1. What is the Byzantine Agreement Problem?
The Byzantine Agreement Problem is a fundamental issue in distributed systems where
participants (or nodes) need to reach a consensus despite the presence of malicious or
faulty nodes. It aims to ensure that all non-faulty nodes agree on the same value, even if
some nodes provide false or conflicting information.
2. Define Rollback Recovery.
Rollback recovery is a fault-tolerance mechanism in distributed systems where a
process rolls back to a previously saved state (checkpoint) to recover from failures. The
system restores its state to a consistent point and resumes execution, ensuring data
integrity and progress.
3. Compare Coordinated Checkpointing and Uncoordinated Checkpointing.
Uncoordinated
Feature Coordinated Checkpointing
Checkpointing
Processes synchronize to create Processes save checkpoints
Definition
consistent checkpoints. independently.
Ensures global consistency in May lead to inconsistent states
Consistency
checkpoints. (e.g., domino effect).
Overhead Higher due to synchronization. Lower during normal operation.
Recovery Complex due to potential
Simplified recovery process.
Complexity inconsistency.
Network Requires communication among Independent of inter-process
Communication processes. communication.
4. Formulate the Different Types of Messages in a Distributed System.
• Control Messages: Used for system control and synchronization (e.g., election
messages).
• Data Messages: Carry actual application or user data.
• Heartbeat Messages: Ensure processes are alive and functioning.
• Checkpoint Messages: Mark checkpoints for recovery.
• Acknowledgment Messages: Confirm receipt of data or control messages.
5. What is Communication-Induced Checkpointing? List Its Types.
Communication-induced checkpointing is a hybrid technique where processes take
checkpoints based on communication patterns to avoid inconsistency. It combines
features of coordinated and uncoordinated checkpointing.
Types:
1. Forced Checkpoints: Triggered to maintain global consistency.
2. Local Checkpoints: Taken independently but may depend on communication-
induced events.
6. Define Cloud Computing.
Cloud computing is a technology that delivers computing resources (e.g., storage,
processing power, applications) over the internet on a pay-as-you-go basis. It eliminates
the need for local infrastructure and allows on-demand access to scalable resources.
7. List the Characteristics of Cloud Computing.
• On-Demand Self-Service
• Broad Network Access
• Resource Pooling
• Rapid Elasticity
• Measured Service
• Scalability and Flexibility
8. What is Meant by Multitenancy?
Multitenancy is an architecture in which multiple users (tenants) share the same
software application or infrastructure while maintaining data isolation and privacy. It
optimizes resource utilization and reduces costs.
9. What is Virtualization? List the Types of Virtualization.
Virtualization is the process of creating virtual versions of physical resources, such as
servers, storage, and networks, to improve resource utilization and flexibility.
Types of Virtualization:
1. Server Virtualization
2. Storage Virtualization
3. Network Virtualization
4. Desktop Virtualization
5. Application Virtualization
10. Define Vertical Scaling and Horizontal Scaling.
• Vertical Scaling (Scaling Up): Adding resources (e.g., CPU, memory) to a single
server to increase capacity.
• Horizontal Scaling (Scaling Out): Adding more servers or nodes to distribute the
load and increase capacity.
