PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS II - Electrostatics

Chapter 4: Electric dipoles

4.1 Definition of electric dipole

A system of equal and opposite charges, separated by a finite distance is called as an electric
dipole. As shown in figure 4.1, the two electric charges of electric dipole are +q and –q and distance
between them is 2a.

Figure 4.1: Electric dipole

Electric dipole moment P of the system can be defined as follows:

𝑷 = 𝑞(2𝑎) 4.1

The following are important points to note about electric dipole:

1. The SI unit of an electric dipole is Coulomb meter (C.m).

2. Electric dipole is a vector quantity, and its direction is from negative charge (-q) to positive
charge (+q).
3. The net electric charge on an electric dipole is zero but its electric field is not zero, since
the position of the two charges is different.

If lim 𝑞 → ∞ and 𝑎 →0 in (𝑃 = 𝑞 (2𝑎)), then electric dipole is called point dipole

4.2 Electric field of a dipole

The electric field of the pair of charges (–q and q) at any point in space can be found out from
Coulomb’s law and the superposition principle. The results are simple for the following two cases:
(i) when the point is on the dipole axis, and (ii) when it is in the equatorial plane of the dipole,
i.e., on a plane perpendicular to the dipole axis through its centre. The electric field at any general
point P is obtained by adding the electric fields E-q due to the charge –q and E+q due to the charge
+q, by the parallelogram law of vectors.

4.2.1 Electric field due to dipole for point on the axis

Let the point P be at distance r from the center of the dipole on the side of the charge q as shown
in figure 4.2.

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Figure 4.2

Electric field due to negative charge at point P is given by

1 𝑞
𝑬−𝑞 = − ̂
𝑷 4.2
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2

Where 𝑝̂ is the unit vector along the dipole axis from (+𝑞 and -𝑞). Electric field at
point P due to positive charge is given by

1 𝑞
𝑬+𝑞 = ̂
𝑷 4.3
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎)2

Total electric field at P is,

𝑬 = 𝑬+𝑞 + 𝑬−𝑞

𝑞 1 1
𝑬= [ − ̂
]𝑷
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎) 2 (𝑟 + 𝑎)2

But, 2qa = P. Therefore,

1 2𝒑𝑟
𝑬= [ 2 ̂
]𝑷 4.4
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 − 𝑎2 )2

For r >> a,

2𝑃
𝑬= ̂
𝑷 4.5
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3

Direction of electric field is in the direction of electric dipole moment.

4.2.2 Electric field due to dipole for point on the equatorial plane

Let the point P be at distance r from the center of the dipole on the equatorial plane as shown in
figure 4.3.

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Figure 4.3

Magnitude of electric field at point P due to positive charge is given by

𝑞
𝐸+𝑞 = 4.6
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )

Magnitude of electric field at point P due to negative charge is given by

𝑞
𝐸+𝑞 = 4.7
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )

Equations 4.6 and 4.7 show that both magnitudes are equal. The directions of E+q and E-q are as
shown in figure 4.3.

Clearly components perpendicular to axis cancel away. The component along the dipole axis add
̂ . We have
up. The total electric field is opposite to 𝑷

̂
𝑬 = −(𝐸+𝑞 + 𝐸−𝑞 )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑷

2𝑞
𝑬= ̂
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃𝑷
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )

2𝑞𝑎
𝑬= ̂
𝑷 4.8
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 + 𝑎2 )3/2

At large distances (r>>a), equation 4.8 reduces to

2𝑞𝑎
𝑬= ̂
𝑷 4.9
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3

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 PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS II - Electrostatics

4.3 Dipole in uniform external electric field

An electric dipole of magnitude 𝑝 = 𝑞(2𝑎) is kept in a uniform electric field. Let 𝜃 be the angle
between dipole momentum 𝑝 and electric field 𝐸. The force 𝑞𝐸 and -𝑞𝐸 are acting on the charges
𝑞 and -𝑞 respectively. These forces are equal but opposite in direction. The resultant force being
zero keeps dipole in translational equilibrium. But, the two forces have different line of action,
hence the dipole will experience a torque. When the net force is zero, the torque (couple) is
independent of the origin. Its magnitude is equal to the magnitude of the force multiplied by the
arm of the couple (perpendicular distance between the two antiparallel forces).

⃗ . 2𝑎 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑞𝑬
⃗ = 𝑞𝑬
𝝉 ⃗ . 2𝑎

But 𝑝 = 2𝑞𝑎. Thus,

⃗⃗ . 𝑬
⃗ =𝑷
𝝉 ⃗ 4.10

Direction of torque is perpendicular to paper, coming out. The torque rotates the
dipole in such a way that the angle θ reduces,

1. when the dipole aligns itself along the direction of electric field, the torque
becomes zero. This is the normal position of dipole in electric field.
2. If the dipole is to be rotated by an angle θ from this position, work is required to be done
against torque. This work is equal to the change in potential energy of dipole.

4.4 Behavior of electric dipole in non-uniform electric field

If the electric field is not uniform, the intensity of electric field will be different at different points
as a result electric force acting on the positive charge and negative charge of the dipole will also
be different. In this situation the net force and torque are acting on the dipole. As a result, dipole
experiences a linear displacement in addition to rotation. This rotation will continue only till the
dipole aligns in the direction of the electric field. But linear motion will continue.

When charged comb is brough near the piece of paper, the non-uniform electric field is produced
by the comb. Electric dipole is induced along the direction of nonuniform electric field in small
piece of paper. Now non uniform electric field exerts a net force on piece of paper and paper moves
in the direction of comb.

4.5 Physical significance of dipoles

In most molecules, the centers of positive charges and of negative charges lie at the same place.
Therefore, their dipole moment is zero. CO2 and CH4 are of this type of molecules. However, they
develop a dipole moment when an electric field is applied. But in some molecules, the centers of

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negative charges and of positive charges do not coincide. Therefore, they have a permanent electric
dipole moment, even in the absence of an electric field. Such molecules are called polar molecules.
Water molecules, H2O, is an example of this type. Various materials give rise to interesting
properties and important applications in the presence or absence of electric field.

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