaf loses its green colour.
6. Following this, dip the leaf in a dilute solution of
iodine for few minutes. 5. Give the energy transformation that takes place in the process
of photosynthesis.
7. Take out the leaf and rinse off the iodine solution
Ans Solar energy is converted into chemical energy during
under tap water.
photosynthesis.
8. Observe the changes in the colour of the leaf and
compare it with the tracing of leaf done in beginning.

ACTIVITY 2
Blue-Black Aim
Green To show that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.
Materials Required
Two healthy potted plants of same size, two glass plates, two
White bell jars, vaseline, watch glass, potassium hydroxide, alcohol,
spirit lamp and beaker.
(a) (b) Procedure
Variegated leaf (a) before and (b) after 1. Keep the potted plants in dark for three days, so that the
starch test leaves are destarched.
Observation 2. Place the potted plant (a) on a glass plate and put a watch
glass containing potassium hydroxide (KOH) by the side of
1. The leaf will show two type of patches, i.e.
the pot. Cover it with a bell jar.
bluish-black and white. The bluish-black areas
contain starch and the white areas are without 3. Place the other potted plant (b) on second glass plate and
starch. cover it with a bell jar.
2. Bluish-black areas are the ones, which were green 4. Use Vaseline to seal the bottom of jars to the glass plates so
previously while, non-green areas remain pale that the set up is air tight.
coloured. 5. Keep the plants in sunlight for two hours.
132

6. Pluck a leaf from each plant and test the same

for the presence of starch. ACTIVITY 3
Aim
To show that salivary amylase present in the saliva acts upon the
Bell jar food containing starch.
Materials Required
Two test tubes, starch solution (1%), measuring cylinder, saliva and
Watch-glass iodine solution (iodine + potassium iodide).
containing
potassium Procedure
hydroxide 1. Take 1 mL starch solution (1%) in two test tubes marked as A
(KOH)
(a) (b) and B.
Experimental set up (a) With potassium hydroxide
2. Add 1 mL saliva to test tube A and 1 mL water to test tube B and
(b) Without potassium hydroxide leave both test tubes undisturbed for about 20-30 minutes.
3. Now, add few drops of dilute iodine solution to both the test
Observation tubes.
The leaf of plant (b) without potassium hydroxide 4. Observe the colour change
turns blue-black, while the leaf of plant (a) with Observation
potassium hydroxide remains pale coloured or In test tube A→ Starch + Saliva + Iodine solution→ No colour change.
colourless.
In test tube B → Starch + Iodine solution → Colour changes to
Conclusion blue-black.
This experiment demonstrates that the leaf of plant
(b) has synthesised starch by photosynthesis.
Leaf of plant (a) has not synthesised starch as it does Starch + saliva Starch + water
not contain carbon dioxide which is essential for + iodine solution +iodine solution
photosynthesis. CO2 is absorbed by potassium
No blue-black Blue-black
hydroxide. So, photosynthesis did not occur in colour colour
A B
plant (a).
Conclusion
Check Yourself This activity shows that salivary amylase present in saliva acts on the
starch breaking it down into simpler carbohydrates.
1. According to the experiment, which gas is
required for photosynthesis to occur?
Ans According to the experiment, carbon dioxide is
Check Yourself
required for photosynthesis to occur.
1. Name the enzyme present in saliva.
2. Why KOH (potassium hydroxide) is used in Ans Salivary amylase.
plant (a)?
2. On which type of food does salivary amylase act?
Ans KOH is a chemical, which absorbs carbon dioxide. It
is used in (a) to show that it is essential for Ans Salivary amylase acts on the food containing starch.
photosynthesis. 3. Why does test tube B turns blue-black in the experiment?
3. Write the equation, which represents the Ans It happens because Iodine reacts with the starch present in the test
chemical changes that take place during tube.
photosynthesis. 4. Name the end product, which is formed when saliva acts on starch.
Sunlight Ans Maltose.
Ans 6CO2 + 12H2O → C6H12O6
Carbon Water Chlorophyll Glucose Note Food tests for other components
dioxide
+ 6H2O + 6O2 ↑ Sodium hydroxide, Lilac/purple Proteins present
Water Oxygen Copper sulphate colouration
Ethanol/Water Cloudy suspension Lipids present
4. How does CO 2 enters the plant cells for
photosynthesis? Benedict’s solution Brick red precipitate Glucose present
Ans Through stomata present in leaves.
 Life Processes: Respiration 161
ACTIVITY ZONE
ACTIVITY 1 form of ATP only. This is evident from the fact that
whenever the body requires energy, ATP breaks down to
Aim ADP and Pi to fulfil the need of energy.
To show that carbon dioxide is produced during 4. Where does the first step of respiration takes place in
the cell?
respiration.
Ans The first step of respiration takes place in the cytoplasm of the
Materials Required cell in which the 6 carbon compound called glucose, breaks
Two test tubes, freshly prepared lime water, pichkari or down into two molecules of 3 carbon compound called
pyruvate. This process of breaking down of glucose is known
syringe, rubber tube and a glass tube.
as glycolysis.
Procedure 5. Which process is continuous, photosynthesis or
1. Pour freshly prepared lime water in each test tube respiration?
(A and B ). Ans Respiration is a continuous process which leads to the
breakdown of food and liberation of energy. It takes place
Pichkari/syringe throughout day and night, while photosynthesis takes place
only in the presence of sunlight (day time).
Glass tube
Rubber tube
Test tube
containing ACTIVITY 2
Lime water lime water
Aim
A B To show that carbon dioxide is produced during alcoholic
A. Air passed into lime water with a fermentation.
pichkari/syringe
Materials Required
2. Blow air in test tube B through the lime water with the Fresh juice or 10% glucose solution, yeast, large test tube,
help of glass tube. single holed cork, twice bent glass tube (delivery tube),
3. Pass air through lime water in test tube A with the small test tube, freshly prepared lime water, glass rod and
help of a pichkari or syringe fitted with the fine non-drying oil.
rubber tube.
4. Note how long it takes for the lime water to turn milky. Procedure
1. Mix fresh juice or 10% glucose solution with yeast.
Observation 2. Pour this mixture upto 3/4th level in a large test tube
1. Lime water turns milky in test tube B. fitted with a one holed cork.
2. Lime water takes long time to turn milky in test tube A. 3. Pour a drop of non-drying oil over it to exclude
Conclusion air (oxygen).
4. Fit the cork with a bent glaes tube.
1. Lime water turns milky when carbon dioxide mixes
with it. 5. Dip the free end of the delivery tube into a smaller test
tube containing freshly prepared lime water.
2. Air blown out from mouth contains carbon dioxide.
6. Observe the change carefully.

Check Yourself Observation

Mixture appears frothy because bubbles of gas that have
1. Define anaerobic respiration. passed into lime water turns it milky after sometime. Also
Ans It is defined as the process of breakdown of glucose in the on removing the cork of large test tube, smell of alcohol
absence of oxygen to release small amount of energy. Occurs evolve out.
in microorganisms like bacteria and yeast.
2. Name the gas that is exhaled out during respiration.
Oil layer
Ans Carbon dioxide is the gas that is exhaled out during the Yeast in glucose
process of respiration. solution
Lime water
3. ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. Why?
Alcoholic fermentation produces carbon dioxide
Ans ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is known as the energy
currency of the cell because energy is stored in the cell in the
162

Conclusion
Yeast brings about alcoholic fermentation, that
ACTIVITY 3
is accompanied by the evolution of carbon Aim
dioxide. To show that the rate of breathing is higher in aquatic organisms
than in terrestrial organisms.
Check Yourself Rakers

Gill arch
1. Write the equation of the reaction, taking
place in the given activity.
Gill filaments
Absence of oxygen
Ans C6H12O6 → 2C2H5 OH + 2CO2
in yeast (Ethanol)
(Glucose) (Carbon
dioxide)

2. A drop of oil was poured during the activity

over the mixture of glucose in test tube. Why? Gill respiration in fish

Ans To exclude the air (oxygen), oil drop was poured

over the mixture in a large test tube. Materials Required
A fish in an aquarium.
3. What was observed after two hours of the
experiment? Procedure
Ans After two hours, water level was raised in the Count the number of times the fish opens and closes its mouth in a
bent tube placed in the beaker. minute and compare this number with your breathing rate.
4. Another experimental set-up is given below to Observation
demonstrate that carbon dioxide is given out The rate of breathing in fish is much higher and faster than human
during respiration in germinating seeds. Can beings.
you deduce out the logic of using KOH in this
experiment? CCE 2015 Conclusion
Rate of breathing is higher in aquatic animals.
Glass tube
Cork
Thread Check Yourself
Test tube Beaker
KOH solution 1. Name two organisms, which breathe through their skin.
Water Ans Frog and earthworm are the two animals which breathe through their skin.
Germinating
seeds This type of respiration is called as cutaneous respiration.
2. What is the role of gills in fishes? How do they function?
Ans KOH was used in this experiment because it Ans Gills are the respiratory organ in fishes. They function to take in oxygen
absorbs carbon dioxide produced by the seeds from water and in removal of carbon dioxide.
and creates partial vacuum in the flask.
3. Name an aquatic animal, which respire through lungs.
5. Which type of respiration is occurring in the Ans Whale is an aquatic animal, which respire through lungs. It comes on the
experimental set-up studied? surface of water to take in oxygen from air and to give out carbon dioxide.
Ans Anaerobic respiration as the supply of oxygen 4. Name an organism which respires through both skin and lungs.
was cut-off.
Ans Frog respires through both skin and lungs.
184
ACTIVITY ZONE
ACTIVITY 1 Plastic bag
Plastic bag

Aim
To know the normal range of haemoglobin content in
human beings.
Procedure (a) (b)
Visit a health centre in your locality and find out what is Pot (a) Contains a living plant
the normal range of haemoglobin content in human (b) Contains a stick
beings. Analyse whether its same for children and adults;
and the difference, if any in men and women. Observation
After half an hour you will observe that the soil in pot with
Observation the plant will loose its moisture and the plastic bag covering
The range of haemoglobin is lower in female than male and the plant will gain moisture.
lowest among children. On the other hand, soil of the pot without plant will have lot
Conclusion of moisture while there will be no moisture in the plastic
Range of haemoglobin is 14-18 gm /dL in males and 12-16 bag.
gm/dL in females. Conclusion
This activity proves and shows that living plants absorb
Check Yourself water from the soil and water gets transported to the leaves.
Some of the water is lost from leaves by transpiration
1. What is ‘haemoglobin’? through stomata.
Ans Haemoglobin is a respiratory pigment present in RBCs of the
blood. ‘Haem’ means iron and ‘globin’ means proteins. Check Yourself
2. What is the function of haemoglobin?
Ans Haemoglobin functions to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide 1. Why transpiration is considered as a necessary evil for
from one part of the body to another through blood.
plants?
3. How haemoglobin level is expressed in human being? Or
Ans Haemoglobin level is expressed as the amount of Hb in gm Why is transpiration important for plants?
per decilitre (dL) of whole blood. NCERT Exemplar
Ans Transpiration is considered as a necessary evil, because it
4. Which disease is caused due to lack of haemoglobin? helps in:
Ans Anaemia is caused due to lack of haemoglobin in the body. (i) ascent of sap
(ii) loss of excess water
ACTIVITY 2 (iii) cooling effect and regulation of temperature
Aim (iv) absorption and distribution of salts
To show that a plant absorbs water from soil through 2. Name the process by which roots absorb water
roots and loss of water takes place by the leaves through from soil.
transpiration. Ans The roots absorb water from soil through osmosis.
3. What do you understand by the transpiration pull?
Procedure
Ans When water vapour evaporates from leaf it creates a kind of
Take two small pots of approximately same size having suction in upward direction. It is called as transpiration pull.
same amount of soil. In one pot, place a plant shoot bearing
leaves and in another pot, place a stick of the same height 4. Why transpiration pull is necessary?
(as the plant in the other pot). Ans Transpiration pull is necessary because it helps in the
Now, cover the soil in both pots with a plastic sheet so that absorption and upward movement of water and minerals from
roots to the leaves. It protects the plants from being damaged
moisture cannot escape by evaporation. Also, cover both
by bright sunlight.
sets with plastic bags and place them in bright sunlight for
about half an hour.
226

ACTIVITY ZONE
ACTIVITY 1
Aim
To study smell as the reason of taste.
Materials required
Some sugar or jaggery
Procedure
Ä Put some sugar in your mouth.
Ä Feel the taste of the sugar.
Ä After sometime, block your nose between thumb and index finger.
Ä Breath through mouth and put some amount of sugar in your mouth.
Ä Repeat the above steps with your lunch.

Observation
In the case of sugar, even after blocking the nose, there is no difference in its taste.
As sugar has no smell, that could contribute to its taste. In the case of lunch, blocking the nose makes a difference in the taste of
various food items. This is because the lunch has taste as well as smell. So, for full appreciation of its taste, gustatory receptors on
tongue and olfactory recptors in the nose are required.

Check Yourself
1. Why does the food seem tasteless when you have bad cold?
Ans The taste is basically a smell or flavour. When we have cold the olfactory receptors present in nose are blocked. So food seems tasteless.
2. Why mouth cavity does not give smell of food?
Ans Olfactory receptor present in nose helps in smell detection whereas mouth does not have smell receptor.
3. Why do you avoid any food which is not smelling well?
Ans Because it gives distasteful feelings.

ACTIVITY 2
Aim
To study the response of plant to light.
Materials Required
Conical flask, small piece of wire mesh, water, two or three freshly germinated bean seeds and cardboard box open from one
side.
Procedure
1. Fill a conical flask with water.
2. Cover the neck of the flask with a wire mesh.
3. Place 2-3 freshly germinated bean seeds on the wire mesh.
4. Keep this flask in the cardboard box in such a manner that the open side of the box receives light coming from the window.
5. Observe the plant after 2-3 days.
 Control and Coordination 227

6. Turn the flask so that the shoots are away from the light and roots are towards the light.
7. Keep the apparatus undisturbed in this condition for few days.

Open
window

Cardboard

Wire mesh Plant shoots

Conical flask
Plant root

Response of the plant to the direction of light

Observation
1. In the first observation, after 2-3 days of experiment it is found that the shoots bend towards light and roots away from light.
2. In the second observation, when the flask was turned, it was seen after few days that the shoots and roots have grown again by
bending towards and away from light respectively.
Conclusion
This shows that the shoots of plant respond by showing growth movement towards the light, i.e. positive phototropism and
roots of plant respond by showing growth movement away from the light, i.e. negative phototropism.

Check Yourself
1. Which type of movement is shown by the plant in given activity?
Ans In the given activity, plant shows the tropic movement, i.e. phototropism.
2. The information below shows the function of the responses of plants such as
(i) to gain mineral salts from the soil
(ii) to get support
Name the response related with the above mentioned.
Ans (i) Positive geotropism
(ii) Nastic movement- movement of curvature.
3. Based on the diagram given below, which part of the plant can be represented by P?

Negative Positive
phototropism P hydrotropism

Ans The part of the plant represented by P is roots.

4. The table shows a tropism and the stimulus involved
Types of tropism Stimulus
Geotropism X
Phototropism Y
Hydrotropism Z

Write the stimuli X, Y and Z.

Ans X—Gravity. Y—Light. Z—Water.
144 Class 10th Term II

ACTIVITY ZONE
ACTIVITY 1 ACTIVITY 2
Objective Objective
To study budding in yeast . To study binary fission in Amoeba.
Materials Required Procedure
Conical flask, test tube, cotton plug, yeast cells, 10g sugar, 1. Take permanent slides of Amoeba, one showing its structure
100 mL water, slide, coverslip, dropper and microscope. and another showing its division.
2. Observe both slides under a microscope and compare
Procedure them.
1. Pour 20 mL of 10% sugar solution in a test tube and
Observation
add yeast cells in it.
Amoeba is an irregularly-shaped single-celled organism with a
2. Stir it by shaking well. darkely stained nucleus on one slide. The other slide shows its
3. Put a cotton plug on the mouth of the test tube and elongated and constricted structure which depicts binary
keep it in a warm place. fission. The constriction in the body is seen near the nucleus.
4. After 1-2 hours, take out a small drop of yeast culture
Conclusion
from the test tube with the help of a dropper on a
slide. Amoeba divides by binary fission whereby the body splits in
two daughter cells each with its own nucleus.
5. Cover it with a coverslip and observe under a
microscope.
Check Yourself
Observation
Under low power of microscope a large number of small 1. What is binary fission?
cells are seen, which when seen under high power look
Ans It is the division of one cell into two similar or identical cells.
like transparent oval cells of yeast with buds.
2. Which type of reproduction is binary fission?
Conclusion Ans It is a type of asexual reproduction.
The single-celled organism is yeast, which multiplies by
3. How does binary fission take place in Amoeba?
budding.
Ans In this method, the nucleus first divides amitotically into two,
followed by the division of the cytoplasm.
Check Yourself 4. What is the other name for identical daughter cells?
Ans Clones.
1. Why was the test tube covered with a cotton plug in the
experiment? 5. Division of cytoplasm and nucleus in binary fission are also
Ans It was done in order to avoid any contamination in the known as ........ and …… respectively.
culture. Ans Division of nucleus is karyokinesis and division of cytoplasm is
cytokinesis.
2. Why was sugar solution used in this experiment?
Ans Sugar is a substrate easily utilised by yeast for rapid
division.
ACTIVITY 3
3. Is the new individual formed after budding of the same Objective
size as the parent? To enable the students to study the reproduction in
Ans No, after budding the new individual formed is of smaller
microorganisms causing spoilage of food.
size as compared to the parent.
Procedure
4. Name another organism in which budding is seen.
Ans Hydra 1. Take a piece of bread, moisten it and place it in a cool, dark
and moist place.
5. What are the commercial uses of yeast? 2. Observe the surface of the slice with a magnifying glass or
Ans Yeast is widely used in brewing and baking industries. e.g. take it to your school where the microscope is available.
Saccharomyces.
3. Record your observations for a week.
How do Organisms Reproduce? 145

Ans Fragmentation takes place due to the mechanical disturbance,

Observation chemicals, death and decay of older parts, emptying of
Under magnifying glass/microscope, we can see the structure intervening cells, etc.
called hyphae, which are present in a fungus.
3. Why is Spirogyra is called a multicellular organism?
Conclusion Ans The body of Spirogyra is made up of row of cells placed end
Bread generally gets spoiled by Rhizopus , a fungus which is to end forming a filament like structure.
marked by cottony growth with pin-like black spots. 4. Is there tissue differentiation observed in Spirogyra?
Ans No, tissue differentiation is not seen in Spirogyra and all the
Check Yourself cells are capable of photosynthesis, growth and division.

1. What do you observe after a day on the slice of bread? 5. Can complex organisms like humans and animals also
divide or reproduce by fragmentation?
Ans After a day, the slice of bread is seen to be covered by white
Ans No, it is because humans and animals do not have random
cottony mass of threads. collection of cells. Their body is organised into specialised
2. What changes do you observe after 3-4 days? compartments which makes cell by cell division impractical.
Ans After 3-4 days, the pin-like black spot appear over the cottony
mass earlier seen.
3. Which species of organism might have been present on
the slice of bread?
ACTIVITY 5
Ans Bread generally gets spoiled by Rhizopus, a fungus which is Objective
marked by cottony growth with pin-like black spots. To study vegetative reproduction in potato.
4. How does Rhizopus reproduce? Procedure
Ans It reproduces by spore formation.
1. Observe a potato tuber. It has several notches or buds.
5. How do fungal spores germinate? 2. Cut the potato into small pieces such that some pieces
Ans They germinate after falling on a suitable substratum, giving rise to contain a notch and some do not.
new mycelia (mass of branching hyphae).
3. Place them over a wet cotton kept in a tray in such a way
that the pieces with buds alternate with pieces without
ACTIVITY 4 buds.
4. Sprinkle water over the cotton from time to time, so that
Objective it does not dry up.
To study a Spirogyra filament. 5. Observe changes taking place in these potato pieces for a
Procedure few days.
1. Collect the dark green filamentous scum from the Observation
surface of a pond water. After 3-5 days, the pieces with buds sprout to form young
2. Put one or two filaments on a slide with a forecep and plants with shoots and roots. The pieces without buds
put a drop of glycerine on it. wrinkled and started to decay.
3. Cover the slide with a coverslip and observe under a
microscope. Conclusion
The notches or buds are the vegetative propagules through
Observation
which the vegetative reproduction takes place in potato.
This green scum was formed of green filamentous algae,
Spirogyra. The filament is found to have similar elongated
green cells placed end to end in a simple row.
Check Yourself
Conclusion
Spirogyra consists of elongated rectangular cells placed end 1. How does potato reproduce vegetatively?
to end and a spiral chloroplast. It is multicellular and Ans Potato is a modified stem. Some adventitious buds develop in
reproduces by fragmentation. it, which grow to form new plants under favourable
conditions.

Check Yourself 2. Why was water sprinkled from time to time in the
experiment?
1. Why does Spirogyra divide by fragmentation? Ans Water provides growth medium for the buds to reproduce.
Ans Spirogyra is a multicellular organism, but still divides by
3. Is this method of reproduction beneficial?
fragmentation because of its simple body organisation.
Ans Yes, it is beneficial as it is quick and inexpensive.
2. What causes an organism to divide by fragmentation?
146 Class 10th Term II

4. What other parts of a plant can be used for different

methods of vegetative propagation?
Ans In natural vegetative propagation parts like leaves, nodes,
ACTIVITY 7
stem, tuber, buds, rhizome, etc., are used. Objective
For artificial vegetative propagation, stem and roots of
different plants are combined to produce new plants.
To study seed structure after germination.
5. Name some plants that can be vegetatively Procedure
propagated. 1. Soak a few seeds of Bengal gram (chana) overnight.
Ans Bryophyllum (leaf), ginger (rhizome), onion (bulb) and 2. Drain the excess water and keep the seeds covered with a
dahlia (adventitious roots), etc. wet cloth for a day.
3. Cut and open some seeds along the depression from the
broader side.
ACTIVITY 6 4. Observe its various parts.
Objective
To study vegetative multiplication in money plant. Chalaza
Procedure Hilum
1. Take a money plant and cut it into pieces, such that Testa
Micropyle
each piece has at least one leaf. Plumule
Tegmen (future shoot)
2. Cut out some other portions between two leaves.
Cotyledon Radicle
3. Dip one end of all pieces in water and observe the (food store)
(future root)
growth of the cuttings.
Observation Observation
The cutting of the plant where leaves are not present do The gram seed encloses two cotyledons and a small embryo
not grow, but those cutting grow or sprout which consisting of a radicle and plumule that lies in between the two
possess leaves. cotyledons.
Conclusion Conclusion
The presence of leaves is essential for growth of the Upon germination the seed breaks open and its future root and
cuttings in money plant. future shoot get exposed to the environment to be developed
into a new plant.
Check Yourself
Check Yourself
1. Which type of vegetative propagation is seen in the
above experiment?
1. What do you understand by germination?
Ans Cutting.
Ans The initial stages in the growth of a seed to develop into a
2. Why does the cutting without leaves do not grow? seedling under favourable conditions is germination.
Ans Leaves are the site in plant where manufacture of food
2. Where is the food stored for providing energy to the
takes place which is used for growth. germinating seed?
3. Why is one end of the cutting dipped in water? Ans The food is stored in the cotyledon of the seed.
Ans One end of the cutting is dipped in water because the 3. Which kind of seed is of Gram– dicotyledonous or
water is used as a medium for growth and conduction of monocotyledonous?
food throughout the plant. Ans Gram seed is dicotyledonous.
4. Cutting is what type of method for propagation of new 4. How does a germinating seed acquire water from its
plants? surroundings?
Ans Cutting is an artificial method of vegetative propagation. Ans Through micropyle.
5. What other methods are used in artificial vegetative 5. What are different parts observed in the seed after
propagation? germination?
Ans Grafting and layering. Ans After germination, the two parts in a seed, i.e. radicle (the future
root) and plumule (the future shoot) are observed.
 Class 10th Term II

ACTIVITY ZONE
ACTIVITY 1
Objective P-generation

To study the basic concept of inherited traits. TT tt

Tall (Homozygous) Dwarf (Homozygous)
Time 5 minutes
Gametes T t

Tt
100% tall hybrid
(Heterozygous)
F1-generation
(a) (b)
On selfing
Procedure Tt Tt
1. Observe the ears of all the students in your class. X
2. Count the number of students having free or attached Gametes T t T t
earlobes.
3. The lists of students having free or attached earlobes are TT Tt Tt tt
64 and 36, respectively out of 100 students.
F2-generation
4. Understand the basic concept between the variation
among the humans having free or attached earlobes. Homozygous Heterozygous Homozygous
tall tall dwarf
Check Yourself 75% 25%

1. What will be the ratio of free and attached earlobes if 64 Observation

and 36 are the students out of 100?
F1 -progeny has all tall plants and F2 has three tall plants and
Ans 16 : 9
one dwarf plant.
2. What is inheritance?
Ans The process by which genetic traits are passed from one Conclusion
generation to the next is called inheritance. (i) F1 has a 100% dominant ratio. All the plants are 100% tall
3. What is an inherited trait? but heterozygous.
Ans It is a particular genetically determined characteristic that is (ii) F2 has dominant recessive ratio of1 : 2 :1 and phenotypic
transmitted from parent to offspring. ratio of 3 :1.
4. Who all contribute to the inherited traits of a child?
Ans Both mother and father.
Check Yourself
5. The variation in the morphology of the earlobes is an......... .
Ans Inherited trait. 1. Which kind of cross do you think is shown in the figure?
Ans Monohybrid cross.
2. Which character did Mendel take in his monohybrid cross?
ACTIVITY 2 Ans Stem height.
Objective 3. Identify the dominant and recessive traits from the figure.
Ans Tall–dominant; Dwarf–recessive.
To show that F 2 -generation has a 1:2:1 ratio of
T T : Tt and tt traits. 4. What is the genotypic and phenotypic ratio so, obtained in
the F2-generation of tall and dwarf plant, respectively?
Procedure
Ans Genotypic ratio 1 : 2 : 1, Phenotypic ratio 3 : 1
Perform a monohybrid cross between pure homozygous
5. What would you call the offspring produced in
tall and dwarf plants. F1-generation?
Ans Hybrid or Heterozygous.
 Ch-12- Electricity

Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :

Take about 2 cm long magnesium ribbon .
Chalo AbClean
Ise AASAN BHASHA
it with sandMEI Samajhte hai :
paper.
This activity is basically for obtaining V-I graph (Ohm's Law).
Hold the magnesium ribbon with a pair of tongs , and start heating its
First, only one cell is the voltage source, note down the ammeter and
other end.
voltmeter readings and fill in the table provided.
The Magnesium Ribbon starts burning.
BUT IT'S NOT BURNING ALONE.
It starts burning with a WHITE DAZZLING FLAME .
And now to collect the Magnesium i1 v1
Oxide Powder v1/i1
hold it over a
i2 v2 v2/i2
i3Watch Glassv3 v3/i3
i4 v4 v4/i4

We observed that approximately the same value for V/I is obtained in each
case. Thus the V–I graph is a straight line that passes through the origin of the
graph, as shown in Fig. 12.3. Thus, V/I is a constant ratio.

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 Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :
Take about 2 cm long magnesium ribbon .
Clean it with sand paper.
Hold the magnesium ribbon with a pair of tongs , and start heating its
other end.
The Magnesium Ribbon starts burning.
Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :
BUT IT'S
This activity is basically NOT
to study BURNING
about electricalALONE.
resistance of a conductor.
In this It starts
Activity weburning with
observe that thea current
WHITEis DAZZLING FLAME .
different for different
And
Whynow to differ?
do they collect the Magnesium
Certain components offerOxide Powder
an easy hold
path for theitflow
over
of a
Watch
electrical current while the others resistGlass
the flow.
We know that the motion of electrons in an electric circuit constitutes an
electric current. The electrons, however are not completely free to move within
a conductor. They are restrained by the attraction of the atoms among which
they move.
Thus, motion of electrons through a conductor is retarded by its resistance.

Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :

This activity is basically to find out factors on which resistance of a conductor
depends.
We know, Answering the questions keeping in mind this only.
Question: Does the current depend on the length of the conductor? - Yes
Question: Does the current depend on the area of cross-section of the wire
used? - Yes

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 Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :
This activity is basically to understand that the current in the ammeter is the
same, independent of its position in the electric circuit.
It means that in a series combination of resistors the current is the same in
every part of the circuit or the same current through each resistor.

Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :

This activity is basically to understand that the potential difference V is equal
to the sum of potential differences V1 , V2 , and V3 .
That is the total potential difference across a combination of resistors in series
is equal to the sum of potential difference across the individual resistors.
V = V1 + V2 + V3

*Activity 12.6 is derivation of equivalent resistance formula for parallel.

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 Ch-13- Magnetic Effects

Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :

Take about 2 cm long magnesium ribbon .
Clean it with sand paper.
Hold the magnesium ribbon with a pair of tongs , and start heating its
other end.
The Magnesium Ribbon starts burning.
BUT IT'S NOT BURNING ALONE.
Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :
It starts burning with a WHITE DAZZLING FLAME .
We see that the needle is deflected which means that the electric current through
And
the nowwire
copper to has
collect the Magnesium
produced Oxide
a magnetic effect. ThusPowder hold
we can say thatitelectricity
over a
and magnetism are linked to eachWatch
other Glass

Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :

Take about 2 cm long magnesium ribbon .
Clean it with sand paper.
Hold the magnesium ribbon with a pair of tongs , and start heating its
other end.
The Magnesium Ribbon starts burning.
Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :
BUT IT'S NOT BURNING ALONE.
The magnet exerts its influence in the region surrounding it. Therefore the iron
It starts
filings experience burning
a force. with thus
The force a WHITE
exertedDAZZLING FLAME
makes iron filings .
to arrange in a
pattern(Fig-13.2). The region surrounding a magnet, in which the force of the a
And now to collect the Magnesium Oxide Powder hold it over
magnet can be detected, is said to Watch
have aGlass
magnetic field. The lines along which
the iron filings align themselves represent magnetic field lines.

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 Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :
We shall first consider the pattern of the magnetic field around a straight conductor
carrying current.
What happens to the deflection of the compass needle placed at a given point if the
current in the copper wire is changed? To see this, vary the current in the wire. We find
that the deflection in the needle also changes. In fact, if the current is increased, the
deflection also increases. It indicates that the magnitude of the magnetic field produced
at a given point increases as the current through the wire increases.
What happens to the deflection of the needle if the compass is moved away from
the copper wire but the current through the wire remains the same? To see this, now
place the compass at a farther point from the conducting wire (say at point Q).
What change do you observe? We see that the deflection in the needle decreases. Thus
the magnetic field produced by a given current in the conductor decreases as the
distance from it increases.
From Fig. 13.6, it can be noticed that the concentric circles representing the magnetic field
around a current-carrying straight wire become larger and larger as we move away from
it.
Does the direction of magnetic field lines get reversed if the direction of current
through the straight copper wire is reversed? -- The direction of magnetic field lines is
reversed if the direction of current through the copper wire is reversed.

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 Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :
The displacement of the rod (AB) suggests that:
A force is exerted on the current-carrying aluminium rod when it is placed in a
magnetic field.
The direction of force is also reversed when the direction of current through the
conductor is reversed.

Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :

If the south pole of the magnet is moved towards the end B, the deflections in the
galvanometer would just be opposite to the previous case.
When the coil & magnet are stationary, there is no deflection in the galvanometer.
This activity shows that the motion of a magnet with respect to the coil produces an
induced potential difference, which sets up an induced electric current in the circuit.

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 Chalo Ab Ise AASAN BHASHA MEI Samajhte hai :
As soon as the current in coil-1 reaches either a steady value or zero, the
galvanometer in coil-2 shows no deflection.
We conclude that a potential difference is induced in coil-2 whenever the electric
current through the coil-1 is changing (starting or stopping). Coil-1 is called the
primary coil and coil-2 is called the secondary coil. As the current in the first coil
changes, the magnetic field associated with it also changes. Thus the magnetic field
lines around the secondary coil also change. Hence the change in magnetic field
lines associated with the secondary coil is the cause of induced electric current in it.
This process, by which a changing magnetic field in a conductor induces a current in
another conductor, is called electromagnetic induction

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