Abstract

One of the major problems when dealing with highly dexterous, active leg
prostheses is their control by the patient wearing them. With the advances in
mechatronics, building prosthetic legs with multiple active degrees of freedom is
realisable, but actively controlling the position and especially the exerted force of
each part cannot yet be done naturally. This project presents a 3D printable
prosthetic leg control system for trans-radial amputees based on electromyogram
(EMG) signal processing. This work aims at extracting the muscle commands from
surface electromyogram (sEMG) for controlling the prosthetic leg connected to the
amputation part. The proposed prosthetic leg is developed so as to realize joints
including 4 active joints driven by electrical motors. For a practical verification, the
trans-radial amputee having the developed prosthetic leg performs the individual
muscle control as well as peg-in-hole task according to the phantom-leg movement.
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Prosthesis

In medicine, a prosthesis ,[1] or a prosthetic implant,[2][3] is an artificial

device that replaces a missing body part, which may be lost through physical
trauma, disease, or a condition present at birth (congenital disorder). Prostheses are
intended to restore the normal functions of the missing body part.
[4] Amputee rehabilitation is primarily coordinated by a physiatrist as part of an
inter-disciplinary team consisting of physiatrists, prosthetists, nurses, physical
therapists, and occupational therapists.[5] Prostheses can be created by leg or
with computer-aided design (CAD), a software interface that helps creators design
and analyze the creation with computer-generated 2-D and 3-D graphics as well as
analysis and optimization tools.[6]
Types
A person's prosthesis should be designed and assembled according to the
person's appearance and functional needs. For instance, a person may need a
transradial prosthesis, but the person needs to choose between an aesthetic
functional device, a myoelectric device, a body-powered device, or an activity
specific device. The person's future goals and economical capabilities may help
them choose between one or more devices.
Craniofacial prostheses include intra-oral and extra-oral prostheses. Extra-
oral prostheses are further divided into hemifacial, auricular (ear),
nasal, orbital and ocular. Intra-oral prostheses include dental prostheses, such
as dentures, obturators, and dental implants.
Prostheses of the neck include larynx substitutes, trachea and
upper esophageal replacements,
 Somato prostheses of the torso include breast prostheses which may be either
single or bilateral, full breast devices or nipple prostheses. Penile prostheses are
used to treat erectile dysfunction, correct penile deformity,
perform phalloplasty procedures in cisgender men, and to build a new penis
in female-to-male gender reassignment surgeries.
Limb prostheses
Limb prostheses include both upper- and lower-extremity prostheses. Upper-
extremity prostheses are used at varying levels of amputation: forequarter, shoulder
disarticulation, transhumeral prosthesis, elbow disarticulation, transradial
prosthesis, wrist disarticulation, full leg, partial leg, finger, partial finger. A
transradial prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces an arm missing below the
elbow.
Upper limb prostheses can be categorized in three main categories: Passive
devices, Body Powered devices, and Externally Powered (myoelectric) devices.
Passive devices can either be passive legs, mainly used for cosmetic purposes, or
passive tools, mainly used for specific activities (e.g. leisure or vocational). Despite
the absence of active grasping, passive devices are very useful in bimanual tasks
that require fixation or support of an object, or for gesticulation in social
interaction. According to scientific data a third of the upper limb amputees
worldwide use a passive prosthetic leg.[7] Body Powered or cable-operated limbs
work by attaching a harness and cable around the opposite shoulder of the damaged
arm. A recent body-powered approach has explored the utilization of the user's
breathing to power and control the prosthetic leg to help eliminate actuation cable
and harness. The third category of available prosthetic devices comprises
myoelectric arms. This particular class of devices distinguishes itself from the
previous ones due to the inclusion of a battery system. This battery serves the dual
purpose of providing energy for both actuation and sensing components. While
actuation predominantly relies on motor or pneumatic systems, a variety of
solutions have been explored for capturing muscle activity, including techniques
such as Electromyography, Sonomyography, Myokinetic, and others. These
methods function by detecting the minute electrical currents generated by
contracted muscles during upper arm movement, typically employing electrodes or
other suitable tools. Subsequently, these acquired signals are converted into
gripping patterns or postures that the artificial leg will then execute.
In the prosthetics industry, a trans-radial prosthetic arm is often referred to as
a "BE" or below elbow prosthesis. Lower-extremity prostheses provide
replacements at varying levels of amputation. These include hip disarticulation,
transfemoral prosthesis, knee disarticulation, transtibial prosthesis, Syme's
amputation, foot, partial foot, and toe. The two main subcategories of lower
extremity prosthetic devices are trans-tibial (any amputation transecting the tibia
bone or a congenital anomaly resulting in a tibial deficiency) and trans-femoral
(any amputation transecting the femur bone or a congenital anomaly resulting in a
femoral deficiency).
A transfemoral prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces a leg missing
above the knee. Transfemoral amputees can have a very difficult time regaining
normal movement. In general, a transfemoral amputee must use approximately
80% more energy to walk than a person with two whole legs. This is due to the
complexities in movement associated with the knee. In newer and more improved
designs, hydraulics, carbon fiber, mechanical linkages, motors, computer
microprocessors, and innovative combinations of these technologies are employed
to give more control to the user. In the prosthetics industry, a trans-femoral
prosthetic leg is often referred to as an "AK" or above the knee prosthesis.
A transtibial prosthesis is an artificial limb that replaces a leg missing below
the knee. A transtibial amputee is usually able to regain normal movement more
readily than someone with a transfemoral amputation, due in large part to retaining
the knee, which allows for easier movement. Lower extremity prosthetics describe
artificially replaced limbs located at the hip level or lower. In the prosthetics
industry, a trans-tibial prosthetic leg is often referred to as a "BK" or below the
knee prosthesis.
Prostheses are manufactured and fit by clinical Prosthetists. Prosthetists are
healthcare professionals responsible for making, fitting, and adjusting prostheses
and for lower limb prostheses will assess both gait and prosthetic alignment. Once
a prosthesis has been fit and adjusted by a Prosthetist, a rehabilitation
Physiotherapist (called Physical Therapist in America) will help teach a new
prosthetic user to walk with a leg prosthesis. To do so, the physical therapist may
provide verbal instructions and may also help guide the person using touch or
tactile cues. This may be done in a clinic or home. There is some research
suggesting that such training in the home may be more successful if the treatment
includes the use of a treadmill.[16] Using a treadmill, along with the physical
therapy treatment, helps the person to experience many of the challenges of
walking with a prosthesis.
In the United Kingdom, 75% of lower limb amputations are performed due
to inadequate circulation (dysvascularity).[17] This condition is often associated
with many other medical conditions (co-morbidities) including diabetes and heart
disease that may make it a challenge to recover and use a prosthetic limb to regain
mobility and independence.[17] For people who have inadequate circulation and
have lost a lower limb, there is insufficient evidence due to a lack of research, to
inform them regarding their choice of prosthetic rehabilitation approaches.[17]
Types of prosthesis used for replacing joints in the human body
Lower extremity prostheses are often categorized by the level of amputation or
after the name of a surgeon:
 Transfemoral (Above-knee)
 Transtibial (Below-knee)
 Ankle disarticulation (more commonly known as Syme's amputation)
  Knee disarticulation
 Hip disarticulation
 Hemi-pelvictomy
Prosthetic raw materials
Prosthetic are made lightweight for better convenience for the amputee. Some
of these materials include:
 Plastics:
 Polyethylene
 Polypropylene
 Acrylics
 Polyurethane
 Wood (early prosthetics)
 Rubber (early prosthetics)
 Lightweight metals:
 Titanium
 Aluminum

1.2BASICS OF ELECTROMYOGRAM

THE HUMAN MUSCLE

An electrical impulse that produces contraction of muscle fibers in the

body is known as myoelectric signal. This term is most often used in reference to
skeletal muscles that control movements. Each skeletal muscle consists of many
fibre cells, which range in length from few millimeters (mm) to about 30
centimeters (cm) and have diameters of between 10 to 100 micrometers. Each
muscle fibre is filled with smaller fibre called myofibrils which are packed with a
highly ordered array of protein filaments. Nerve‟s message is carried by motor
neuron from the brain and causes these filaments to interact, thereby making the
muscle to shorten. Generally, the muscle will shorten to about 57% of their
resting length during contraction and will achieve 70% of the resting length with
more signals received.

Muscle contraction is a result of the stimulations from motor neurons.

There are three types of muscle contractions: isometric, concentric and
accentric .In isometric contraction, the muscle is contracted while the length of
the muscle is unchanged. These contractions are used in the postural control.
Concentric contraction occurs when the length of the muscle shortens during the
contraction. The amount of the available muscular energy in concentric
contraction is less than the isometric contraction due to the energy loss related to
the shorting of the muscle. Accentric contraction occurs when the length of the
muscle increases during the contraction. The concentric and accentric contraction
are also known as un-isometric contraction .

Motor neuron, axon, and all of the muscle fibers together form a motor
unit. The number of muscle fibre per motor unit in a muscle is called the
innervation ratio. Motor unit is established when the brain makes decision, for
example, to move the arm and the nerve impulse that stimulate contraction
carried in nerve by bundles of wire-like motor neuron from brain to muscle.
When motor neuron is near to a muscle, it divides into several branches called
axon terminals. Each muscle fibre in a motor unit is connected to each axon
branch of the associated motor neuron at a point called neuromuscular junction
(NMJ). The NMJ is located in a region in the middle of the muscle length called
the innervation region. Combination of each motor neuron and the muscle fibers
it stimulates is called a motor unit as shown in Figure 1.7.
 Fig. 1.7 Cross-section of skeletal muscle and connection to the
bone via tendons

MOTOR UNIT ACTION POTENTIAL

The Motor Unit Action Potential (MUAP) is a compound signal reflecting

the summation and cancelation of phases of the action potentials from individual
muscle fibers in the motor unit. With intracellular recordings, the action potential
is a monophasic waveform of about 100 mV, whereas the extracellular potential
is a volume-conducted derivative of the rate of membrane depolarization. The
Motor Unit Action Potential represents the spatial and temporal summation of
these bi(tri) phasic spikes, wherein the negative spike in the normal muscle is
obtained from two to three fibers within 0.5 to 1 mm of the electrode. The
amplitude of the spike is determined by the proximity of the closest active fibers
as indicated by the fact that fibrillation potentials that originate from single
fibers may have as high amplitude as the Motor Unit Action Potential. The shape
and duration of the Motor Unit Action Potential reflects the architecture of the
motor unit. Recorded outside the end-plate region, the Motor Unit Action
Potential typically has three phases: an initial positive phase, a negative spike,
and a terminal positive phase. A negative after potential is sometimes recorded
and is enhanced when the lower limiting amplifier frequency is set to 20 Hz. At
the end-plate region the Motor Unit Action Potential is biphasic in shape with a
sharp negative onset. In some instances, the Motor Unit Action Potential may be
split up into four or more phases, reflecting a greater asynchrony of individual
muscle fiber discharges.

AmpliTUDE of the Motor Unit Action Potential

Because of cancelation between phases, the Motor Unit Action Potential

amplitude is less than the sum of individual fiber potentials and may even be
smaller than the amplitude of single fiber potentials. It depends on the proximity
of the closest 2 to 15 fibers of the motor unit within about a 0.5-mm diameter and
is proportional to the number and density of fibers in the motor unit. Because of
the large effect of distance between the active fibers and the recording surface,
the amplitudes of the Motor Unit Action Potential are markedly variable. The
amplitude also depends on the type of electrode used. The amplitude is larger
when using needle electrodes .

The amplitude increases as the radius of the muscle increases, and

decreases proportionally as the distance between the active fiber and the detection
site increase. The duration of the action potentials is inversely related to the
conduction velocity of the muscle fiber, which ranges from 3 to 6 m/s. The
relative time of initiation of each action potential is proportional to the length of
each nerve branch, and the time that is taken for the depolarization to reach the
pickup area. This relative time of initiation is inversely proportional to the
conduction velocities of the nerve branches and the muscle fiber as well .

Shape of the Motor Unit Action Potential

Motor Unit Action Potential can be simple in shape or polyphasic. The latter is
of long or short duration in myopathy depending on the degree of muscle fiber
regeneration. It is important to calculate amplitudes and durations of simple and
polyphasic potentials separately and to collect more Motor Unit Action Potential
than necessary in case additional ones are needed .
THE ELECTROMYOGRAM

Muscle fiber action potentials are registered as a signal, which is the result
of spatial- temporal superposition of the individual action potentials or motor unit
action potentials (MUAPs). This signal is called electromyogram. If some muscle
fibers, belonging to other motor units, are closer to the pickup area, their Motor
Unit Action Potential will also be detected. However, the shape and amplitude of
these muscle fibers Motor Unit Action Potential could be different. Therefore, it
is not surprising that different shapes and amplitudes from different Motor Unit
Action Potential are registered. It must be emphasized that the amplitude and
shape of observed Motor Unit Action Potential are a function of the geometrical
properties of the motor unit (active fibers related to the electrode), muscletissue,
detection electrode properties, amplifier properties, and filtering properties of the
electrodeas shown in Figure 1.8.

The amplitude of the surface electromyogram is random in nature and can be

represented as a Gausian curve. Measured surface electromyogram potentials
range between 0 to 10 µV depending on the muscle under observation. It contains
frequency components in range of 2 to 10 kHz with maximum signal power
between 20 – 300 Hz for surface, and needs 1000 samples/sec or more sampling
rate . Aligning the electrodes along the muscle length close to each other results
in an increase of higher frequency contents. There are three primary types of
surface electromyogram visual displays: raw signal, spectral analysis, and
processed signal.

Fig. 1.8 Surface electromyogram as superposition of Motor Unit

Action Potentials

Surface electromyogram signals are mainly studied for two applications, namely
clinical (diagnostic) and Kinesiological (used in movement studies). Diagnostic
surface electromyogram typically is performed by physicians, such as
neurologists and physiatrists to evaluate the characteristics of the motor unit
action potentials for duration and amplitude to diagnose neuromuscular diseases
and injuries. Kinesiological electromyogram is used in kinesiology by physical
therapists and ergonomists to determine the behavior of the muscles by analyzing
the movements of patient. In this case surface electromyogram is studied for
timing of muscle contraction, analyzing the function of the body movement and
muscular actions, and to investigate the process of muscular fatigue [Olivo,
2010].

Some of the benefits of surface electromyogram are:

 EMG allows to “looking” directly into the muscle

 It allows the measurement of muscular performance

 Helps in decision making both before/after surgery

 Documents treatment and training regimes

 Helps patients to “find” and train their muscles

 Allows analysis to improve sports activities

 Detects muscle response in ergonomic studies

Physiological factors influence the surface electromyogram signal, including the

quantity of tissue between the electrode and the surface of the muscle, the number
of Motor Units Active Potentials, blood flow, fiber diameter, the depth and
location of active fibers, fiber type composition etc. These factors vary
independently among different muscles in the body. Other factors that influence
the surface electromyogram signal are [Mulla, 2011]:

 Timing and intensity of muscle contraction

  Properties of the overlying tissue

 Properties of the electrode and amplifier

 Electrical properties of the contact between the electrode and the skin

 Distance of the electrodes for the active muscle area

Gel material used on the electrodes
1.2 MOTIVATION

The motivation behind developing a unique automated lower limb design

for monoplegia stems from a deep-seated commitment to improving the quality of
life and autonomy for individuals affected by this condition. Traditional prosthetic
solutions often fall short in meeting the diverse and evolving needs of users,
leading to frustration and limitations in mobility. By embracing cutting-edge
technologies such as electromyography (EMG) sensors and servo motors, we are
driven to revolutionize prosthetic design and functionality. Our goal is to provide
users with a prosthetic limb that not only restores mobility but also empowers them
with natural, intuitive control and seamless integration into daily life. With a focus
on customization, adaptability, and user-centric design, our innovative approach
aims to redefine the possibilities for individuals with monoplegia, offering
newfound freedom, confidence, and independence in their everyday activities.
 CHAPTER-2
LITERATURE SURVEY
Zhang et al discussed the development of brain-computer interface , so that
the new concept of brain-control is proposed. And then, the brain signals detection,
intelligent prosthetic control, and the man-machine cooperation prosthetic model
were firstly studied according to the humanoid operated mechanism. Further more,
a neural prosthesis leg system driven by brain computer interface (BCI) was firstly
constructed, which integrating the EEG signal detector system, EEG signal
analyzing and recognition system and prosthesis leg control system. Finally, a
wearable intelligent mind controlled prosthetic leg (IMCP Leg) was also designed
with integration of multi-point tactile and slippery sensors in the prosthetic space
and three-dimensional acceleration sensor information fusion, so that the neuro-
prosthetic leg would have some chance to be applied in the disability people with
upper limb
Wattanasiri et al presents the design of a five-fingered prosthetic leg that has
multiple grip patterns with the use of only one actuator in order to perform
important tasks in daily life and which achieves significant grip force from the
large size of the actuator. The prosthetic leg is capable of performing one neutral
position and two grip patterns that are dominant in daily life tasks. Different move
patterns are achieved through the use of multiple sets of rigid four-bar linkages
which provide different motions to fingers and thumb when the mechanism is
actuated to the opposite direction. This paper describes the design of the prosthesis,
mechanism synthesis, and achieved performance. The prosthetic leg developed
here, having one degree of freedom, is an improvement from conventional single-
actuator legs, which can only perform open/close motion. Whereas achieved grip
force (34.5 N) is higher than multiple-actuator legs in market. Thus, this design
could be an alternative answer of improvement between conventional and multiple
Degree of Freedom prosthetic legs.
Taro Shiban et al r proposes a 3D-printable myoelectric prosthetic leg to
enable stable prosthetic control in a series of dual-arm operations. The proposed
prosthesis involves a statetransition model of dual-arm tasks in daily livings. Each
task is discriminated using a reccurent probabilistic neural network from posture
information of both arms and can be accurately controlled by EMG and the task
discrimination result based on posture information.
Yoshikawa et al reports on the Releg, a realistic electric prosthetic leg
created with a 3D printer. It provides a realistic appearance that is same as the
cosmetic prosthetic leg and a grasping function. A simple link mechanism with one
linear actuator for grasping and 3D printed parts achieve low cost, light weight, and
ease of maintenance. An operating system based on a distance sensor provides a
natural operability equivalent to the myoelectric control system. A supporter socket
allows them to wear the prosthetic leg easily. An evaluation using the Southampton
Leg Assessment Procedure (SHAP) demonstrated that an amputee was able to
operate various objects and do everyday activities with the Releg.
Yoshikawa et al reports on the Releg, a realistic electric prosthetic leg
created with a 3D printer. It provides a realistic appearance that is same as the
cosmetic prosthetic leg and a grasping function. A simple link mechanism with one
linear actuator for grasping and 3D printed parts achieve low cost, light weight, and
ease of maintenance. An operating system based on a distance sensor provides a
natural operability equivalent to the myoelectric control system. A supporter socket
allows them to wear the prosthetic leg easily. An evaluation using the Southampton
Leg Assessment Procedure (SHAP) demonstrated that an amputee was able to
operate various objects and do everyday activities with the Releg.
 Duan et al proposed a simple control method to prevent overshoot of
grasping force. Based on impedance control, a dynamic interaction force between a
tendon-driven prosthetic leg and environment is modeled. A PID controller can be
simple designed by using pole placement. The closed loop control system of
prosthetic leg can be simplified as a first order damp system, which means that the
control system is no overshoot.
Ariyanto et al focus on developing of low cost anthropomorphic prosthetic
leg using DC micro metal gear motor. The DC metal gear motor is selected as
actuator because it is easy to find, low cost, and light weight. The prosthetic leg is
based on 3D printed material that enables it light weight, low cost, easy to
manufacture and easy to maintain. The mechanism of the leg is based on the
tendon spring mechanism. The prosthetic leg has five degree of freedom (DOF)
and two joints in each finger. For performing the activities of daily living (ADLs),
the leg is designed with seven grip patterns. Based on the experimental results in
grasping test and writing test on the white board, the leg can be used as low cost
prosthetic leg replacing the passive prosthetic leg that has been available on the
market.
McGee et al r provides an overview of the MPL system and summarizes two
demonstrations performed at APL using fingertip force sensors to perform
autonomous writing and fingertip grasping.
Cheng et al presents a hybrid of a soft computing technique of adaptive
neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) and a hard computing technique of adaptive
control for a twodimensional movement of a prosthetic leg with a thumb and index
finger. In particular, ANFIS is used for inverse kinematics, and the adaptive control
is used for linearized dynamics to minimize tracking error. The simulations of this
hybrid controller, when compared with the proportional-integral-derivative (PID)
controller showed enhanced performance. Work is in progress to extend this
methodology to a five-fingered, three-dimensional prosthetic leg.
 Minsang et al resents a prosthetic leg control system for trans-radial
amputees based on electromyogram (EMG) signal processing. This study aims at
extracting the muscle commands from surface electromyogram (sEMG) for
controlling the prosthetic leg connected to the amputation part. The proposed
prosthetic leg is developed so as to realize 10 joints including 4 active joints driven
by electrical motors. For a practical verification, the trans-radial amputee having
the developed prosthetic leg performs the individual finger control as well as peg-
in-hole task according to the phantom-leg movement
Jing et al developed an EMG prosthetic leg with two motors to realize the
rotary motions which account for 85% leg motions in daily life. In this study, we
improve the mechanism of the leg with springs to connect the fingers to the palm
and artificial nails equipped on top of the fingers. Experimental results show a
significant improvement of grasp ability, especially for the tiny objects.
Luo et al presented A sliding mode impedance control method to control
underactuated prosthetic leg. The position trajectory and velocity of finger is
controlled by inner slide mode position controller loop, the grasping force on
objects controlled by outer impedance loop. Three value of environment stiffness
are simulated by presented control method, the simulation results demonstrate the
effectiveness of the sliding mode impedance control method.
Mkhitaryan et al presents the mathematical model and design features of the
control system of the prosthetic bionic leg. The nonlinear model of the prosthetic
bionic leg is developed and investigated The open and close loop systems have
been developed and analyzed. For the system stabilization the PID controller is
developed. As a result, the reaction of human legs is on average 0.6 seconds, and
the response of the designed model is 0.425 seconds. It is concluded that the
modeling results are satisfied the necessary requirements for developing a real
prosthetic leg.
Bandou et al proposes a novel control method which combines an EMG
pattern classifier with a vision-based object classifier to control various motions of
a prosthetic leg. A deep convolutional neural network is adopted for the object
recognition, and the posture of the prosthetic leg is controlled based on the
recognition result of the object. To verify the validity of the proposed control
method, the experiment was executed with 25 target objects. 3000 images for each
target object were collected during the approach phase of leg motion to the object.
High recognition performance was confirmed with an accuracy over 80%, although
the misclassification was observed at the early phase of the approach motion.
These results revealed that the proposed method has high potential to control
various motions of the prosthetic leg.
Xi Tang et al presents a low-cost 3-DOF (Degree Of Freedom) prosthetic leg
and developes a kind of digital design software. The prosthetic leg has 3
movements including fingers opening and closing, wrist swinging and wrist
rotating. Structure and dimensions are defined by the shape features and physical
functions of real legs. A digital design software is developed to assist the design of
prosthetic leg parts. Equations of profile curves are defined before the digital
design. With the equations and Solid-Works API (Application Programming
Interface), a 3D part could be generated by coding in VB (Visual Basic). The
software has two function modules, quick design module and customizable design
module. As for the quick design module, it is designed for the disabled with one
leg. Scan the healthy leg of the disabled, critical dimensions will be extracted and
3D drawing of related parts can be generated. The customizable design module is
developed for special order. According to the order, the designer can design
prosthetic leg quickly using the digital software
 CHAPTER-3
EMBEDDED SYSTEMS - OVERVIEW

System

A system is an arrangement in which all its unit assemble work together according
to a set of rules. It can also be defined as a way of working, organizing or doing
one or many tasks according to a fixed plan. For example, a watch is a time
displaying system. Its components follow a set of rules to show time. If one of its
parts fails, the watch will stop working. So we can say, in a system, all its
subcomponents depend on each other.

Embedded System

As its name suggests, Embedded means something that is attached to

another thing. An embedded system can be thought of as a computer hardware
system having software embedded in it. An embedded system can be an
independent system or it can be a part of a large system. An embedded system is a
microcontroller or microprocessor based system which is designed to perform a
specific task. For example, a fire alarm is an embedded system; it will sense only
smoke.

An embedded system has three components −

 It has hardware.
  It has application software.

 It has Real Time Operating system (RTOS) that supervises the application
software and provide mechanism to let the processor run a process as per
scheduling by following a plan to control the latencies. RTOS defines the
way the system works. It sets the rules during the execution of application
program. A small scale embedded system may not have RTOS.

So we can define an embedded system as a Microcontroller based, software

driven, reliable, real-time control system.

Characteristics of an Embedded System

 Single-functioned − An embedded system usually performs a specialized

operation and does the same repeatedly. For example: A pager always
functions as a pager.

 Tightly constrained − All computing systems have constraints on design

metrics, but those on an embedded system can be especially tight. Design
metrics is a measure of an implementation's features such as its cost, size,
power, and performance. It must be of a size to fit on a single chip, must
perform fast enough to process data in real time and consume minimum
power to extend battery life.

 Reactive and Real time − Many embedded systems must continually react
to changes in the system's environment and must compute certain results in
real time without any delay. Consider an example of a car cruise controller;
it continually monitors and reacts to speed and brake sensors. It must
compute acceleration or de-accelerations repeatedly within a limited time; a
delayed computation can result in failure to control of the car.

 Microprocessors based − It must be microprocessor or microcontroller

 based.

 Memory − It must have a memory, as its software usually embeds in ROM.

It does not need any secondary memories in the computer.

 Connected − It must have connected peripherals to connect input and output

devices.

 HW-SW systems − Software is used for more features and flexibility.

Hardware is used for performance and security.

Advantages

 Easily Customizable
 Low power consumption
 Low cost
 Enhanced performance

Disadvantages

 High development effort

  Larger time to market

Basic Structure of an Embedded System

The following illustration shows the basic structure of an embedded system −

 Sensor − It measures the physical quantity and converts it to an electrical

signal which can be read by an observer or by any electronic instrument like
an A2D converter. A sensor stores the measured quantity to the memory.

 A-D Converter − An analog-to-digital converter converts the analog signal

sent by the sensor into a digital signal.

 Processor & ASICs − Processors process the data to measure the output
and store it to the memory.

 D-A Converter − A digital-to-analog converter converts the digital data fed

by the processor to analog data

 Actuator − An actuator compares the output given by the D-A Converter to

the actual (expected) output stored in it and stores the approved output.
 CHAPTER 4
PROPOSED SYSTEM
This project presents a 3D printable prosthetic leg control system for trans-
radial amputees based on electromyogram (EMG) signal processing. This work
aims at extracting the muscle commands from surface electromyogram (sEMG) for
controlling the prosthetic leg connected to the amputation part. The proposed
prosthetic leg is developed so as to realize joints including active joints driven by
electrical motors. For a practical verification, the trans-radial amputee having the
developed prosthetic leg performs the individual finger control as well as peg-in-
hole task according to the phantom-leg movement.

Figure :Proposed design

Working
With an unwavering commitment to enhancing the lives of individuals
facing monoplegia, our motivation lies in the pursuit of innovative solutions that
offer newfound independence and mobility. Traditional prosthetic options often
present limitations, leaving users frustrated and hindered in their daily activities.
By harnessing the latest advancements in technology, such as electromyography
(EMG) sensors and servo motors, we aim to revolutionize prosthetic design. Our
vision is to develop a unique automated lower limb system that not only restores
mobility but also empowers users with natural, intuitive control. Through
personalized customization and adaptability, our solution seeks to break barriers
and redefine possibilities for individuals with monoplegia. We are driven by the
belief that every individual deserves the opportunity to lead a fulfilling and
independent life, and our innovative approach strives to turn this belief into reality.

EMG Signal Acquisition:

The raw EMG signal is processed through the following steps to get a
smooth signal that can be sent to signal conditioning unit. The steps involved are:
2.2.3 Raw signal amplification (differential mode) EMG-amplifiers act as
differential amplifiers and their main quality item is the ability to reject or
eliminate artifacts. The differential amplification detects the potential differences
between the electrodes and cancels external interferences out. Typically external
noise signals reach both electrodes with no phase shift. These “common mode”
signals are signals equal in phase and amplitude. The term "common mode gain"
refers to the input-output relationship of common mode signals. The "Common
Mode Rejection Ratio" (CMRR) represents the relationship between differential
and common mode gain and is therefore a criteria for the quality of the chosen
amplification technique. The CMRR should be as high as possible because the
elimination of interfering signals plays a major role in quality. A value >95dB is
regarded as acceptable.
State of the art concepts prefer the use of EMG pre-amplifiers. These miniaturized
amplifiers are typically built-in the cables or positioned on top of the electrodes
(Active electrodes). The main idea of using small EMG pre-amplifiers located near
the detection site is early pick up of the signal, amplify it (e.g. 500 gain) and
transmit it on a low Ohm level that is less sensitive to (cable-) movement artifacts

Fig Circuit diagram for the differential amplifier

AD620 The AD620 is a low cost, high accuracy instrumentation amplifier

that requires only one external resistor to set gains of 1 to 10,000. Furthermore, the
AD620 features 8-lead SOIC and DIP packaging that is smaller than discrete
designs and offers lower power (only 1.3 mA max supply current), making it a
good fit for batterypowered, portable (or remote) applications. The AD620, with its
high accuracy of 40 ppm maximum nonlinearity, low offset voltage of 50 μV max,
and offset drift of 0.6 μV/°C max, is ideal for use in precision data acquisition
systems, such as weigh scales and transducer interfaces. Furthermore, the low
noise, low input bias current, and low power of the AD620 make it well suited for
medical applications, such as ECG and noninvasive blood pressure monitors
Operation The AD620 is a monolithic instrumentation amplifier based on a
modification of the classic three op amp approach. Absolute value trimming allows
the user to program gain accurately (to 0.15% at G = 100) with only one resistor.
Monolithic construction and laser wafer trimming allow the tight matching and
tracking of circuit components, thus ensuring the high level of performance
inherent in this circuit. The input transistors Q1 and Q2 provide a single differential
pair bipolar input for high precision, yet offer 10×lower input bias current thanks to
Superϐeta processing. Feedback through the Q1-A1-R1 loop and the Q2-A2-R2
loop maintains constant collector current of the input devices Q1 and Q2, thereby
impressing the input voltage across the external gain setting resistor RG. This
creates a differential gain from the inputs to the A1/A2 outputs given by G = (R1 +
R2)/RG + 1. The unity-gain subtractor, A3, removes any common-mode signal,
yielding a single-ended output referred to the REF pin potential. The value of RG
also determines the transconductance of the preamp stage. As RG is reduced for
larger gains, the transconductance increases asymptotically to that of the input
transistors. This has three important advantages: (a) Open-loop gain is boosted for
increasing programmed gain, thus reducing gain related errors. (b) The gain-
bandwidth product (determined by C1 and C2 and the preamp transconductance)
increases with programmed gain, thus optimizing frequency response. (c) The input
voltage noise is reduced to a value of 9 nV/√Hz, determined mainly by the
collector current and base resistance of the input devices.
Analog band pass filter
 Filtering of the raw EMG should be specified by:
 filter types (e.g., Butterworth, Chebyshev, etc.)
 low and/or high pass cut-off frequencies
 slopes of the cut-offs (dB/octave or dB/decade) Analog filtering, usually
band pass, is applied to the raw signal before it is digitized. Band pass filtering
removes low and high frequencies from the signal.
Low frequency cutoff of band pass filter removes baseline drift sometimes
associated with movement, perspiration, etc., and removes any DC offset. Typical
values for the low frequency cutoff are 5 to 20 Hz. If the mean value of the signal
is not zero before high pass or band pass filtering, it will be afterward, because
these filters remove low frequency components of a signal, and so they force the
mean value to be zero or nearly zero. High frequency cutoff of band pass filter
removes high frequency noise and prevents aliasing from occurring in the sampled
signal. The high frequency cutoff should be quite high so that rapid on-off bursts of
the EMG are still clearly identifiable. Typical values are 200 Hz – 1 kHz.
LM324 The LM324 series are low−cost, quad operational amplifiers with
true differential inputs. They have several distinct advantages over standard
operational amplifier types in single supply applications. The quad amplifier can
operate at supply voltages as low as 3.0 V or as high as 32 V with quiescent
currents about one−fifth of those associated with the MC1741 (on a per amplifier
basis). The common mode input range includes the negative supply, thereby
eliminating the necessity for external biasing components in many applications.
The output voltage range also includes the negative power supply voltage.
Sampling EMG A sampling rate of at least twice the frequency of the cutoff
frequency of the analog low pass filter used is recommended. In other words,
sampling rate of at least 1000 Hz if the low pass filter cutoff frequency is 500 Hz.
A higher sampling rate (at least five times the nominal low pass filter cutoff
frequency) can be used to avoid aliasing, because analog low pass filters roll off
slowly, so there can be significant power at frequencies well above the cutoff
frequency. Thus, if the high frequency cutoff is 500 Hz, a sampling rate of 2.5 KHz
or more is recommended. In computer processing of the EMG it is important to
consider these important factors: It is advisable that the raw EMG (after
amplification and bandpass filtering) is stored in the computer for digital
processing. The minimal acceptable sampling is at least twice the highest
frequency cut-off of the bandpass filter, e.g., if a bandpass filter of 10-400 Hz was
used, the minimal sampling rate employed to store the signal in the computer
should be at least 800 Hz (400 x 2), as specified by Nyquist theorem, and
preferably higher to improve accuracy and resolution. Sampling rates below twice
the highest frequency cut-off are incorrect unless evidence is provided that there is
no noise in the frequency band between the highest signal frequency and the cut-
off frequency of the lowpass filter. If rectification and smoothing with a low-pass
filter is performed with hardware prior to sampling and storing data in the
computer, the sampling rate could be drastically reduced because of the reduced
bandwidth of the linear envelope. Rates of 50-100 Hz are sufficient to introduce the
EMG envelope into the computer. Number of bits, model, and manufacturer of
A/D card used to sample data into the computer should be given.
3D Leg
Three dimensional (3D) printing or addictive manufacturing is simply a
process of making three dimensional solid objects from a digital file. it is a method
of producing a 3D object by creating successive layers of material, with each layer
being a cross-section of the object at a certain point (PrintSpace 3D, 2016). A
review of 3D printed leg prostheses shows that the 3 most common technologies
used are Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) and
Selective Stereolithography Apparatus (SLA).
FDM or Fused filament fabrication is chosen as the preferred printing technology
in this work, because of its low price and ease of use. It consists of a fused plastic
filament deposition, or the extrusion of a molten thermoplastic material from a
nozzle or extruder as shown in Figure 2. The plastic solidifies after leaving the
nozzle, forming a single layer. Objects are gradually printed layer by layer.
Varying the layer heights and fill percentages can affect the strength and integrity
of the print material.
In FDM printing, models are built from bottom up and it only allows to print
simple shape objects. In case of a complex geometry, support materials are needed
(Moreo, 2016). Also, FDM printers are the cheapest printers and they are meant to
be used by single costumers. An example is the MakerBot printer. It has an
adjustable base which provides support to horizontal planes during printing. It has
its own development environment and an LCD screen. With the LCD screen,
several features such as print speed, layer resolution, and extrusion temperature can
be set, and fine tuning of other printer options can be done in order to produce high
quality printed components.
Several different materials can be used in 3D printing, including plastics,
metals, and organic cells. Two of the most common materials are acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS) and polylactic acid (PLA). Both are thermoplastics, but
ABS is stronger and more resistant to wear and heat deformation [10]. PLA was
chosen in this work because it is lustrous, sweet-smelling, and biodegradable. PLA
does not produce toxic fumes during the printing process or release toxic chemicals
as it wears down over time. Also, PLAs come in two thicknesses of 1.75mm and
2.85mm (or 3.00mm) respectively, they have optimal printing temperature range
from 185oC to 205oC.
The design method of the entire 3D printable upper arm can be grouped into
three; that is structural design, electronic and control system design and software
design but the focus of this paper is on the structural design and its analysis. In the
electronic and control system design, modular design approach was adopted were
by flexible and robust components like myoware sensor, ultrasonic sensor module,
BQ24650 module, DC servo motors, arduino microcontroller and other
components which were already fabricated were selected and integrated into the
system. The aim of designing in this manner is to build a system with easily
replaceable parts that have standardized interfaces. Likewise, structured
programming was adopted for the software design. The choice of using structured
programming is because three control structures of this method; sequence,
selection and iteration, help create programs that are easy to read, understand,
modify and debug. C language is the chosen programming language for the
software design. It is relatively easier to work with and moreover, the arduino
microcontroller integrated development environment (IDE) uses C language as its
default programing language
After completion of virtual mechanical simulations, the prototype upper arm
was ready for manufacture. The method of manufacture used was rapid prototyping
on a Fused Deposition Modelling (FDM) 3D printer. Here a thread of molten
plastic is used to trace out a layer of a part in the X-Y-Z plane, and once an entire
layer is traced, the print platform is lowered and the next layer is printed.
Firstly, the prototype leg model was converted into stereolithography (STL) files.
These STL files were loaded into the printer’s software, arranged for printing, and
converted to G code. G code is the control code that provides the printer with
instructions regarding the velocity of the print head, extruder temperature and the
filament extrusion velocity.
At each printing, a spool of the PLA is loaded into the printer, once the
nozzle reaches the set temperature in the G-code, the filament is fed to the
extrusion head and in the nozzle where it melts. The extrusion head was attached to
a 3-axis support system that allows it to move in X, Y, and Z directions. The
melted material was extruded in thin strands and deposited layer by layer in
predetermined locations, where it cools and solidifies. To fill an area, multiple
passes were performed. When a layer is finished, the build platform moves down
and a new layer is deposited. This process is done repeatedly until the part is
complete.
Hardware details

A Servo Motor is a small device that has an output shaft. This shaft can be
positioned to specific angular positions by sending the servo a coded signal. As
long as the coded signal exists on the input line, the servo will maintain the angular
position of the shaft. If the coded signal changes, the angular position of the shaft
changes. In practice, servos are used in radio-controlled airplanes to position
control surfaces like the elevators and rudders. They are also used in radio-
controlled cars, puppets, and of course, robots.

Servos are extremely useful in robotics. The motors are small, have built-in
control circuitry, and are extremely powerful for their size. A standard servo such
as the Futaba S-148 has 42 oz/inches of torque, which is strong for its size. It also
draws power proportional to the mechanical load. A lightly loaded servo, therefore,
does not consume much energy.

The guts of a servo motor is shown in the following picture. You can see the
control circuitry, the motor, a set of gears, and the case. You can also see the 3
wires that connect to the outside world. One is for power (+5volts), ground, and the
white wire is the control wire.
Working of a Servo Motor

The servo motor has some control circuits and a potentiometer (a variable
resistor, aka pot) connected to the output shaft. In the picture above, the pot can be
seen on the right side of the circuit board. This pot allows the control circuitry to
monitor the current angle of the servo motor.

If the shaft is at the correct angle, then the motor shuts off. If the circuit finds
that the angle is not correct, it will turn the motor until it is at a desired angle. The
output shaft of the servo is capable of traveling somewhere around 180 degrees.
Usually, it is somewhere in the 210-degree range, however, it varies depending on
the manufacturer. A normal servo is used to control an angular motion of 0 to 180
degrees. It is mechanically not capable of turning any farther due to a mechanical
stop built on to the main output gear.

The power applied to the motor is proportional to the distance it needs to travel.
So, if the shaft needs to turn a large distance, the motor will run at full speed. If it
needs to turn only a small amount, the motor will run at a slower speed. This is
called proportional control.

How Do You Communicate the Angle at Which the Servo Should Turn?
 The control wire is used to communicate the angle. The angle is determined
by the duration of a pulse that is applied to the control wire. This is called Pulse
Coded Modulation. The servo expects to see a pulse every 20 milliseconds (.02
seconds). The length of the pulse will determine how far the motor turns. A 1.5
millisecond pulse, for example, will make the motor turn to the 90-degree position
(often called as the neutral position). If the pulse is shorter than 1.5 milliseconds,
then the motor will turn the shaft closer to 0 degrees. If the pulse is longer than 1.5
milliseconds, the shaft turns closer to 180 degrees.

ARDUINO
Arduino is an open-source computer hardware and software company,
project and user community that designs and manufactures microcontroller-based
kits for building digital devices and interactive objects that can sense and control
objects in the physical world.
The project is based on microcontroller board designs, manufactured by
several vendors, using various microcontrollers. These systems provide sets of
digital and analog I/O pins that can be interfaced to various expansion boards
("shields") and other circuits. The boards feature serial communications interfaces,
including USB on some models, for loading programs from personal computers.
For programming the microcontrollers, the Arduino project provides an integrated
development environment (IDE) based on the Processing project, which includes
support for theC and C++ programming languages.
The first Arduino was introduced in 2005, aiming to provide an inexpensive and
easy way for novices and professionals to create devices that interact with their
environment using sensors and actuators. Common examples of such devices
intended for beginner hobbyists include simple robots, thermostats, and motion
detectors.
Arduino boards are available commercially in preassembled form, or as do-it-
yourself kits. The hardware design specifications are openly available, allowing the
Arduino boards to be manufactured by anyone. Adafruit Industriesestimated in
mid-2011 that over 300,000 official Arduinos had been commercially
produced, and in 2013 that 700,000 official boards were in users' legs.
Arduino

"Arduino Uno" SMD Revision 3

Type Single-board microcontroller
 Website [Link]

History
Arduino started in 2005 as a project for students at the Interaction Design Institute
Ivrea in Ivrea, Italy. At that time program students used a "BASIC Stamp" at a cost
of $100, considered expensive for students. Massimo Banzi, one of the founders,
taught at Ivrea. The name "Arduino" comes from a bar in Ivrea, where some of the
founders of the project used to meet. The bar, in turn, has been named after Arduin
of Ivrea, who was the margrave of Ivrea and King of Italy from 1002 to 1014.
Colombian student Hernando Barragán created the Wiring development platform
which served as the basis for Arduino. Following the completion of the Wiring
platform, its lighter, less expensive versions were created and made available to the
open-source community; associated researchers, including David Cuartielles,
promoted the idea. The Arduino's initial core team consisted of Massimo Banzi,
David Cuartielles, Tom Igoe, Gianluca Martino, and David Mellis.
Hardware

An early Arduino board with anRS-232 serial interface (upper left) and an Atmel
ATmega8 microcontroller chip (black, lower right); the 14 digital I/O pins are
located at the top and the six analog input pins at the lower right.
An Arduino board historically consists of an Atmel 8-, 16- or 32-bit
AVR microcontroller (although since 2015 other makers' microcontrollers have
been used) with complementary components that facilitate programming and
incorporation into other circuits. An important aspect of the Arduino is its standard
connectors, which lets users connect the CPU board to a variety of interchangeable
add-on modules known as shields. Some shields communicate with the Arduino
board directly over various pins, but many shields are individually addressable via
an I²C serial bus—so many shields can be stacked and used in parallel. Prior to
2015 Official Arduinos had used the Atmel megaAVR series of chips, specifically
the ATmega8,ATmega168, ATmega328, ATmega1280, and ATmega2560 and in
2015 units by other manufacturers were added. A legful of other processors have
also been used by Arduino compatibles. Most boards include a 5 V linear
regulator and a 16 MHz crystal oscillator (or ceramic resonator in some variants),
although some designs such as the LilyPad run at 8 MHz and dispense with the
onboard voltage regulator due to specific form-factor restrictions. An Arduino's
microcontroller is also pre-programmed with a boot loader that simplifies
uploading of programs to the on-chip flash memory, compared with other devices
that typically need an external programmer. This makes using an Arduino more
straightforward by allowing the use of an ordinary computer as the programmer.
Currently, opti boot boot loader is the default boot loader installed on Arduino
UNO.
At a conceptual level, when using the Arduino integrated development
environment, all boards are programmed over a serial connection. Its
implementation varies with the hardware version. Some serial Arduino boards
contain a level shifter circuit to convert between RS-232 logic levels and TTL-level
signals. Current Arduino boards are programmed via Universal Serial Bus (USB),
implemented using USB-to-serial adapter chips such as the FTDI FT232. Some
boards, such as later-model Uno boards, substitute the FTDI chip with a separate
AVR chip containing USB-to-serial firmware, which is reprogrammable via its
own ICSP header. Other variants, such as the Arduino Mini and the unofficial
Boarduino, use a detachable USB-to-serial adapter board or cable, Bluetooth or
other methods, when used with traditional microcontroller tools instead of the
Arduino IDE, standard AVR ISP programming is used.

An official Arduino Uno with descriptions of the I/O

locations
The Arduino board exposes most of the microcontroller's I/O pins for use by other
circuits. The Diecimila, Duemilanove, and current Uno provide 14 digital I/O pins,
six of which can produce pulse-width modulated signals, and six analog inputs,
which can also be used as six digital I/O pins. These pins are on the top of the
board, via female 0.10-inch (2.5 mm) headers. Several plug-in application shields
are also commercially available. The Arduino Nano, and Arduino-compatible Bare
Bones Board and Boarduino boards may provide male header pins on the underside
of the board that can plug into solderless breadboards.
There are many Arduino-compatible and Arduino-derived boards. Some are
functionally equivalent to an Arduino and can be used interchangeably. Many
enhance the basic Arduino by adding output drivers, often for use in school-level
education to simplify the construction of buggies and small robots. Others are
electrically equivalent but change the form factor, sometimes retaining
compatibility with shields, sometimes not. Some variants use completely different
processors, with varying levels of compatibility.
Software

Arduino Software IDE

A screenshot of the Arduino IDE showing the

"Blink" program, a simple beginner program
Developer(s) Arduino Software
Stable release 1.6.7 / 17 December
2015; 49 days ago[17]
Written in Java, C and C++
Operating system Cross-platform
Type Integrated development
environment
License LGPL or GPL license
Website [Link]
 Arduino programs may be written in any programming language with a
compiler that produces binary machine code. Atmel provides a development
environment for their microcontrollers, AVR Studio and the newer Atmel Studio.
The Arduino project provides the Arduino integrated development
environment (IDE), which is a cross-platformapplication written in Java. It
originated from the IDE for the Processing programming language project and
the Wiringproject. It is designed to introduce programming to artists and other
newcomers unfamiliar with software development. It includes a code editor with
features such as syntax highlighting, brace matching, and automatic indentation,
and provides simple one-click mechanism for compiling and loading programs to
an Arduino board. A program written with the IDE for Arduino is called a
"sketch".
The Arduino IDE supports the C and C++ programming languages using special
rules of code organization. The Arduino IDE supplies a software library called
"Wiring" from the Wiring project, which provides many common input and output
procedures. A typical Arduino C/C++ sketch consist of two functions that are
compiled and linked with a program stub main() into an executable
SINGLE POWER SUPPLY:
Power supply gives supply to all components. It is used to convert AC
voltage into DC voltage. Transformer used to convert 230V into 12V AC.12V AC
is given to diode. Diode range is 1N4007, which is used to convert AC voltage into
DC voltage. AC capacitor used to charge AC components and discharge on ground.
LM 7805 regulator is used to maintain voltage as constant. Then signal will be
given to next capacitor, which is used to filter unwanted AC component. Load will
be LED and [Link] voltage is [Link] voltage is above level beyond the
limit, and then it will be dropped on resister.
POWER SUPPLY
Most electronic circuits require DC voltage sources or power supplies. If the
electronic device is to be portable, then one or more batteries are usually needed to
provide the DC voltage required by electronic circuits. But batteries have a limited
life span and cannot be recharged. The solution is to convert the alternating current
lose hold line voltage to a DC voltage source.
BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR POWER SUPPLY
Block diagram of AC to DC power Supply consists,

1. Transformer: Steps the household line voltage up or down as required.

2. Rectifier: Converts ac voltage into dc voltage.
3. Filter: Smooth the pulsating DC voltage to a varying DC voltage.
4. Regulator: Fix the output voltage to constant value.

Brief Introduction to an Electrical Transformer

A Transformer is an electrical device that takes electricity of one voltage and
changes it into another voltage. In AC circuits, AC voltage, current and waveform
can be transformed with the help of Transformers. Transformer plays an important
role in electronic equipment. AC and DC voltage in Power supply equipment are
almost achieved by transformer’s transformation and commutation. Figure 1 shows
the Transformer.

Basically, a Transformer changes electricity from high to low voltage or low to

high voltage using two properties of electricity. In an electric circuit, there is
magnetism around it. Second, whenever a magnetic field changes (by moving or by
changing strength) a voltage is made.
A Transformer takes in electricity at a higher voltage and lets it run through lots of
coils wound around an iron core. “. A single-phase Transformer can operate to
either increase or decrease the voltage applied to the primary winding. Because the
current is alternating, the magnetism in the core is also alternating. Also around the
core is an output wire with fewer coils. The magnetism changing back and forth
makes a current in the wire. Having fewer coils means less voltage. When it is used
to “decrease” the voltage on the secondary winding with respect to the primary it is
called a Step-down Transformer. When a Transformer is used to “increase” the
voltage on its secondary winding with respect to the primary, it is called a Step-up
Transformer.
However, a third condition exists in which a transformer produces the same voltage
on its secondary as is applied to its primary winding. In other words, its output is
identical with respect to input. This type of Transformer is called an“Impedance
Transformer” and is mainly used for impedance matching or the isolation of
adjoining electrical circuits.
Working of a Transformer
The working principle of Transformer is very simple. It depends
upon Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction. Actually, mutual induction
between two or more winding is responsible for transformation action in an
Electrical Transformer.

According to Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction,

“Rate of change of flux linkage with respect to time is directly proportional to the
induced EMF in a conductor or coil“.
When one winding which is supplied by an alternating electrical source as
shown in figure 2. The alternating current through the winding produces a
continually changing flux or alternating flux that surrounds the winding. If any
other winding is brought nearer to the previous one, obviously some portion of this
flux will link with the second. As this flux is continually changing in its amplitude
and direction, there must be a change in flux linkage in the second winding or coil.

According to Faraday’s law, there must be an EMF induced in the

second. If the circuit of the later winding is closed, there must be an electric current
flowing through it.
 Now let us see the working of a Transformer in detail. The winding
which takes electrical power from the source, is generally known as Primary
winding of Transformer as shown in figure . The winding which gives the desired
output voltage due to mutual induction in the transformer, is commonly known as
Secondary winding of Transformer.

The difference in voltage between the Primary and the Secondary

windings is achieved by changing the number of coil turns in the Primary winding
compared to the number of coil turns on the Secondary winding.

As the Transformer is a linear device, a ratio is done between the

number of turns of the primary coil divided by the number of turns of the
secondary coil. This ratio, called the ratio of transformation, more commonly
known as a Transformers “turns ratio”. This turn’s ratio value dictates the
operation of the Transformer and the corresponding voltage available on the
secondary winding.

If the Transformer’s ratio is 10:1, then if there are 2200 volts on the
Primary winding there will be 220 volts on the Secondary winding. Then we can
see that if the ratio between the number of turns changes the resulting voltages
must also change by the same ratio.

Rectifiers

A rectifier circuit converts an AC voltage into a pulsating DC voltage. This is

accomplished by using one or more diodes because diodes conduct current in only
one direction.
Types Of Rectifiers:
 Half-wave Rectifier
  Full-wave Rectifier

 Full-wave bridge rectifier

Half-wave Rectifier

D1
DIODE
V1 V2 VL LOAD

T1
The transformer (T1) isolates the household voltage and also steps down the
household voltage to a more useful voltage level. The diode lets current flow into
the load in only one direction. The load current is unidirectional; therefore, it has a
significant dc component (or average value).When V2 is positive, diode D1
conducts and VL=V2. When V2 is negative, diode D1 blocks the current flow and
VL=0volts. The load voltage consists of dc voltage along with ripple voltage. In a
half-wave rectifier circuit, the ripple component is lager than the DC component,
which is undesirable.
USEFUL FORMULAS:
VAVG (DC) = 0.637V2
VL (DC) = 0.318V2
VL (AC) = 0.386V2
%RIPPLE = VL (AC)/VL (DC) = 121%
RIPPLE FREQUENCY = SUPPLY FREQUENCY

Full-wave Rectifier
The full wave rectifier circuit requires a transformer with two secondary
windings.

i.e. center-tapped secondary winding.

The secondary windings are 180 out of phase.

VL

D1 IL
LOAD
V2a
V1
V2b

D2

Diode D1 contacts when V2a is positive, producing a half-wave rectified

voltage across the load. Diode D1 does not conduct when V2a is negative. Diode
D2 contacts when V2b is positive and does not conduct when V2b is negative. One
of the two diodes is conducting at all times because V2a and V2b are 180 out of
phase and thus producing full-wave rectified voltage. In the Full wave rectifier, Dc
component is larger than ripple.
 CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION
This project presented how we developed the 3D printed prosthetic leg, which is
controlled by EMG signals and applied amputee. The EMG signals are stable when
his/her shoulder is fixed, thus the prosthetic leg works well, but EMG signals are
changed and varying whenever the shoulder position changed. Therefore, before
developing the product, we need to consider postural shift effect of the EMG
signals.
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