The Fundamental of ICT

UNIT III
Introduction to Internet and WWW: Basic of Computer Networks, LAN, WAN, Network
Topology, Internet, Concept of Internet & WWW, Applications of Internet, Website Address and
URL, Introduction to IP Address, ISP and Role of ISP, Internet Protocol, Modes of Connecting
Internet (HotSpot, Wifi, LAN Cable, BroadBand, USB Tethering), Identifying and uses of
IP/MAC/IMEI of various devices, Popular Web Browsers (Internet Explorer/Edge, Chrome,
Mozilla Firefox, Opera etc.), Exploring the Internet, Surfing the web, Popular Search Engines,
Searching on Internet, Downloading Web Pages, Printing Web Pages.

Introduction to Internet and World Wide Web (WWW)

The Internet is a vast global network that connects millions of private, public, academic, business,
and government networks across the world. It facilitates the sharing of information,
communication, and collaboration across geographical boundaries. The Internet emerged in the
late 20th century, evolving from the ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network)
project initiated by the U.S. Department of Defence in the 1960s. Today, it has transformed into a
critical infrastructure enabling various applications like email, online education, e-commerce, and
social networking.

The World Wide Web (WWW), commonly referred to as the web, is a system of interlinked
hypertext documents and multimedia content accessed via the Internet. Created by Tim Berners-
Lee in 1989 while working on CERN Laboratory (European Organization for Nuclear
Research.), the web allows users to navigate through information using hyperlinks and is viewed
through web browsers like Chrome, Firefox, and Safari. The WWW relies on technologies such as
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP), Uniform Resource Locators (URLs), and Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML). It serves as a platform for a variety of online activities, including browsing, social
networking, e-commerce, and multimedia sharing.

Basics of Computer Networks

A computer network is a collection of interconnected devices (computers, servers, routers, etc.)

that communicate and share resources (data, software, hardware, etc.) using communication
protocols. Networks enable efficient data exchange, remote access, and collaboration.

Key Components of a Network

1. Nodes: Devices such as computers, printers, or servers connected to the network.

2. Communication Medium: The physical or wireless pathway (e.g., cables, fiber optics, radio
waves) through which data is transmitted.
3. Protocols: Set of rules governing data transmission (e.g., TCP/IP, HTTP).
4. Network Devices: Devices like routers, switches, hubs, and modems that facilitate
communication.

Networking Devices

• Router: Directs data packets between networks.

• Switch: Connects devices within a network and manages data flow.
• Hub: Simple device to connect multiple devices; less intelligent than switches.
 • Modem: Converts digital data to analog for transmission over telephone lines.
• Access Point: Enables wireless devices to connect to a network.

Importance of Computer Networks

• Resource Sharing: Shared access to files, printers, and applications.

• Communication: Email, chat, and video conferencing.
• Centralized Data Management: Simplifies data backup and access.
• Scalability: Easy to add new devices and users.
• Cost Efficiency: Reduces hardware and software costs through sharing.

Network Security

• Firewalls: Control incoming and outgoing network traffic.

• Encryption: Protects data by converting it into unreadable code.
• Antivirus Software: Detects and removes malicious programs.
• VPN (Virtual Private Network): Ensures secure remote access
Types of Networks
There are various types of networks, among them commonly used ones are given below:

• PAN: It stands for Personal Area Network. It is a basic network where mobile phones, one or
two computers, tabs, printers, etc are connected. These types of networks are used in places
where communication is managed by a single person. The range of communication is within
ten metres. For example, Bluetooth.
• LAN: It stands for Local Area Network. A group of computers along with the peripheral
devices connected can share a common way of communication. It is installed in the places
where it can be used by 3 to 4 users. The range of communication can vary from one to five
kilometres. For example, WiFi at home or offices.
• MAN: It stands for Metropolitan Area Network. A computer network that connects the
devices in town, city, or any area. It is larger than the personal area network and smaller than
the wide-area network. The range of communication can vary from five to 50 kilometres. For
example, broadband connection for houses in a street.
• WAN: It stands for Wide Area Network. It is a large network that is not restricted to a single
location. It can provide communication services to all the devices connected all over the
globe. The range of communication varies from 50 to 1000 kilometres.
• GAN: The largest geographical network type is the Global Area Network (GAN), which
spans worldwide. GANs cover vast areas and are used to connect various networks and
systems globally. The Internet can be considered the largest GAN, connecting millions of
networks around the world and enabling communication across continents.

Network Topologies in Computers

Network topology refers to the arrangement of elements in a communication network such as links,
nodes, and so on. The term network topology refers to the arrangement of various types of
telecommunication networks, such as command and control radio networks, industrial field buses,
and computer networks. Local area networks, a common computer network installation, contain
examples of network topologies.
Network topologies are classified into two types: physical and logical. While logical topology
emphasizes the pattern of data transfer between network nodes, physical topology emphasizes the
physical layout of the connected devices and nodes.
Types of network topology
1. Bus Topology: The simplest type of topology is called a bus topology, in which network
communication takes place over a single bus or channel. There are numerous taps and drop
lines connected to the bus. Drop Lines are cables that connect the bus to the computer, and taps
are connectors. In other words, each node is connected to a single transmission line.

The following are the benefits of Bus topology:

• Easy to install and use.
• Other nodes won't be impacted if one node fails.
• Less wiring is needed.
• Economical to implement.

The following are Bus topology drawbacks:

• Efficiency decreases as nodes increase (strength of signal decreases).
• A bus failure will result in network failure.
• The bus's limited length means that only a certain number of nodes can connect to it.
• As messages are broadcast to all nodes, there are more security concerns and risks.

Bus Topology
2. Ring Topology: When two computers are connected to form a ring, the topology is known
as a ring topology. The message passing is circular and unidirectional. A fixed amount of time
is allotted for each computer to access the network for transmission in this deterministic
network topology. Each node is a part of a closed loop.

Ring topology has the advantages listed below:

• Simple installation
• Fewer Cables are needed.
• Minimizes the possibility of data collision.
• An easy problem to solve.
• The access time is the same for every node.

The following are some drawbacks to ring topology:

• The network as a whole will collapse if one node fails.
• Slow data transfer rate as each message has to go through the ring path.
• Getting more difficult to reconfigure.

3. Star Topology: A computer network topology known as a star topology connects each node to
a central hub. The hub or switch acts as a bridge between the nodes. Any node making a service
request or offering a service must first get in touch with the hub. The other connected devices
function as clients in a star topology, while the hub and switch serve as a server.
 The benefits of the star topology are as follows:
• Less costly.
• Centralized management.
• Simple to scale.
• Other nodes won't be impacted if one node fails.
• Easy to upgrade and reconfigure.

The following are some drawbacks of the star topology:

• The network will collapse if the primary device faults occur.
• There are a limited number of devices in the network.

4. Mesh Topology: Mesh technology is a network configuration in which computers are linked to
one another by numerous redundant connections. There are numerous methods for
transferring from one computer to another. It lacks a switch, hub, or any other central computer
that acts as a communication hub.

Mesh topology has the benefits listed below:

• Direct communication is facilitated by dedicated links.
• There are no channel traffic issues.
• Due to each node having its own dedicated path, fault tolerance is good.
• Quick communication.
• Maintains security and privacy thanks to a separate communication channel.
• There are backup options in the network in case a node fails.

Mesh topology has the following drawbacks:

• Extremely high cabling is required.
• Implementation is expensive.
• The network is difficult to install and takes up a lot of space.
• Installation and regular maintenance are extremely difficult.

Types of Communication

1. Simplex: One-way communication (e.g., TV broadcasting).

2. Half-Duplex: Two-way communication but one direction at a time (e.g., walkie-talkies).
3. Full-Duplex: Two-way communication simultaneously (e.g., phone calls).

Types of Transmission Media

1. Wired Media:
o Twisted Pair Cables (e.g., Ethernet cables)
o Coaxial Cables
o Fiber Optic Cables
 2. Wireless Media:
o Radio Waves (Wi-Fi)
o Infrared
o Microwaves
o Satellite Communication

INTERNET, CONCEPT OF INTERNET AND WWW

1. The Internet

Definition:
The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that uses standard
communication protocols (TCP/IP) to enable devices worldwide to share information and
resources.

Key Features of the Internet

1. Global Connectivity: Links people and devices worldwide.

2. Decentralized Structure: No single controlling authority; the network is resilient to
failures.
3. Interoperability: Devices and systems communicate using common protocols like TCP/IP.
4. Scalability: Can grow without disrupting the existing framework

Components of the Internet:

1. Clients and Servers:

o Clients request services (e.g., web browsers).
o Servers provide services (e.g., web hosting, file storage).
2. Protocols:
Rules governing communication, like TCP/IP, HTTP, and FTP.
3. Infrastructure:
Physical devices like routers, switches, and transmission media.

Evolution:

• 1960s: ARPANET, the precursor to the Internet, was developed.

• 1980s: Expansion to academia and the public.
• 1990s: Commercialization led to mass adoption.
• Today: High-speed Internet and ubiquitous connectivity.

2. World Wide Web (WWW)

Definition:
The World Wide Web is an information-sharing system on the Internet that uses hyperlinks and
multimedia to allow access to data.

Key Features:

• Based on hypertext and hyperlinks.

• Uses web browsers to access content stored on servers.
 • Employs technologies like HTML, HTTP, and URLs.

Key Components of the WWW:

1. Web Pages: Documents written in HTML (HyperText Markup Language) that can include
text, images, videos, and links.
2. Web Browsers: Software applications like Chrome, Firefox, and Safari used to access web
pages.
3. URLs (Uniform Resource Locators): Addresses used to locate resources on the web.
4. HTTP/HTTPS: Protocols enabling communication between web browsers and servers.
5. Web Servers: Computers that store and deliver web pages upon request.

Core Technologies:

1. HTML (HyperText Markup Language):

The standard language for creating web pages.
2. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol):
Protocol for transferring web pages between clients and servers.
3. URL (Uniform Resource Locator):
The address of a web resource (e.g., https://www.example.com).

Evolution:

• 1989: Invented by Tim Berners-Lee at CERN.

• 1991: First website launched.
• Present: Dynamic, interactive websites powered by modern technologies like JavaScript,
CSS, and databases.

Applications of the Internet

The Internet has transformed the way we communicate, access information, and conduct daily
activities. Its applications span across personal, educational, professional, and commercial
domains.

1. Communication

• Email: Instant communication through services like Gmail, Outlook, and Yahoo Mail.
• Instant Messaging and Chat: Real-time communication via platforms like WhatsApp,
Telegram, and Slack.
• Voice and Video Calls: Services like Skype, Zoom, and Microsoft Teams enable VoIP and
video conferencing.
• Social Media: Platforms like Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram allow users to connect and
share content globally.

2. Information Retrieval

• Search Engines: Tools like Google, Bing, and DuckDuckGo provide access to vast
information resources.
• Online Encyclopedias: Sites like Wikipedia offer detailed articles on countless topics.
• News Portals: Websites like BBC, CNN, and The New York Times provide real-time updates
on global events.
3. Education and E-Learning

• Online Courses: Platforms like Coursera, Khan Academy, and edX offer courses on a wide
range of subjects.
• Virtual Classrooms: Tools like Google Classroom and Blackboard support remote learning.
• Digital Libraries: Access to e-books, journals, and academic resources through services like
JSTOR and Project Gutenberg.

4. Entertainment

• Streaming Services: Platforms like Netflix, YouTube, and Spotify provide movies, music, and
videos.
• Online Gaming: Games like Fortnite, Minecraft, and PUBG enable multiplayer experiences.
• Social Networking: Sharing and discovering content through apps like TikTok and
Pinterest.

5. E-Commerce and Online Transactions

• Online Shopping: Websites like Amazon, eBay, and Flipkart facilitate purchasing goods and
services.
• Online Banking: Banks provide internet banking services for fund transfers, bill payments,
and account management.
• Digital Wallets: Applications like PayPal, Google Pay, and Apple Pay enable cashless
transactions.

6. Business and Professional Uses

• Remote Work: Platforms like Slack, Microsoft Teams, and Trello facilitate remote
collaboration.
• Cloud Computing: Services like AWS, Google Cloud, and Dropbox offer data storage and
computing resources.
• Digital Marketing: Businesses use tools like Google Ads and Facebook Ads for targeted
advertising.

7. Healthcare

• Telemedicine: Remote consultation and diagnosis through platforms like Practo and
Teladoc.
• Health Monitoring: Wearables connected to the Internet track fitness and health metrics.
• Online Pharmacies: Ordering medications through websites like 1mg and Netmeds.

8. Government and Public Services

• E-Governance: Access to government services like tax filing, voter registration, and
document issuance.
• Disaster Management: Coordination and communication during emergencies.
• Public Awareness: Spreading information on health campaigns, safety alerts, and education
initiatives.
9. Internet of Things (IoT)

• Smart Homes: Devices like smart lights, thermostats, and security cameras controlled via
the Internet.
• Industrial IoT: Monitoring and automating industrial processes.
• Connected Vehicles: Navigation, diagnostics, and entertainment systems integrated with
the Internet.

10. Research and Innovation

• Scientific Collaboration: Sharing data and findings across global research institutions.
• Crowdsourcing: Platforms like Kickstarter and GoFundMe enable funding for innovative
projects.
• Data Analytics: Gathering and analyzing data for insights in various fields.

Website Address and URL

1. Website Address

A website address is the name or identifier used to access a website. It is often referred to as the
domain name and is designed to be easy for users to remember. Website addresses are part of the
larger system called the Domain Name System (DNS), which translates human-readable names
into machine-readable IP addresses.

Example:

• www.google.com
• www.amazon.com

Components:

1. Domain Name: The primary identifier of the website (e.g., google in www.google.com).
2. Top-Level Domain (TLD): The suffix or extension that categorizes the website (e.g., .com,
.org, .net).

How Websites Work

1. Domain Names and DNS:

o When you enter a domain name (e.g., www.example.com) in your browser, it needs
to be converted into an IP address (e.g., 192.168.1.1) to locate the server hosting the
website.
o The Domain Name System (DNS) translates the domain name into the
corresponding IP address.
2. Request to the Web Server:
o After obtaining the IP address, your browser sends a request to the web server
hosting the website using the HTTP or HTTPS protocol.
o Example request: "GET /index.html" (a request to retrieve the homepage).
3. Response from the Web Server:
o The web server processes the request and sends back the requested resource (e.g., a
web page) along with an HTTP response code (e.g., 200 for success).
 4. Rendering the Page:
o Your browser processes the HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and other content received from
the server to display the web page.
5. Continuous Interaction:
o Additional requests are made for images, videos, or other resources needed to
complete the web page.

2. URL (Uniform Resource Locator)

A Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is the complete address used to access a specific resource on
the web. It is more detailed than a website address and specifies not only the domain but also the
exact location of a resource, such as a web page, image, or file.

Example:
https://www.example.com/about.html

How URLs Work

A URL functions as a pointer to a resource on the Internet and works through the following steps:

1. Components of a URL:

1. Protocol: Specifies the communication method (e.g., http, https, ftp).

o http: HyperText Transfer Protocol.
o https: Secure version of HTTP with encryption.
2. Domain Name: Identifies the server hosting the resource (e.g., www.example.com).
3. Path: The specific directory or file within the website (e.g., /about.html).
4. Port (Optional): Specifies the communication port (default is 80 for HTTP and 443 for
HTTPS).
5. Query Parameters (Optional): Data passed to the server for processing, often following a?.
o Example: https://www.example.com/search?q=books
6. Fragment Identifier (Optional): Points to a specific section of the page, following a #.
o Example: https://www.example.com/page#section2

2. Step-by-Step URL Process:

o Enter URL: A user types the URL into a browser or clicks a hyperlink.
o DNS Lookup: The browser queries a DNS server to translate the domain name into
an IP address.
o Server Communication:
▪ The browser sends an HTTP/HTTPS request to the server at the IP address.
▪ If a specific path is included in the URL, the server locates and sends the
corresponding resource.
o Response: The server returns the requested resource (e.g., a web page or file) to the
browser.
o Rendering: The browser processes the returned content and displays it to the user.
Difference Between Website Address and URL

Aspect Website Address URL

Definition Simplified name to access a Complete address to access a specific
website. resource.
Scope Focuses on the domain (e.g., Includes protocol, domain, path, and more.
www.google.com).
Example www.example.com https://www.example.com/page.html?q=test

Introduction to IP Address

An IP Address (Internet Protocol Address) is a unique numerical label assigned to every

device connected to a network that uses the Internet Protocol for communication. It
serves as the foundation for device identification and location addressing within a
network. Without IP addresses, devices would be unable to communicate with one
another over the internet or within private networks.

It serves two primary purposes:

1. Identification: It identifies the host or device on a network.

2. Location Addressing: It indicates the location of the device within the network.

The Role and Purpose of IP Addresses

An IP address serves two primary purposes. First, it identifies a device or host on a

network, allowing it to be distinguished from other devices. Second, it provides the
device’s location within the network, ensuring data is sent to the correct destination.
Essentially, an IP address acts like a mailing address for your device in the digital world.

Types of IP Addresses

IPv4 (Internet Protocol Version 4)

IPv4 is the most commonly used type of IP address and employs a 32-bit format. It is
represented as four decimal numbers separated by dots, such as:
Example: 192.168.1.1.

This format supports approximately 4.3 billion unique addresses. While IPv4 has been
the backbone of the internet, its address space is becoming insufficient due to the
increasing number of internet-connected devices.

IPv6 (Internet Protocol Version 6)

IPv6 was introduced to solve the limitations of IPv4. It uses a 128-bit format, allowing
for an exponentially larger number of addresses. IPv6 is represented as eight groups of
hexadecimal numbers separated by colons, such as:
Example: 2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334.
With its vast capacity, IPv6 ensures scalability for the growing number of devices.

Public and Private IP Addresses

IP addresses can be classified as public or private:

• Private IP Addresses are used within internal networks (e.g., a home or office)
and are not accessible directly from the internet. For example, your Wi-Fi router
assigns private IPs like:
Example: 192.168.1.10 for your laptop and 192.168.1.11 for your phone.
• Public IP Addresses are globally unique and are assigned by Internet Service
Providers (ISPs). These addresses allow devices to communicate over the internet.
For example, a public IP address might be used by a website server or an
individual’s home network.
Example: 203.0.113.1.

When you access a website, your router uses this public IP address to communicate
with the site's server.

Static and Dynamic IP Addresses

• Static IP Addresses are fixed and remain the same over time. They are often
used for servers, as they need consistent and reliable access.
Example: A company's web server might have a static IP address like
198.51.100.10.
• Dynamic IP Addresses are temporary and assigned by a Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server. These are commonly used for personal
devices.
Example: Your home router might assign your laptop the dynamic IP address
192.168.1.15, which could change the next time you connect to the network.

How IP Addresses Work

When a device connects to a network, it is assigned an IP address. For example, when

you type www.google.com in your browser, the following occurs:

1. Your computer sends a request to a Domain Name System (DNS) server to find
Google's IP address.
Example: The DNS might resolve www.google.com to an IP like 142.250.190.78.
2. Your computer then sends a request to the server at 142.250.190.78. This
request includes your device's IP address, so the server knows where to send the
response.
3. Google's server processes your request and sends back the data (the website) to
your device's IP address.
This seamless exchange is made possible by the unique identification provided by IP
addresses.

Importance of IP Addresses

IP addresses are crucial for enabling communication between devices, organizing

networks, and ensuring data security. They allow devices to connect seamlessly and
ensure data reaches the correct recipient. For instance, when troubleshooting a network
issue, administrators can use an IP address to identify the problematic device.

What is an ISP?

An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company or organization that provides

individuals, businesses, and other entities access to the internet. ISPs act as
intermediaries between users and the global internet, enabling communication,
browsing, streaming, and other online activities.

Role of an ISP

ISPs play a crucial role in making the internet accessible and usable. Their functions
include:

1. Internet Access

The primary role of an ISP is to provide internet connectivity. They achieve this by:

• Connecting users to the internet through various technologies like DSL (Digital
Subscriber Line), fiber optics, cable broadband, satellite, or wireless
networks.
• Assigning a public IP address to the user, allowing them to interact with other
devices on the internet.

Example: When you subscribe to an ISP like Comcast or AT&T, they provide you with a
router and an internet connection.

2. Network Management

ISPs maintain and manage the infrastructure that ensures a stable and reliable
connection to the internet. This involves:

• Routing data packets efficiently between your device and servers worldwide.
• Upgrading infrastructure to support faster speeds and larger bandwidth
requirements.
Example: ISPs deploy fiber optic networks to offer high-speed internet services in urban
and rural areas.

3. Domain Name System (DNS) Services

ISPs provide DNS services, which translate user-friendly domain names (e.g.,
www.google.com) into machine-readable IP addresses (e.g., 142.250.190.78). This
process is essential for connecting users to websites.

Example: When you type www.youtube.com into your browser, your ISP's DNS server
resolves the name into an IP address, enabling your request to reach the correct server.

4. Providing Email Services

Many ISPs offer email services to their subscribers as part of their packages. These
include unique email addresses hosted on their servers.

Example: An ISP like Spectrum might provide an email address such as

[email protected].

5. Content Delivery and Hosting

Some ISPs offer content hosting services for businesses, including:

• Web hosting for company websites.

• Cloud storage and backup solutions for personal or business data.

Example: ISPs like Bluehost or GoDaddy specialize in hosting services in addition to

providing basic internet connectivity.

6. Ensuring Security

ISPs play a role in securing their networks and users by:

• Offering firewalls, anti-virus programs, or anti-malware tools.

• Blocking access to malicious websites.
• Monitoring network traffic to prevent cyberattacks like DDoS (Distributed Denial-
of-Service).

Example: Many ISPs notify users when unusual or suspicious activity is detected on their
networks.
7. Regulation and Compliance

ISPs adhere to government and regulatory guidelines, such as:

• Implementing net neutrality policies, where applicable, to ensure equal

treatment of all internet traffic.
• Assisting law enforcement with legal requests, such as providing user logs during
criminal investigations.

Example: ISPs may comply with local laws to block illegal or harmful content from being
accessible.

8. Offering Value-Added Services

In addition to basic internet connectivity, ISPs often provide value-added services, such
as:

• Streaming platforms (e.g., bundled subscriptions to Netflix or Hulu).

• VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) services for internet-based calling.
• Technical support to assist users with connection issues.

Example: An ISP might offer a plan that includes both high-speed internet and access to
a streaming service like Disney+.

Types of ISPs

1. Residential ISPs: Provide internet services for homes (e.g., Xfinity, AT&T).
2. Business ISPs: Offer high-speed and reliable internet solutions tailored to
businesses (e.g., Spectrum Business).
3. Mobile ISPs: Provide wireless internet access through cellular networks (e.g.,
Verizon, T-Mobile).
4. Hosting ISPs: Specialize in web hosting and server management services (e.g.,
Bluehost, GoDaddy).

Importance of ISPs

ISPs are the backbone of modern digital life. Without them:

• Individuals could not access online services like email, social media, or streaming
platforms.
• Businesses would struggle to operate and communicate effectively.
 • Governments and institutions would find it challenging to maintain digital
infrastructure for citizens.

What is Internet Protocol (IP)?

The Internet Protocol (IP) is a set of rules that govern how data is transmitted over a
network, such as the internet. It is a foundational protocol in the TCP/IP suite, which is
used to ensure reliable communication between devices across interconnected
networks. IP enables devices, such as computers, smartphones, and servers, to identify
and communicate with one another by assigning them unique addresses called IP
addresses.

Key Functions of Internet Protocol

1. Addressing:
IP assigns a unique identifier (IP address) to each device on a network. This allows
devices to locate and communicate with each other.
Example: Device A with the IP address 192.168.1.10 can send data to Device B
with the IP address 192.168.1.20.
2. Routing:
IP determines the best path for data packets to travel across networks from the
source to the destination. This is done through routers, which forward data
between networks.
Example: Data from a device in New York can be routed to a server in London by
following multiple intermediate networks.
3. Packetization:
IP breaks data into smaller chunks called packets to facilitate transmission. Each
packet includes the source and destination IP addresses, as well as other control
information.
4. Fragmentation and Reassembly:
If the data is too large to be sent in a single packet, IP fragments it into smaller
packets. The receiving device reassembles these fragments into the original data.

How Internet Protocol Works

1. Data Transmission:
When you send data (e.g., request a webpage), it is broken into packets by the
sender’s device.
2. Header Information:
Each packet includes a header containing key details like:
o Source IP Address: The sender’s IP address.
o Destination IP Address: The receiver’s IP address.
 o Other metadata for routing and control.
3. Routing:
The packets travel through multiple routers and networks to reach the destination.
Each router examines the destination IP address in the packet to decide the next
hop.
4. Reassembly:
At the destination, packets are reassembled in the correct order to reconstruct the
original data.

Components of an IP Packet

An IP packet consists of two main parts:

1. Header: Contains control information such as:

o Source and destination IP addresses.
o Protocol information.
o Fragmentation details.
2. Payload: The actual data being transmitted, such as a webpage, email, or video
stream.

Types of Internet Protocols

IP operates alongside other protocols to enable seamless communication. Common

related protocols include:

• TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Ensures reliable data delivery.

• UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Enables faster, connectionless communication.
• ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Used for error reporting and
diagnostics (e.g., "ping" commands).
• IPSec (Internet Protocol Security): Adds encryption and authentication for
secure communication.

Importance of Internet Protocol

1. Device Communication: Enables devices across different networks to

communicate effectively.
2. Scalability: Supports global communication by managing vast numbers of devices
and networks.
3. Flexibility: Handles both small-scale local area networks (LANs) and large-scale
wide area networks (WANs).
4. Interoperability: Ensures different types of devices and systems can work
together seamlessly.

Modes of Connecting to the Internet

There are various modes of connecting devices to the internet, each suited to different
situations and requirements. Below is a detailed explanation of commonly used
methods:
1. Hotspot

A Hotspot allows a device, such as a smartphone, to share its internet connection

(usually from mobile data) with other devices wirelessly.

• How it Works:
A mobile device acts as a Wi-Fi router, creating a local wireless network that other
devices can connect to. The internet access is provided through the mobile data of
the hotspot device.
• Advantages:
o Portable and convenient.
o Useful for quick, on-the-go connections.
o Can connect multiple devices simultaneously.
• Disadvantages:
o Consumes mobile data quickly.
o May drain the device’s battery.
o Limited range compared to traditional Wi-Fi routers.

Example: Sharing your mobile data with a laptop using your phone’s hotspot feature.

2. Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity)

Wi-Fi provides wireless internet connectivity using a router or access point.

• How it Works:
A Wi-Fi router connects to the internet via broadband or fiber optics and creates a
local wireless network. Devices within the router's range can connect to the
network wirelessly.
• Advantages:
o Offers a stable and fast connection.
o Supports multiple devices.
o No physical cables required, providing flexibility.
• Disadvantages:
o Signal strength decreases with distance.
o Interference from walls or other devices may impact performance.
o Requires a router and broadband connection.

Example: Connecting your smartphone or laptop to your home Wi-Fi network.

3. LAN Cable

A LAN (Local Area Network) Cable is a wired connection method for accessing the
internet.

• How it Works:
A LAN cable (Ethernet cable) physically connects a device to a router, modem, or
switch, providing a direct internet connection.
• Advantages:
 o Offers faster and more reliable connections than wireless methods.
o No interference or signal loss over short distances.
o Ideal for bandwidth-intensive tasks like online gaming or video streaming.
• Disadvantages:
o Limited mobility due to the physical cable.
o Requires compatible ports on devices.

Example: Connecting a desktop PC to a router using an Ethernet cable.

4. Broadband

Broadband is a high-speed internet connection delivered through various technologies

such as DSL, fiber optics, or cable.

• How it Works:
A broadband connection is established via a wired infrastructure (e.g., DSL, cable,
or fiber-optic lines) that connects a modem to the internet. The modem may then
connect to devices via LAN cables or Wi-Fi.
• Advantages:
o High-speed and stable connection.
o Suitable for heavy usage and multiple devices.
o Can offer unlimited data plans.
• Disadvantages:
o Requires professional installation.
o Fixed to a location (not portable).

Example: Subscribing to a broadband plan from ISPs like AT&T or Comcast for home or
office internet.

5. USB Tethering

USB Tethering is a method of sharing a mobile device’s internet connection with

another device via a USB cable.

• How it Works:
A mobile device connects to another device (e.g., a laptop) using a USB cable. The
mobile device shares its internet connection with the connected device.
• Advantages:
o Provides a stable connection.
o Charges the mobile device while tethering.
o No data loss due to wireless interference.
• Disadvantages:
o Limited to one device at a time.
o Requires a compatible USB cable.
o Slower than some other connection methods.

Example: Using a smartphone to provide internet to a laptop during travel.

Identifying and Uses of IP, MAC, and IMEI Addresses

Devices connected to a network or communication system are uniquely identified using

different types of addresses: IP Address, MAC Address, and IMEI Number. Each serves a
distinct purpose in enabling communication, security, and identification.

1. IP Address (Internet Protocol Address)

What is it?

• A unique address assigned to devices in a network to facilitate communication over the

internet or a local network.
• Divided into two types:
o IPv4: 32-bit address (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
o IPv6: 128-bit address (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334).

How to Identify It

• Windows: Use ipconfig in Command Prompt.

• Mac: Check "Network Preferences" under System Settings.
• Mobile Devices: Found under Wi-Fi or network settings.
• Router: Check the admin panel, usually accessible via a browser at 192.168.1.1.

Uses

1. Device Identification in a Network: Determines which device is sending/receiving

data.
2. Data Routing: Ensures data packets reach the correct destination.
3. Remote Access: Used in applications like Remote Desktop Protocol (RDP) and VPN.
4. Troubleshooting: Helps in diagnosing network connectivity issues.

2. MAC Address (Media Access Control Address)

What is it?

• A hardware address permanently assigned to a network interface card (NIC) by the

manufacturer.
• Unique for every device, formatted as six pairs of hexadecimal digits (e.g.,
00:1A:2B:3C:4D:5E).

How to Identify It

• Windows: Use ipconfig /all in Command Prompt.

• Mac: Found in "System Preferences > Network > Advanced".
• Mobile Devices: Listed in Wi-Fi settings under "About Phone" or "Status".
• Router: Look for "Connected Devices" in the admin panel.
Uses

1. Device Identification in Local Networks: Distinguishes devices in a LAN.

2. Access Control: Used in MAC filtering to restrict devices on a network.
3. Network Monitoring: Helps in tracking devices for security purposes.
4. Device Pairing: Used in pairing Bluetooth devices or identifying specific hardware.

3. IMEI Number (International Mobile Equipment Identity)

What is it?

• A unique 15-digit number assigned to mobile devices like smartphones and tablets.
• Used primarily for identifying devices on cellular networks.

How to Identify It

• Dial Code: Enter *#06# on the phone dialer.

• Settings: Found under "About Phone" or "Status".
• Physical Device: Often printed on the back of the phone or under the battery.

Uses

1. Device Tracking: Helps track lost or stolen devices using cellular networks.
2. Blacklist Management: Blocked IMEIs prevent stolen devices from being used.
3. Authentication: Verifies device authenticity during repairs or warranty claims.
4. Regulatory Compliance: Used by telecom operators to register devices.

What is a Web Browser?

The web browser is an application software to explore www (World Wide Web). It
provides an interface between the server and the client and it requests to the server for
web documents and services. It works as a compiler to render HTML which is used to
design a webpage. Whenever we search for anything on the internet, the browser loads
a web page written in HTML, including text, links, images, and other items such as style
sheets and JavaScript functions. Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Mozilla Firefox, and
Safari are examples of web browsers.

Google Chrome, developed by Google, is widely known for its speed, extensive library of
extensions, and seamless integration with the Google ecosystem. It allows users to sync data
across devices using a Google account and offers robust security features like malware
protection and private browsing through its Incognito mode.

Mozilla Firefox, created by the Mozilla Foundation, is a privacy-focused, open-source browser.

It emphasizes user security with features like Enhanced Tracking Protection and DNS over
HTTPS. Firefox is also highly customizable, making it a favorite among users who prioritize
transparency and privacy.

Microsoft Edge, developed by Microsoft, is based on the Chromium engine and offers
compatibility with modern web standards. It integrates deeply with Windows and Microsoft
services like Office 365, providing productivity tools such as vertical tabs and a built-in PDF
reader. Edge also includes features like SmartScreen for enhanced security.

Opera stands out with its unique built-in tools, including a free VPN and integrated messaging
apps like WhatsApp and Telegram. It is designed for feature-rich browsing with options for
customization and data-saving modes, making it suitable for users who want versatility and
convenience.

Safari, developed by Apple, is optimized for macOS and iOS, offering fast performance and
energy efficiency. It includes features like Intelligent Tracking Prevention for privacy and
seamless integration with Apple’s ecosystem, making it the ideal choice for Apple users.

Brave is a newer browser focused on privacy and speed. By blocking ads and trackers by
default, it ensures a fast and secure browsing experience. Additionally, Brave rewards users
with cryptocurrency for opting into privacy-respecting ads, making it an attractive option for
privacy-conscious individuals.

Internet Explorer, a legacy browser developed by Microsoft, played a significant role in the
early days of the internet but has been discontinued and replaced by Microsoft Edge. While it is
no longer supported, it was historically used for accessing older websites and enterprise
applications.

What is a Search Engine?

A search engine is a software system designed to search for information on the World Wide
Web. It allows users to input keywords or phrases, and in return, it provides a list of relevant
web pages, images, videos, and other content that matches the search query. Search engines
index vast amounts of online content and use algorithms to rank and display results based on
factors like relevance, quality, and authority.

Several popular search engines dominate the market, each offering unique features and benefits.

Google, launched in 1998, is the most popular search engine globally, holding more than 90% of the
market share. Known for its speed and accuracy, Google provides highly relevant search results. It
integrates seamlessly with other Google services like Gmail, YouTube, and Google Drive, making it the
go-to search engine for a majority of users.

Bing, developed by Microsoft and launched in 2009, is the second most popular search engine,
particularly in countries like the United States. It offers rich image and video search capabilities and
provides a rewards program for users who earn points by conducting searches. Bing also integrates
well with Microsoft’s ecosystem, including Windows and Cortana.

Yahoo!, one of the oldest search engines, was founded in 1994. Although its market share has
significantly decreased, it is still used by many for searching news, finance, and sports content. Yahoo!’s
search is powered by Bing, and it remains a popular choice for users who are tied to Yahoo's other
services.

DuckDuckGo is a privacy-focused search engine that has gained popularity in recent years. Launched
in 2008, DuckDuckGo does not track user data or store personal information, making it an attractive
choice for those concerned about privacy. It also does not display personalized ads, giving users a more
neutral search experience.
Baidu is the dominant search engine in China, holding over 70% of the market share there. Launched
in 2000, Baidu is optimized for Chinese-language content and includes services like Baidu Maps and
Baidu Baike (a Chinese version of Wikipedia). Baidu is an essential tool for users in China and those
seeking Chinese-specific content.

Yandex, the most popular search engine in Russia, has a significant share of the market in Eastern
Europe as well. Founded in 1997, Yandex offers features tailored to Russian-language content and
services like Yandex Maps and Yandex News. It’s a powerful tool for Russian-speaking users and those
searching for content in this region.

Ask.com, formerly known as Ask Jeeves, was launched in 1996 and focuses on providing answers to
user questions rather than general web results. Although its market share is small today, Ask.com still
serves as a useful resource for users looking for straightforward answers.

Explore the Internet

1. Browsing Websites: The most common way of exploring the internet is by visiting
websites. Websites can be informational (like Wikipedia), social (like Facebook or
Twitter), or transactional (like Amazon or eBay).
2. Social Media: Social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and TikTok
allow users to connect, share content, and interact with others in real time. These
platforms have become a key part of daily life, offering opportunities for communication,
networking, and entertainment.
3. Online Learning: The internet has opened new avenues for education. Websites like
Coursera, Khan Academy, and Udemy provide online courses, ranging from academic
subjects to practical skills, making education accessible from anywhere.
4. Streaming: Streaming platforms such as Netflix, YouTube, and Spotify provide access to
movies, music, and videos over the internet. These services offer content on-demand,
allowing users to watch or listen to media without the need to download files.
5. E-commerce: The rise of online shopping has transformed how we buy goods and
services. Websites like Amazon, eBay, and Alibaba offer products ranging from
electronics to clothing, with easy payment and delivery options.
6. Email and Communication Tools: Email remains one of the most common methods of
communication over the internet. Services like Gmail, Yahoo Mail, and Outlook allow
users to send messages, attachments, and multimedia. Additionally, instant messaging
and video calling platforms like WhatsApp, Zoom, and Skype facilitate real-time
communication.
7. Gaming: The internet has also become a hub for online gaming, where players can
compete or cooperate with others across the world. Platforms like Steam, Xbox Live, and
PlayStation Network allow gamers to download and play games online.