MAINS MASTER PROGRAM (MMP) 2024

DISASTER MANAGEMENT-1
1. TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Table of Contents ..................................... 0 8. Managing Risks of Disaster for Sustainable
Development ................................................. 12
2. Syllabus: Disaster and DIsaster
Management .................................................. 1 9. Flood Related Disasters .......................... 15
3. PYQs (2013- 2023) .................................... 1 1) FLood .................................................. 15
4. BASICS OF DISASTER AND DISASTER 2) Case Study of Brahmaputra................. 18
MANAGEMENT ................................................ 3
3) Urban Flood ........................................ 19
1) KEY COMPONENTS OF DISASTER 4) Cloud Burst ......................................... 21
MANAGEMENT ............................................ 3
5) GLacial Lake Outburst Flood ................ 22
5. Disaster Situation in India ........................ 5
10. Forest Fires ......................................... 27
6. World Conference on Disaster Risk
Reduction and Sendai Framework ................... 6 11. Next Class ........................................... 30
7. India’s Institutional Framwork for Disaster
Management .................................................. 9

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2. SYLLABUS: DISASTER AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT

3. PYQS (2013- 2023)

i. How important are vulnerability and risk assessment for pre-disaster management? As an
administrator, what are key areas that you would focus on in a Disaster Management System? [2013]
[10 marks]

ii. Drought has been recognized as a disaster in view of its spatial expanse, temporal duration, slow onset
and lasting effects on vulnerable sections. With a focus on the September 2010 guidelines from the
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), discuss the mechanisms for preparedness to deal
with likely El Nino and La Nina fallouts in India. [2014, 12.5 marks]

iii. The frequency of earthquakes appears to have increased in the Indian subcontinent. However, India’s
preparedness for mitigating their impact has significant gaps. Discuss various aspects [2015, 12.5
marks]

iv. The frequency of urban floods due to high intensity rainfall is increasing over the years. Discussing the
reasons for urban floods, highlight the mechanisms for preparedness to reduce the risk during such
events [2016, 12.5 marks]

v. With reference to National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) guidelines, discuss the measures
to be adopted to mitigate the impact of recent incidents of cloudbursts in many places of Uttarakhand.
[2016, 12.5 marks]

vi. On December 2004, Tsunami brought havoc on 14 countries including India. Discuss the factors
responsible for occurrence of Tsunami and its effects on life and economy. In the light of guidelines of
NDMA (2010) describe the mechanisms for preparedness to reduce the risk during such event. 2017,
15 marks]

vii. Describe various measures taken in India for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) before and after signing
‘Sendai Framework for DRR (2015-2030)’. How is this framework different from ‘Hyogo Framework for
Action, 2005’? (2018, 250 Words, 15 Marks)

viii. Vulnerability is an essential element for defining disaster impacts and its threat to people. How and in
what ways can vulnerability to disasters be characterized? Discuss different types of vulnerability with
reference to disasters [2019, 10 marks, 150 words]

ix. Disaster preparedness is the first step in any disaster management process. Explain how hazard
zonation mapping will help in disaster mitigation in the case of landslides [ 2019, 15 marks, 250 words]

x. Discuss the recent measures initiated in disaster management by the Government of India departing
from the earlier reactive approach [2020, 15 marks, 250 words]

xi. Discuss about the vulnerability of India to earthquake related hazards. Give examples including the
salient features of major disasters caused by earthquakes in different parts of India during the last three
decades. (2021, 10 marks, 150 words)

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xii. Describe the various causes and the effects of landslides. Mention the important components of the
National Landslide Risk Management Strategy. (2021, 10 marks, 250 words)

xiii. Explain the mechanism and occurrence of cloudburst in the context of the Indian subcontinent. Discuss
two recent examples. [2022, 10 marks, 150 words]

xiv. Dam Failures are always catastrophic, especially on the downstream side, resulting in colossal loss of
life and property. Analyze the various causes of Dam failures. Give two example of large dam failures.
[2023, 10 marks, 150 words]

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4. BASICS OF DISASTER AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT
- "Disaster" is defined under section 2(d) of the Disaster Management Act, 2005 as a catastrophe, mishap,
calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or man-made causes, and is of such nature
or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the affected area.

- Disasters, whether natural or man-made, have been part of man's evolution since times immemorial. Many
civilizations including the ancient Indus Valley civilization is thought to have declined because of some natural
or man-made disasters.

1) KEY COMPONENTS OF DISASTER MANAGEMENT

- A disaster needs to be examined in terms

of its management cycle that would
enable us to anticipate the crisis, prevent
and mitigate it to the extent possible and
deal with the crisis situation as it
emerges.

- The life cycle of disaster Management

can be divided into three phases:

i. Pre-Crisis: Risk Reduction and

Preparedness
§ This is the period when the
potential hazard risk and
vulnerabilities can be assessed
and steps taken for preventing and mitigating the crisis and preparing for actual occurrence.
§ It includes:
§ Creation of legal and institutional framework
§ Hazard Mapping and Vulnerability Analysis.
§ Adopting risk reduction techniques
§ Infrastructure improvement for risk reduction
• Infra improvement can be both long term and short term.
a. Long term Measures - Embankments (floods); Augmenting Irrigation
facilities, watershed management (drought proofing); afforestation
(landslides); earthquake resistant structures and sound environmental
practices.
b. Short term measures may also reduce or modify the scale and intensity
of the threat. This may include implementation of building codes; zoning
regulations; maintenance of drainage system; improved awareness in
public about disaster etc.
§ Setting up Early Warning Systems (EWS)
§ Awareness Generation
§ Capacity building of government institutions and agencies to ensure fast response
during disaster.
§ Research and Development for more detailed understanding

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ii. During Crisis: Emergency Response
§ Disaster Response aims to provide immediate attention to maintain life, improve health, and to
support the morale of the victim population.
§ It includes activities like warning, search, rescue, evacuation, followed by provisions of
basic needs like first aid, medicine, food, clothing, shelter and other necessities essential
to bring life of the affected back to a degree of normalcy.

iii. Post Crisis: The Three Rs (Recovery Rehabilitation and Resettlement)

§ Post crisis activities can be summed in 3 R's: Recovery, Rehabilitation and Resettlement
a. Early Recovery: This is the stage when efforts are made to achieve early recovery and
reduce vulnerability and future risks. It comprises activities that encompass two
overlapping phases of rehabilitation and reconstruction.
b. Rehabilitation refers to actions taken in the aftermath of a disaster to enable basic
services to resume functioning, assist victim's self help efforts to repair dwellings and
community facilities, and to facilitate the revival of economic activities with more
sustainable livelihoods.
c. Reconstruction refers to permanent construction or replacement of severely damaged
physical structures, the full restoration of all services and local infrastructure, and the
revitalization of the economy (including agriculture). It should include development of
disaster resilient infrastructure and must be fully integrated into long-term
development plans.

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5. DISASTER SITUATION IN INDIA
- Practice Question:
» Discuss the key factors making India highly vulnerable to various disasters [10 marks, 150
words]
- India has recorded the third highest number of natural disasters (after China and USA) in last 20 years
(2000-2019): Report "Human Cost of Disasters" by UN Office for Disaster Risk Reduction (UNDRR).
- Vulnerability Profile of India: India faces very high vulnerability due to various factors:
» Adverse geo-climatic conditions
§ The geo tectonic features of the Himalayan region and adjacent alluvial plains make the
region susceptible to earthquakes, landslides, water erosion etc.
§ 58.6 percent of landmass is prone to earthquake of moderate to high intensity.
§ Hilly areas are at risk from landslides and avalanches.
§ Of close to 7516 km long coastline, close to 5700 km is prone to cyclones and Tsunamis;
§ Droughts: The Western Parts of the country, including Rajasthan, Gujarat and some parts
of Maharashtra are hit very frequently by drought situation. If Monsoon worsens the
situation spreads to other parts of the country as well.

» Climate Change: It is expected to further increase the frequency and intensity of current
extreme weather events and give rise to vulnerabilities with differential spatial and socio
economic impacts on communities.
§ Sea-level rise -> coastal flooding
§ Melting of glaciers -> River overflow and flooding
§ Higher temperature -> Heat waves
§ Variation in weather pattern -> Floods and Droughts

» Environmental Factors
§ Increased land-degradation -> Famines
§ Water Pollution and unsustainable ground water extraction -> Drought
» Socio-Economic Factors
§ High levels of poverty and risk to disasters are inextricably linked and mutually
reinforcing.
§ Development within high risk zones
§ For e.g. poverty forces people to live in disaster prone regions. The quality of
infrastructure, houses etc. available to them are poor.
§ High population density -> easy spread of pandemic; More pressure on infrastructure -
Road/Railway accidents etc.
§ Unplanned Urbanization and unscientific development -> Urban Floods, Building fires
etc.
§ Unregulated industrialization -> River Pollution; Chemical accidents

- Conclusion:
» By adopting holistic approach which includes strengthening legal and institutional framework,
hazard mapping, vulnerability analysis, improved infrastructure, establishment of early warning
system, community preparedness etc. India can reduce the risk of these disasters and create a
safer environment for citizens.

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6. WORLD CONFERENCE ON DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND SENDAI FRAMEWORK
- Introduction: WCDRR is a series of UN conferences focused on disaster and climate risk management.
They bring together various stakeholders including Government officials, Civil Society Organization,
Local Bodies, Private Sector participant etc to discuss the disaster issues.
» So far, three conferences have been convened - Yokohama (1994); Kobe (2005) and Sendai
(2015) - with following outcomes.
Conference Outcome
First (1994) Yokohama strategy and Plan of action of a safer world
Second (2005) Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015 : Building the Resilience of
Nations and Communities to Disasters
Third (2015) Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030
- Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 is a 15 year non-binding agreement which
recognizes that the state has the primary role to reduce disaster risk but that responsibility should be
shared with other stakeholders including local government and the private sector.
» Aim: "The substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses lives, livelihood and health and in
the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assets of persons, businesses,
communities and countries.
» The framework has four specific
priorities for action:
▫ Understanding disaster risk
▫ Strengthening disaster risk
governance to manage
disaster risk
▫ Investing in disaster risk
reduction for resilience
▫ Enhancing disaster
preparedness for effective
response, and to "Build Back
Better" in recovery,
rehabilitation and
reconstruction.

- How is Sendai Framework Different from Hyogo Framework for Action?

» Scope: While Hyogo primarily focused on natural hazards, the Sendai framework has expanded
the scope to cover both natural and manmade hazards including technological hazards including
chemical/industrial hazards, radiological, biological hazards etc.
» Priorities: Sendai emphasizes on disaster risk governance and investment which was missing in
Hyogo framework.
» Targets: Hyogo had not set specific targets; whereas Sendai has led down 7 specific global
targets.
» Stakeholders: While Hyogo emphasized on the role of government in disaster management,
Sendai focuses on multi-stakeholder approach which includes government, local bodies, Civil
Society, and private sector. It recognizes that effective disaster reductio requires collaboration,
knowledge sharing, and participation from diverse sectors.

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 » Time Frame: Hyogo Framework for Action had 10 years of implementation period; whereas
Sendai Framework has 15 years of implementation period (2015-2030)

- India has taken several steps for disaster risk reduction both before and after signing the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015-2030)
§ Pre Sendai Steps:
i. Disaster Management Act, 2005 was enacted to provide legal framework to disaster risk
reduction in India. It established various institutions and elaborated on their roles and
responsibilities.
ii. National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) was established in 2005 as the apex
body for disaster management in India. It is responsible for policy formulation,
coordination and implementation of DRR measures across the country.
iii. National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) was established in 2006 as a specialized force
for disaster response. It consists of personnel trained in various aspects of disaster
management and plays crucial role in rescue, relief, and response operations.
iv. National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009: It outlines the framework for disaster
management in India and emphasizes on risk assessment, capacity development, and
involvement of multiple stakeholders.

- Post Sendai Initiatives taken by India and the way forward

§ In furtherance to its commitment to the Sendai framework, Government has taken up
several important initiatives post Sendai Declaration.
i. GoI has issued a set of priority actions to all the state governments based on the
goals, targets and priorities of Sendai Framework.
ii. National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) has been strengthened , both in terms
of state of art training and equipment to further empower the professional
disaster response force.
• GoI has also approved creation of National Disaster Response Reserve
(NDRR) through a revolving fund of Rs 250 crore to be operated by NDRF.
This dedicated fund will enable the NDRF to maintain a ready inventory
of emergency goods and services comprising of tents, medicines, food
items etc.
iii. Government has expressed its keenness to share India's expertise and help other
countries in disaster response as it did during the Japan Earthquake in 2011 or
the Nepal earthquake in 2015.
• The government hosts SAARC Disaster Management Centre to reduce
disaster risks in the region promoting knowledge sharing among the
SAARC countries.
• Similarly, INCOIS (Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services)
INCOIS, provides early warning not only to India but also to 28 countries
in the Indian Ocean Rim.
• India has hosted AMCDRR in Nov 2016 and adopted 'New Delhi
Declaration' and 'Regional Action Plan for implementation of Sendai
Framework'.

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 iv. NIDM has also signed an MoU with Jawaharlal Nehru University for establishment
of a Centre of Excellence in Disaster Research and Resilience Building in JNU for
promoting higher education and research within the multi-disciplinary
framework.
v. Disaster Management guidelines for different kinds of disasters have been
prepared
vi. India is also in the process of creating National level Database for Disasters in
India to help fulfill Sendai Framework requirements.

- Conclusion: Class Discussion

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7. INDIA’S INSTITUTIONAL FRAMWORK FOR DISASTER MANAGEMENT

- Example Questions
» "Ill-defined and conflicting institutional structures under the disaster management legal
framework are among the major obstructions to effective disaster management" Discuss. [10
marks, 150 words]
- Introduction:
» The Constitution of India doesn't mention disaster management under any of the three lists
under Schedule 7. Thus, it comes under the residuary powers of the Union. Therefore, power to
legislate on the matter lies with
the Parliament of India.
» After the 2004 Tsunami, the
Indian Parliament passed the
Disaster Management Act,
2005 which provides for
institutional framework to deal
with disasters in India.

- The Disaster Management Act, 2005

has created new institutions at the
National, state, district and local levels.
The new institutional framework is as
follows:

i. National Level
» National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) under chairmanship of the Prime
Minister is responsible for policy formulation, making guidelines & best practices, and
coordinating with SDMAs to ensure holistic and distributed approach to disaster
management.
• It also has the powers to approve National Plan and Plans of various ministries
regarding DM
• Powers to superintendence and control of NDRF.
§ National Executive committee, chaired by home secretary, is responsible for preparing
national plan, assisting NDMA to discharge their functions; monitoring the
implementation of the National Policy and ensuring compliance to the direction issued
by the Central Government.

§ National Institute for Disaster Management (NIDM) is responsible for human resource
development, training, research and development, documentation and database
creation.

§ National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) is a specialized force working under the overall
supervision of NDMA. It is responsible for quick response to a threatening disaster
situation. It can also be deployed to provide assistance to civil authorities in case of
impending disasters.

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 • In 2019, it also decided to train specialized unit in each battalion to help preserve
monuments and other heritage structures battered by disasters.
ii. State Level
§ SDMA, chaired by CM is responsible for policies and plans of DM at the state level. It also
coordinates the implementation of state plan.
§ State Executive Committee draws up the state DM plan as prescribed by the national as
well as state authorities.

iii. District Level

§ District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)- chaired by DM and have elected
representatives of the local authority as co-chairperson. It is responsible for planning,
coordinating and implementing Disaster Management at district level.

iv. Funding mechanism under DMA, 2005 - Disaster Relief Fund and Disaster Mitigation Fund (at
district, state and National Level)

- National Policy on Disaster Management, 2009

» Approved in 2009
» Vision: To build a safe and disaster resilient India by developing a holistic, proactive, multi-disaster
oriented and technology driven strategy through a culture of prevention, mitigation, preparedness
and response"

- Analysis: Positives of the DMA, 2005

» The act rightly emphasizes the need to move from responding to disasters to effective
preparedness, which has led to most states investing in resilient infrastructure, early warning
systems and evacuation.
§ This has translated into timely warnings, relief shelters and massive evacuation
exercises. All these have reduced causalities.
» The National Disaster Response Fund and State Disaster Response Funds have helped in
guiding immediate relief in the aftermath of disaster.

- Some limitations associated with the Disaster Management Act

i. Too Much Bureaucratization -> top-down approach -> ignores the role of local communities and
civil society organizations
ii. Poor Implementation -> In Swaraj Abhiyan vs Union of India, 2016, the Supreme Court pulled
government for poor and slow implementation of the law.
§ For e.g. the NDMF hasn't been created yet.
iii. Ill-defined and Conflicting institutional structures under the disaster management legal
framework
• E.g. Overlap of role between NEC and already existing National Crisis Management Cell
(NCMC).
iv. Need of clarity and transparency on how the political and administrative authorities respond
to a tragedy.
§ For e.g. multiple nomenclature (National disaster vs L3 Level Severity (NDM Guidelines)
vs Calamity of Severe nature (DMD of Home Ministry)

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 v. Neglected NDMA, NEC: Vacancies, excessive executive incursion by MoHA, lack of regular
meeting of NEC (reported in CAG report) etc.
vi. Funding Misappropriation (especially from SDRF)
vii. Lack of Focus on Long Term Recovery
§ The DMA, 2005 largely focuses on improving preparedness, providing immediate relief,
and protecting infrastructure. However, it neglects a key aspect of disaster management:
Long term recovery.
§ Post disaster relief and recovery have been left to respective ministries and
departments.

- Key Recommendations of ARC on NDMA, 2005

i. Decentralization:
§ States should play primary role -> Disaster Management should be the primary
responsibility of state governments and union government should only play supportive
role.
§ Local government's role should be brought to forefront in disaster management.
ii. Ending conflicting institutional structures: 2nd ARC recommended the scrapping of NEC as its
function coincides with that of the already existing National Crisis Management Committee
(NCMC) chaired by Cabinet Secretary.
iii. Standardize the methodology for assessing a Disaster: The act should provide for the
categorization of the disaster; this categorization will help in determining the level of authority
primarily responsible for dealing with the disaster as well as the scale of response and relief.
iv. Preventing misuse of the funds: The act must provide for stringent punishments and penalties
in case of misuse of funds for disaster management

- Other Important Recommendations

i. Place Disaster Management in the concurrent list to ensure vertical and horizontal linkages in
effective disaster management.
ii. Long term recovery needs to be thought of alongside development in an integrated and
comprehensive manner by combining with health, skill building, and livelihood diversification
schemes.

- Conclusion
§ There is a need to move towards a regime that exists on a unified, codified and systematic
approach to disaster management in which duties of center and states are well defined.

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8. MANAGING RISKS OF DISASTER FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
- Example Questions
» 'Disaster Risk reduction is the most crucial component of Crisis Management' Discuss [10 marks,
150 words]

- Introduction
» Over the years disaster management has evolved from managing events of a disaster to
managing the risks of a disaster.
• In the risk management approach to
disaster, various risks of hazards are
analyzed, and steps are taken to
reduce and control these risks. Here
both structural and non-structural
steps can be taken for disaster risk
reduction.
» For the residual risk which can't be
prevented, there has to be disaster
preparedness i.e., getting ready to respond
to disaster effectively. It involves preparing
for early warning, evacuation, search rescue
etc. Preparedness further means having
policies, strategies and resources in place for
'building back better' livelihoods, houses,
infrastructure etc. devastated during the floods.

- Significance of Disaster Risk Reduction

i. Reduces the negative impact of disaster on lives, livelihood and infrastructure
ii. Sustainable Development: Disasters can reduce the pace towards sustainable development, by
damaging infrastructure, and diverting resources. By reducing its risks, we can increase our pace
of movement towards sustainable development.
iii. Economic advantages - WB estimates that India has lost at least 2 percent of our GDP because
of disaster. DRR measures can substantially reduce the economic losses.
iv. Safeguarding Critical Infrastructure: DRR can protect critical assets like Hospitals, schools,
transportation networks which can be crucial for the proper functioning of the society.
v. DRR can fight poverty as disaster generally impacts the vulnerable section the most.
vi. Addressing Climate Change Impact: DRR will include adapting to the changing climatic
conditions, building resilience to extreme weather events, and mitigating the adverse impacts
of climate change.
vii. Promote International Cooperation: Several disasters can transcend national boundaries and
its risk reduction may require collaboration between multiple countries contributing to
increased pressure towards international cooperation.

- Disaster Resilient Sustainable Development got a new momentum in 2015 when three parallel yet
inter-dependent processes converged to define the development agendas for the next one and a half
decade and beyond.
» Sendai Framework on DRR 2015-2030

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 » The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted by UNGA in Sep 2015
• It embedded disaster risk management in as many as 8 out of 17 sustainable
development goals.
» The Paris Agreement on Climate Change signed in Dec 2015 outlined 8 specific action areas for
enhancing 'understanding, action and support for disaster risk reduction'.
• These include Early Warning System; Emergency Preparedness; Slow onset events;
Events that may involve irreversible and permanent loss and damage; Comprehensive
risk assessment and management; Risk insurance facilities; climate risk pooling and
other insurance solutions; Non-economic losses; Resilience of communities, livelihoods
and ecosystems

- Steps taken so far

§ India has put in place legal and institutional mechanisms at various levels and deployed scientific
and technological capabilities for disaster risk management with clearly visible impact on loss of
lives, as was demonstrated during some of the recent meteorological disasters like cyclones.

- Challenges
» Disaster Preparedness and risk reduction is invisible as compared to disaster response and thus
is sometimes ignored.
§ Neither NDMA, nor various ministries and departments have come up with guidelines or
concrete plan of action for building disaster resilience in their respective sectors.
» We have not been very successful in dealing with
• Hydrological disasters like floods or cloudbursts (Uttarakhand, Srinagar, Chennai, Kerala
etc) or geological disasters like landslides (Malign and north Sikkim)
• Technological disasters like road accidents or industrial accidents continue to spiral;
• Threats of biological disasters like epidemics and pandemics loom large, while
environmental disasters like depleting water resources and rising level of air pollution
in rapidly growing urban settlements are causes of major concerns.
• India's ability to manage earthquakes have not been tested yet since the 2001 Kutch
earthquake.
» Our strong scientific base and traditional knowledge and understanding of the natural and
anthropogenic processes of risks of disaster are not being used in process of designing and
implementation of social and economic development programmes, activities and projects, with
the result that benefit of these projects for disaster risk reduction are not optimized and on the
contrary some of these projects are directly or indirectly contributing to creation of new risks of
disasters or exacerbation of existing risks of disasters.

- Way Forward
» Mainstreaming Disaster Risk Reduction: Implementation of Sendai framework in conjunction
with SDG goals, and Paris Climate Agreement provide an opportunities for addressing this
hitherto neglected but challenging tasks of disaster risk management in India.
» There is a need to promote awareness generation regarding adoption of disaster resilient
building by laws, land use zoning, resource planning, establishment of early warning systems,
and technical competence.
» Promote Knowledge sharing among Disaster Management community

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 • We need a common platform to create a versatile interface among policy-makers in the
Government and disaster managers at all administrative levels.
- Conclusion
» If national targets for growth and development - including employment and trade - are to be
realized, the shift from managing crisis to managing risk must be reflected in public policy
frameworks and planning decision processes so as to enable risk informed investment and
practices.

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9. FLOOD RELATED DISASTERS

1) FLOOD

- Why in news?
» Assam under grim flood situation (July 2024)

- Past year Questions

» Why are floods such a recurrent feature in India? Discuss the measures taken by the
Government for flood control (1985, 20 marks)
» In what way can flood be converted into a sustainable source of irrigation and all-weather inland
navigation in India. [2017, 250 words]

- Introduction
» Inundation of land and human settlements by the rise of water in the channels and its spill-over
presents the condition of flooding. Flood is a natural disaster which affects some or the other
part of the country almost every year now. (Kerala, Chennai, Assam, Bihar, UP etc.).
» According to Asian Development Banks, floods are the most devastating among climate related
disasters in India. They account for more than 50% of all climate related disasters in the country.

- Situation in India
» In India, around 40 million hectares area is flood prone, which is 1/8th of the total area. As per
the NDMA, the regions susceptible to flood lies mostly along Ganga and Brahmaputra basin. The
coastal states of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh, parts of Telangana and Gujarat also witness yearly
floods.
▫ But the recent floods in Kerala and Tamil Nadu shows that even peninsular India is not
more immune to flood disasters.

- Causes of Floods
» Natural Causes: Flood is generally seen as a natural phenomenon. It is associated with:
▫ Heavy Rainfall
§ Cyclones (E.g. Cyclone Michuang in Chennai)
§ Cloudburst
§ Monsoon Climate - all rainfall confined to a period
§ Interaction of Western Disturbance (WD) with the Monsoon Low Pressure
system (cause of heavy rains in Punjab, J&K, Delhi in July 2023)
▫ Sediment Deposition
§ Causes rivers to overflow or change paths

» Manmade causes: Experts believe that the recent increase in intensity of floods have to do a lot
with human activities:
i. Climate Change has led to extreme variability in the intensity of rainfall which has
increased the chances of floods.
§ For e.g., global warming has caused rainfall due to western disturbances even in
Monsoon season in July 2023 causing huge rainfalls in NW India.

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 ii. Unplanned development along the natural drainage system has led to rivers losing its
buffer areas and thus any increase in the water levels is causing floods. This includes
colonization of flood plains and river beds.
§ E.g. - Situation of Yamuna:
§ The process of physical demarcation of the Yamuna's floodplain - a basic
step to help identify and protect the sensitive ecosystem from
encroachment - is still incomplete (April 2024) despite court orders.
§ In 2015, the NGT had asked authorities to identify encroachments in the
floodplains. It hasn't been done so far. In fact, illegal constructions
continue to grow on the Yamuna flood plains.
§ Delhi Development Authority (DDA), in violation of NGT guidelines
continues construction on crowded Yamuna flood plains in Delhi.

iii. Indiscriminate Deforestation has led to increased devastation due to floods. Trees
generally acted as a breaker in the intensity of floods.
§ For e.g. According to Madhav Gadgil, if we would have protected Western Ghats,
the loss and devastation by the Kerala floods of 2018 would have been less
severe.
iv. Unsustainable agri-practices can also be considered an important factor behind the
recent rise in floods.
v. Inefficient Dam Management sometimes lead to large scale release of water in small
time period leading to flood conditions
§ E.g. Kerala floods pf 2018
vi. Urban Floods are also mostly a result of human made factors
§ Blocking the natural flow of rivers
§ Destroying the natural sinks like ponds, lakes etc.
§ Concretization - Reduces the seepage of water - all water flows and cause floods
§ Improper Urban Planning -> siltation of drainage system, Insufficient drainage
system

- Consequence of floods - Life, Property, Infrastructure, Agriculture, Water Borne diseases etc.
» According to Central Water Commission, the total flood related losses in the country were
estimated to be over 37 lakh crore from 1953 to 2017.
» As per the the State of the Climate in Asia 2021 report, loss and damages from floods, storm
cost India $7.6 billion in 2021 alone.

- Some positive impact

» It deposits fertile alluvial soil and thus perpetuates the fertility of the area.

- Dealing with Flood Disasters/ Flood Management in India

a. Risk Reduction, Preparedness
§ Flood Plane Zonation (FPZ) to mitigate damages caused by floods and to allow rivers
their 'Right to Way'. As a policy flood plain zonation has two major components:
Removing Encroachment and Regulating Land Use.
§ Remove Encroachment: (Delineate Flood Plains by conducting survey; classify
land according to risks; Relocate the exposed and provide compensation to them)

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 Regulating Land Use: Remove unauthorized construction; Regulate land use;
§
Incorporate flood resilient design; Make public infrastructure flood resilient;
Conserve wetlands (Prohibit reclamation, maintain existing wetland, recover the
lost wetlands)
§ Other River Related Steps
§ Embankments: e.g. Embankments on Yamuna in Delhi has been successful in
controlling the flood to large extent.
§ Periodic desilting of river
§ Watershed based master planning and development legislated guidelines for
each major river basin is needed.
§ It should demarcate ecologically sensitive zones. There must be clear land
use plan for these zones specifying flood plains, protected forest areas,
agricultural and plantation zones.
§ Afforestation: the furry of flood could be minimized by planting trees in catchment
areas of the river

§ Planned Scientific Development of Cities

§ Protect natural sinks like Ponds, lakes etc., development away from the river
channel, proper drainage infrastructure, regular cleaning of this infrastructure.
§ Review and revise building by laws to focus more on environmental sustainability.
They should clearly provide that natural drainage and streams shall not be
obstructed by this development/ building permit.

§ Continuous modernization of flood forecasting, early warning and decision support

systems
o There is a need of more accurate rain forecast and more detailed warnings in
place of the current categorization as "heavy" or "very heavy".
o IMD needs more Doppler weather Radars which can extend the lead time of
forecast by three days.
• E.g. IFLOWs-Mumbai was launched in June 2020 as an state of art integrated
flood Early Warning system for Mumbai to enhance the resilience of Mumbai
specially during high rainfall events and cyclones.

§ Improving awareness and preparedness of all stakeholders in the flood prone areas.
§ Regular Drills in Flood Prone Areas to ensure preparedness of NDRF and
awareness among masses regarding steps to be taken during floods.
§ Introducing capacity development interventions for effective Flood
Management (including education, training, capacity building, R&D,
documentation) etc.
§ International Cooperation with neighboring countries on flood controls as a number of
rivers which cause flood in India originate from other neighboring countries.
§ For e.g. Dams on Rivers in Nepal can play an important role in controlling floods
in the state of Bihar.

b. Response
§ Improve the response system of NDRF especially for rural states like Bihar and Odisha.

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 § Need to enhance capacity building for catastrophic weather events
§ Serious attention needs to be given to fast tracking the setting up of relief
camps, crisis proof health infrastructure and stockpiling of dry ration and
medicines.
§ Increased use of technologies like drones to identify people who are trapped in flood

c. Recovery
§ Special Focus on Water borne diseases as they are the biggest killer in the post flood
situation.
§ Ensure that the new infrastructure created is resistant to floods.
§ Bring in changes like broadening ecologically sensitive domain to protect more area
from environmental degradation.

- Conclusion:
» By recognizing the increasing threat of extreme precipitation and implementing proactive
measures, India can improve its resilience to extreme weather events.

- Conclusion
» India being a sub-tropical country with Monsoon kind of climate will remain vulnerable to floods
due to heavy rainfall and increased climate variability. An efficient disaster management
mechanism will ensure that these floods remain a natural phenomenon and doesn't become a
natural disaster

2) CASE STUDY OF BRAHMAPUTRA

- Why in news?
» Most of the districts of Assam face
flood every year

- Why is Assam so vulnerable to floods?

» Incessant Monsoon Rainfall
» Nature of River Brahmaputra ->
Dynamic and Unstable
▫ It figures amongst the world's
top five rivers in terms of
discharge as well as the
sediments that it brings.
▫ Because of earthquake prone
nature of the region, the river has not been able to acquire a stable character.
» Man-Made Factors (Habitation, deforestation, increased population, destruction of wetlands)
▫ For e.g. Sylhet districts traditional wetlands called 'haor' used to act as sponges
absorbing runoff, have been destroyed, thereby enabling the recent floods.

- How has government tried to address the factors that cause flood in Assam

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 » In its master plan on the river in 1982, the Brahmaputra Board has suggested that dams and
reservoirs be built to mitigate floods.
▫ But, the idea has been seen as a double edged sword.
▫ Further, opposition from locals, and environmentalists on the grounds of displacement
and destruction to ecology, prevented the plan from moving forward.
» Building Embankments were proposed as an interim measure to deal with floods and
government has recently used this as the only major approach to control floods.
▫ But since, there were temporary measures, most embankments which were built in
1980s were not strong enough and thus easily give way in case of overflow of rivers.
» Dredging is another thing that government has considered, but experts have opposed it as
Brahmaputra sediment yield is amongst highest in the world and next year sediments will
reverse the efforts of this dredging. So, even this hasn't been done.

- Conclusion
» The above initiatives are clearly not the sustainable solution to floods. There is a need of a basin
wide approach to the problem. There is a need of integrated basin management system that
should ideally bring in all basin-sharing countries on board.

3) URBAN FLOOD

- Why in news?
» The City of Delhi was flooded after the first rain of Monsoon 2024
» Chennai has seen repeated urban Floods (in Dec 2015, Dec 2023); Similarly, Urban floods in
Bengaluru in Sep 2022 was caused by heavy rain, poor drainage and worse infra.

- Introduction
» Recent instances of floods such as the one in Delhi in June 2024, Chennai in Dec 2024, Bengaluru
in Sep 2022, Chennai in 2015 and Mumbai in 2005 illustrate the increasing vulnerability of
Indian cities to this disaster. A complex set of factors have worked together to deteriorate the
condition of our cities and increase their susceptibility to this devastation.

- Main Causes of Urban Floods

i. Unplanned Urban Development:
» Increasing Concretization of city land reduced the seepage of water in the ground and
has increased the runoff: NDMA Report
» Loss of Natural flood storage in urban areas by filling of ponds and lakes to reclaim land
for development.
• For instance, in Chennai the number of water bodies have come down to less
than 50 from 600 in 1980s. This became a major cause of 2015 floods.
• Similarly, Bengaluru had 1,452 water bodies in 19th century, this has now
reduced to only 193 lakes.
• Here about 10,787 acres of lakes worth Rs 1.5 lakh crore has been
encroached upon.
» Encroachment of Flood Plains of the rivers have led to loss of natural flood storage.
• 2013 Uttarakhand floods, Delhi 2023 floods.

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 » Rapid urbanization has led to massive changes in land use patterns, as residential areas
had sprung up in farmlands.

ii. Improper and Inadequate Drainage system

§ A lot of sewerage and drainage network is old and lack volume to carry flood water.
• For e.g. The current drainage system of Delhi is based on the 1976 master plan.
§ Poor Desilting and blockage of drainage systems. This was the main reason for 2005
Mumbai floods and a major factor in Sep 2022 Bengaluru floods.
• Improper Waste Management leads to a lot of solid waste blocking the drains.
This hinders the flow of water during rainfall and contributes to floods.

iii. Global Climate Change have led to change in weather pattern which is sometimes causing
unusually heavy rainfall thus causing floods in urban areas.
§ For e.g. On 5th Sep 2022, Bengaluru received 131.3 mm of rainfall.

iv. Social and Political apathy

§ Religious practices such as dumping of religious symbols, dead bodies etc. in rivers also
lead to blocking of rivers. Inefficient management of gathering like Kumbha contribute
to unnecessary concretization and thus floods.
§ Socio-economic factors contribute to illegal encroachment of flood plains by slums etc.
which increases the intensity of the urban floods.
§ At the same time we have seen an absence of political will to give priority to the issue.
This has happened both at national and international level.
• This lack of political will has resulted into paucity of funds which delays the key
drainage infrastructure
• The river water information sharing has remained a major issue between India-
Bangladesh and India China.

- Consequences
» Human and Infra Loss - deaths and devastation; loss of telecommunication, road and railway
lines; increased probability of disease epidemic
» Economic Losses: Other than economic losses because of destruction of infrastructure, floods
result in traffic jams, temporary closure of business, destruction of property etc. which leads
to loss of manhours, hindering of economic activities etc.
» Environmental Pollution Urban floods also lead to washing away of various pollutants including
industrial waste into water bodies thus intensifying river pollution.

- Way forward
» Promote the ideas of Sponge Cities -> Urban planning should keep in mind the geological and
hydrological cycle: Planned Development of cities should ensure that flood plains are not
encroached upon, sinks like ponds are protected/restored and pavements are porous to allow
infiltration of rainwater in the ground.
§ There should be increased focus on these goals through an Mission on Sponge Cities.
» Depopulation the river flood plains
» Improvement of drainage system.
§ Proper maintenance, desilting of existing drainage system

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 § Providing alternative drainage path for flood waters (may be underground)
§ Control of solid waste entering the drainage systems through proper Solid Waste
Management
» Change in social attitude of Common Citizen will go a long way in controlling urban floods
§ Reduction of solid waste, promoting environment friendly religious practices can all
contribute towards limiting urban floods.
» Disaster preparedness: Even after all proper steps, nature may cause havoc and cause floods,
therefore a proper disaster management plan should be prepared by the ULBs to be battle
ready in emergency situations. Fresh Hazard profiles should be created for the cities based on
the historic as well as recent flood vulnerabilities.

- Conclusion
» We must not allow nature, human conduct, and urbanisation to be mystified and rendered as
trans-historic villains. We can learn to live with nature, we can regulate human conduct through
the state, and we can strategically design where we build. We need to urgently rebuild our cities
such that they have the sponginess to absorb and release water without causing so much misery
and so much damage to the most vulnerable of our citizens, as we have seen.

4) CLOUD BURST

- Practice Questions:
» Explain the mechanism and occurrence of cloudburst in the context of the Indian subcontinent.
Discuss two recent examples. [Mains 2022, 10 marks, 150 words]
» Cloudbursts are often associated with flash floods. Explain the relationship between cloudbursts
and flash floods and discuss the challenges in managing flash flood events. [10 marks, 150
words]

- What is cloudburst?
» A cloudburst refers to an extreme amount of rain that happens in a short period, sometimes
accompanied by hail and thunder. IMD defines it as unexpected precipitation exceeding 10 cm
per hour over a geographical region of approximately 20-30 sq km.
§ For e.g. the 2013 floods in Kedarnath were caused by Cloud Burst. In 2021, Amarnath
region was impacted by cloudburst.
» Impact: This sudden discharge of rain leads to floods including flash floods, landslides etc. which
may result into human casualties, and property loss.

- Mechanism: How does cloudburst occur?

» When cumulonimbus clouds (which stretch to even 13-14 kms in height) are trapped over a
region or there is no air movement for them to disperse, they discharge over a specific area.
§ Here, saturated clouds ready to condense into rain can't produce rain, due to the upward
movement of the very warm current of air.
§ Instead of falling downwards, raindrops are carried upwards by the air current. New
drops are formed and existing raindrops increase in size. After a point, the raindrop are
too heavy for the cloud to hold on to, and they drop down together in a quick flash

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 - Other key aspects:
§ It is very difficult to forecast the event due to its very small scale in space and time.
§ To monitor or nowcast (forecasting few hours of lead time) the cloudburst, we need to
have dense radar network over the cloudburst-prone areas or one need to have a very
high resolution weather forecasting models to resolve the scale of cloudburst. Doppler
radar can be very useful in predicting them.
§ Mountain regions are more prone to cloudburst due to orography (terrain and elevation),
though they may occur in plains as well.

- Way forward:
» Hazard zonation mapping: Identifying the areas vulnerable to flash floods.
» Building flood resistant infrastructure: To reduce damages due to flash floods
» Regulating settlements in the river banks
» Improving forecasting (nowcasting) Infrastructure: Increasing the coverage of doppler radars.
Currently Himalayan region has 7 doppler radars (2 each in J&K and Uttarakhand, 1 each in
Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura.
» Strengthening institutions to provide quick response at the time of cloudburst in the form of
emergency evacuation, medicine etc.

- Conclusion:
» Bay taking steps to predict, prepare, and respond to these events, we can reduce the loss of life
and the property damage that they cause.

5) GLACIAL LAKE OUTBURST FLOOD

- Why in news?
» Why Uttarakhand government wants to evaluate the risk of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods (April
2024: Source-IE)

- Example Questions
» Discuss the key factors which is making Himalayan region more vulnerable to Glacial Lake
Outburst floods (GLOF). In light of the recent NDMA guidelines, suggest measures to reduce risks
of GLOF disasters (15 marks, 250 words)

- Introduction
» GLOFs are sudden fast flowing release of glacial lake water that move downslopes as a result of
dam failure. They are recognized in the National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) 2019 of
India as a potential climatological disaster.
- Current Situation:
» A study, 'Glacial lake outburst floods threaten million globally' published in the journal Nature
in Feb 2023 highlights that:
▫ Around 15 million people globally face the risk of GLOF.
▫ Around 20% of them (3 million) live in India.
▫ India, Pakistan, Peru and China have more than 50% of the vulnerable people.

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- Causes of increasing GLOF
» Global Warming -> Climate Change
▫ Increasing number of Glacial Lakes due to acceleration of glacier melt in recent decades.
▫ Increased water pressure due to more water being available due to Global Warming.
▫ For e.g. As per ISRO's study through satellite based analysis, of the 2,461 lakes larger
than 10 hectares in the catchment of Indian Himalayan River basins, 676 lakes have
notably expanded since 1984.
» Ice or rock avalanches, Erosions or other natural disruptions
» Earthquakes - Himalayan region is especially prone to earthquakes
» Human Activities -> increased tourism, expansion of roads and hydropower projects,
deforestation etc have also increased the vulnerability of burst in these lacks.

- Recent Examples:
» Flash Floods in Sikkim in Oct 2023 which killed around 100 people, destroyed infrastructure like
bridges and roads, and damaged state's largest hydropower project, the 1.2 GW Teesta-III.
§ Cause: Access rainfall and GLOF of South Lhonak Lake. It was already recognized as
potentially
hazardous and
scientists at the
National Remote
Sensing Centre had
warned of a 42%
chance of GLOF in as
early as 2013.
§ How it happened in
Oct 2023 (See image)
▫ The Chamoli Flash floods of
2021 may have caused
economic damages worth Rs
4,000 crore. It swept away
the Rishiganga Hydel Power
Project and inflicted
substantial damage on the
Tapovan Power Project.
▫ 2013 Kedarnath flash floods
was also result of GLOF.

- Adverse Impact
▫ These floods pose severe geomorphological hazards and risks
§ It can wreak havoc on all man made structures located along the path and thus endanger
people, infrastructure, fields and livestock.
▫ Long term Climate Impact may be caused by large glacial lake as they would increase the
amount of water in ocean and reduce it in Himalayas.

- Steps taken so far:

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 ▫ NDMA (under Home Ministry), has identified 188 glacial lakes in the Himalayan states that can
potentially breach because of heavy rainfall.
▫ NDMA has also prepared Guidelines on the Management of Glacial Lake Outburst Floods
(GLOFs) which are aimed at improving the administrative response; drawing on international
best practices; and brining together the relevant scientific capabilities of the nation.

- Key Highlight of the NDMA Guidelines

i. Inventorization: Hazard and Risk Mapping
▫ Regular monitoring of glacial lakes using satellite observations.
▫ Cooperation with neighbouring countries (Nepal, Bhutan and China) to identify
transboundary threats and manage it properly.
ii. Reduction of Hazards
▫ Short term actions - lowering the lake level through siphoning
• For instance, high density PVC pipes were installed in South Lhonak lake in
Sikkim, to reduce the pressure on the lake
▫ Long Term Actions
• Artificial drainage channels to lower lake levels
• Reinforcement of dam
• Enhancement of river cross section/ protection from erosion
▫ Restricting constructions and development in GLOF prone areas is a very efficient
means to reduce risks at no cost.
▫ Develop regulation for Land Use Planning in GLOF areas.
iii. Reduction of Exposure
▫ Establishment of Early Warning System.: Comprehensive alarm system - including
classical alarming infrastructure as well as modern technology using smart phone
notifications etc.
▫ Evacuation based on EWS
▫ Involve local population closely from the beginning in the design, planning and
implementation of risk reduction and management strategies in a transparent
collaboration mechanism.
▫ Awareness and Preparedness through posters, social media, apps etc.
iv. Capacity Development -
▫ Apart from specialized forces such as NDRF, ITBP, and the ARMY, the guidelines
emphasize on need for trained local manpower.
▫ Training of professionals and practitioners;
▫ Heavy earthmoving and search and rescue equipment, as well as motor launches,
country boats, inflatable rubber boats, life jackets etc.
▫ Setting up Quick Reaction Medical Teams, mobile field hospitals, Accident Relief
Medical Vans, and heli-ambulances in areas inaccessible by roads.
v. Promote R&D in GLOF Management
▫ Strengthening Academic Education in relevant disciplines from natural and social
sciences.
▫ Promote development of Modelling tools to simulate the entire chain of mass
movement and outburst process
▫ Historical records should be effectively used to understand flood processes.

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 ▫ Expand the use of local knowledge, experience of local people. Engaging the local
population in joint-knowledge production is considered indispensable for effective
community based disaster risk management.
vi. Regulation and Enforcement
▫ A well drafted techno-legal regime is necessary to prevent future development of GLOF
and protect existing Glaciers.
▫ The regime should include a Himalaya GLOF mitigation Policy, no habitation and
construction zones; and provisions for strict implementation.

- Other steps which needs to be taken:

▫ Institutional Improvement: Need of a nodal agency to coordinate all the researches related to
glaciers in the region .
▫ Sustainable Development: Restricting Tourism; Effective EIA for new projects.
▫ International Cooperation: GLOF risk is transboundary in nature, thus there is an urgent need
for a comprehensive regional risk governance framework including India, Nepal, Bhutan etc.
▫ Fighting Climate Change: Eventually, a major core reason for GLOF is CC and rising sizes of the
lakes. This in long term can only be solved if the global community can work together to achieve
Paris Climate Change Targets.

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10. FOREST FIRES
- Why in news?
» Despite being a significant source of greenhouse gases, wildfire emissions remain
underestimated (July 2024; Source DTE)
» As per forest department, between January and June 2024 there have been 1,309 forest fires in
Uttarakhand - up from 733 in the entire year in 2023.

- Example Questions
i. Discuss the various causes and consequences of forest fires. What are the key features of
National Master Plan for Forest Fires. [15 marks, 250 words]
ii. Discuss the role played by climate change in aggravating the Forest Fire situation in the country.
[10 marks, 150 words]
iii. Discuss the temporal and spatial variation of fire vulnerability of Indian forests. Why have cases
of forest fires increased in recent years? [10 marks, 150 words]

- Introduction:
» Fires have played a very important role in shaping forests since time immemorial. Foresters use
it as a tool in scientific forest management as certain species regenerate and establish well
under light fire conditions.
» However, uncontrolled fires is a major cause of degradation of forests. It poses threat not only
to forest wealth, but also to entire regime of flora and fauna seriously disturbing the biodiversity
and ecology and environment of
the region.

- Situation in India
» According to Indian Forest
Survey, 2019 (a report by Forest
Survey of India), about 21.4% of
forest cover in India is prone to
fires (extremely, very highly and
highly fire prone), with forest in
north-eastern region and
Central India being the most
vulnerable.

- The most vulnerable regions are northeast, Central India and Himalayan Belt of Uttarakhand &
Himachal Pradesh
» Northeast: 7 states of northeast account for 33% of total alerts in India.
• Reason: Slash and burn agriculture/ jhoom cultivation causes forest fire here.
Otherwise, the tropical evergreen forests are not likely to catch fire easily.
» Central India: Dry deciduous forest of central India catches fire easily.
» Himalayan belt is prone to such fires, especially when there is less rain in pre-monsoon period.
The Pine Forest in Garhwal and Kumaon hills are susceptible to forest fires more than any other
kind of forest.
- Temporal Distribution

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 » The vulnerability is highest between Feb and mid-June period. This is the period of hot and dry
weather when the soil moisture is at its lowest.

- Main Causes: Natural and Manmade

- Natural Causes
» Environmental conditions such as temperature, wind speed and directions, level of moisture in
soil and atmosphere and duration of dry spell. El-Nino which affects western disturbances,
reducing pre-monsoon rains cause warmer dryer climate and thus make our forests more
vulnerable to forest fires
» In very dry season events like lightening, volcanic eruption, sparks from rock falls etc. can cause
spontaneous combustion.
» Other natural cause is friction of bamboos swaying in high wind velocity.

- Human Related Causes: Forest Survey of India's technical study says that over 95% of fire incidents in
India are anthropogenic in nature. They can be intentional or unintentional
» Climate Change is increasing the vulnerability of forests to fire in the country. More heatwaves
in summers are leading to more forest fires. Fires may start by other causes
• The fires are further stoking further heating leading to a deadly cycle.
» Grazers and gatherers of various forest products starting small fires to obtain good grazing grass
as well as to facilitate gathering of minor forest produce like flowers of Madhuca Indica and
leaves of Diospyros melanoxylon.
» Use of Fire to ward off wild animals, for recreation, discarded cigarette buds.
» Shifting Cultivation/Jhum Cultivation (especially in NE region of India and parts of Andhra and
Orissa) is a major cause.
» Arson (e.g. by Timber Mafia), sparks from equipment, power line arcs etc.

- Effects of Forest Fires

» Economic Loss: In India, close to 1.7 lakh villages are located in the proximity of forests; the
livelihood of around 200 million people in India is dependent on fuelwood, bamboo, fodder, and
small timber.
» Environmental Loss:
▫ Loss of biodiversity and extinction of plants and animals.
§ Fire resistant plants are disproportionately promoted.
§ The area may also become vulnerable to
increased penetration of invasive
species.
▫ Loss of natural regeneration and reduction in
forest cover
▫ Source of pollutants including black carbon.
▫ Degradation in soil quality and soil erosion
impact the long-term productivity.
» Climate Change: As per EU's Copernicus Atmosphere
Monitoring Services (CAMS), in 2023, wildfires globally
released 7,330 million tonnes of CO2, which is only
lower than China's emissions (and higher than emission
by USA).

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 ▫ Climate change further leads to more intensive wildfire making it a loop.
» Change in the microclimate of the area with unhealthy living conditions
» Increase in man-wildlife conflict

- Forest fires are difficult to control

» Locality of the forest and access to it -> hurdles in firefighting efforts
• Difficult to transport heavy vehicles loaded with water into this forests.
» Shortage of staff -> specially during peak season.

- Role of Forest Survey of India (FSI) in Forest Fire Monitoring

» FSI has been assisting the forestry professionals in the country in many ways to deal with the
problems associated with forest fires by using the latest remote sensing and communication
technology.
» Following are some of FSI's initiatives:
i. Near Real Time (NRT) Forest Fire Alerts
§ FSI monitors forest fire events through satellites on two platforms - MODIS and
SNPP-VIIRS, both in collaboration with the US NASA and ISRO.
§ Forest Fire Alert 2.0 is the revamped alert system that was launched in Jan 2017.
ii. Forest Fire Pre-Warning Alerts
§ The alerts to state forest departments are based on parameters like Forest cover,
Forest type, Climatic Variables (Temperature and Rainfall) and recent fire
incidences over the area.
iii. Burnt Scar Studies
§ Assess the forest area affected by the forest fires to assess the damage to forest
and biodiversity as well as to plan restoration measures.

- In 2019 FSI report, Fire prone forest areas have been identified for the first time on a country-
wide level to help state forest departments make suitable strategies to fight forest fires.

- Other steps taken by India to tackle Forest Fires

» National Action Plan on Forest Fires (NAPFF), 2018
▫ Focuses on forest communities - enable them, engage them and empower them
to work with State Forest Department
▫ Focus on capacity building of forest personnel and institutions.
» Forest Fire Prevention and Management Scheme
▫ Centrally sponsored program to assist states in dealing with forest fires
» Initiatives to fight climate change
▫ NAPCC
▫ Renewable Energy Targets
- Way Forward: The needs of fire management
§ The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India, has prepared a National Master
Plan for Forest Fire Control. This plan proposes to introduce a well-coordinated and integrated
fire-management program that includes the following components:
i. Prevention of human-caused fires through education and environmental modification.
§ It will include silvicultural activities, engineering works, people participation, and
education and enforcement.

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 ii. Prompt detection of fires through a well-coordinated network of observation points,
efficient ground patrolling, and communication networks. Remote sensing technology is
to be given due importance in fire detection. For successful fire management and
administration, a National Fire Danger Rating System (NFDRS) and Fire Forecasting
System are to be developed in the country.
iii. Fast initial attack measures; Vigorous follow up action.
iv. Harness local expertise: Fire management should focus on prevention and not
suppression and tribal communities with traditional knowledge should be roped in for
effective management. In case of fire event, it is the locals who are first responders and
contribute to nipping the problem in its bud.
v. Introducing a forest fuel modification system at strategic points.
vi. Increasing Capacity:
§ Forest department's firefighting capabilities also needs to be strengthened both
in terms of human resource and technical know-how.
§ Special emphasis on research, training and development needs to be there
§ In long run, the global community will also need to move more aggressively towards achieving
Paris Climate goals.

- Conclusion
§ In an era of climate crisis and human encroachment into forest areas, it's time to learn form the
crises of the US and Australia and bolster the fire fighting infrastructure.
11. NEXT CLASS
- Tsunami, Earthquake, Landslide, Heatwaves, Droughts, Dam Safety, Biological Disaster, Oil Spills, Building
Collapse, Building Fires, Industrial accidents

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MAINS MASTER PROGRAM (MMP) 2024
DISASTER MANAGEMENT-2
1. TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. Table of Contents ..................................... 0 6. Drought .................................................. 10
2. LandSlides ................................................ 1 7. Dam Safety ............................................. 13
3. Tsunami ................................................... 2 8. Fire Safety .............................................. 16
4. Earthquake .............................................. 4 9. Chemical DIsaster ................................... 17
5. Heatwaves ............................................... 7

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2. LANDSLIDES
- Example Questions
» While the Himalayan region was always vulnerable to landslides, the recent years have seen
the peninsular hills also becoming increasingly prone to this natural disaster. Give reasons. What
are the NDMA guidelines for management of landslides? [15 marks, 250 words]

- Introduction
» Landslide is defined as the movement of a mass of rock, debris or earth down a slope. This is a
type of mass wasting, which denotes any down-slope movement of soil rocks under the direct
influence of gravity. The term "landslide" encompasses five modes of slope movement: Falls,
topples, slides, spreads, and flows.
» There are two landslide hotspots that exist in India - along the southern edge of the Himalayan
arc and the Western Ghats region.
- Key causes of landslides:
» Himalayas are prone to landslides because of several morphological and geological factors like:
▫ Tectonic movement
▫ Glacial movements
▫ Freeze and thaw effect
▫ Unstable rock structure
▫ Steep slopes etc.
§ Most regions with more than 20 degrees are prone to landslides.
▫ Types of rocks, weaknesses, zone of rupture etc.

» But in recent years, we have also seen the stable Peninsular Hills like in Western Ghats becoming
vulnerable because of the human made factors.
» Human Induced Causes
▫ Climate Change: Extreme Rainfall Events trigger slope failure where lateral spread and
soil piping have occurred.
§ For instance, unusually high rainfall in Kerala since Aug 2018 has destabilized the
already vulnerable hill slopes in the high ranges and has caused many landslides.
▫ Illegal Mining, deforestation etc have made the surface weak and vulnerable to
landslides
§ For e.g. the railways have blamed two successive landslides along their project
site in Manipur on the traditional practice of Jhum or shifting cultivation.
▫ Unscientific Farming and Construction Activities
§ UNDP's assessment after the 2018 flood says that changes in land cover, blocking
of natural drains, and poor agricultural practices such as monocropping have all
exacerbated the risk of landslides in Kerala.
▫ Illegal landgrab using fake deeds have contributed to unscientific land use and thus
landslides.
▫ Inadequate Early Warning Systems makes the impact of the disaster worse.

- Government Efforts and Way Forward” NDMA guidelines for management of Landslides
» Hazard mapping and vulnerability analysis:

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 ▫ Steps Taken: A national landslide susceptibility map has been created by Geological
Survey of India (GSI). This should be integrated with infrastructure development and
planning in hilly areas.
» Risk Reduction Efforts: Afforestation; banning mining in sensitive areas, sustainable forms
of agriculture etc.
» Establishing Early Warning System:
▫ Steps Taken: Union Ministry of Earth Science has also initiated steps to establish a
network of landslip monitoring stations in the highlands. The units which will be
based on acoustic emission technology will also have an early warning mechanism to
alert the local community
» Awareness Generation and preparedness among various stakeholders through setting up
of institutional mechanisms.
» Capacity Building to deal with Landslides
▫ Enhancing education and training of professionals involved in landslides
management.
▫ Capacity development of organizations working in the field of landslides
» Create an Autonomous National Centre for landslide studies research and management.

3. TSUNAMI
- Example Questions
▫ On December 2004, tsunami brought havoc in 14 countries including India. Discuss the factors
responsible for the occurrence of Tsunami and its effects on life and economy. In the light of
guidelines of NDMA (2010) describe the mechanisms for preparedness to reduce the risk during
such events. [15 marks, 250 words][CSM 2017]
▫ Discuss the key steps taken by India towards Tsunami Disaster Preparedness since the 2004
Tsunami? [10 marks, 150 words]

- Introduction
▫ The term Tsunami has been derived from the Japanese term 'Tsu' meaning harbour, and 'nami'
meaning waves. Thus, tsunami means 'harbour waves'.
▫ Tsunami consists of a series of waves which rise as high as 10 meters or more. They move inland,
sometimes several 100 kms and cause untold disasters. These waves can move at very high
speeds sometimes exceeding even 50 km/h on the coastal plains.

- 26th Dec 2004 Tsunami/Great Sumatran Andaman Earthquake /Asian Tsunami /Boxing Day Tsunami
» An undersea earthquake occurred on 26th Dec, 2004, with an epicenter off the west coast of
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Sumatra, Indonesia. The magnitude of the earthquake was between 9.1 to 9.3 on the Richter
scale, making it the second largest earthquake ever recorded on seismograph.
» It triggered the devastating Tsunami along the coasts of most of the countries bordering the
Indian Ocean and killed 2,25,000 people.

- Causes of Tsunami
1. Earthquake of more than 6.5 on the Richter Scale, with a vertical disruption of water column
due to vertical tectonic displacement of the sea bottom along a zone of fracture in the earth's
crust is the most important cause of Tsunami.

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 2. Volcanic Eruption, and submarine landslides are other reasons which may displace water and
cause it to inundate coastal region.
3. Nuclear Explosion, fall of large celestial bodies (like asteroid, meteorites, comets etc can also
cause Tsunami)

- Tsunami Detection
i. Different Ways to detect Tsunamis: A natural disaster like Tsunami can't be stopped, but early
warnings can help in saving people and containing the damage it can cause to a certain extent.
• Coastal tidal gauges
• Satellite technologies have now made it possible to detect tsunami genic earthquakes
almost immediately.
• Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis (DART) Project was developed by
the U.S. National Tsunami Hazard Mitigation Program. It strives an early Tsunami
detection and real time reporting capability.

ii. State Preparedness Measure Before Tsunami

§ Hazard Mapping: Identify Tsunami prone areas
§ Risk Reduction steps: Increasing afforestation (Mangroves etc) in coastal areas; Reducing
the population in coastal areas; creating infrastructure in coastal region which is flood
proof and Tsunami proof etc.
§ Early Warning System
§ Awareness Generation: Educate people in these regions about Tsunamis - inform them
about the evacuation routes in case a Tsunami hits the coast.
§ Mock Evacuation drills should be conducted periodically so that people are aware
of it
§ Capacity Building to deal with Tsunami disaster
§ Increased focus on R&D related to Tsunami and Tsunami response
§ International Cooperation for faster information sharing.

iii. Preparedness by citizens

§ Live at safe distance from coastline; in elevated houses; well managed drainage system;
easy access to information system like TV radio etc; following SOP during Tsunami.

iv. Tsunami Response

§ People on Land: After warning sound move to safer places with cattles (top floor of the
multi-storied buildings); stay away from rivers that flow into the oceans; Listen to radio
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and TV for updates regularly.

§ People on Sea: Don't return to coast; if time is available move to deeper waters;
§ Government: Search and rescue; basic services like water, first aid etc.

• Steps taken by India Since 2004 Tsunami: The 2004 Tsunami highlighted the clear lack of preparedness
about Tsunamis all over the world. None of the affected countries, including India had any system for
early warning of such Tsunamis, nor was there any plan for emergency response. Learning a lesson from
2004 Tsunami, GoI have taken a number of steps:
1. Early Warning System:

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 § GoI has established the state-of-art India Tsunami Early Warning Centre (ITEWC)
(operational since 2007) at the Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services
(INCOIS) as an autonomous body under Ministry of Earth Sciences.
§ INCOIS has extended GIS-based 3D protocol on Tsunami warning to all vulnerable areas
in the country with new methodologies and improved warning procedures.
2. Strengthening Tsunami Research has been a key focus of GoI since 2004.
3. National Disaster Management Guidelines for management of Tsunami, 2010
• The guidelines include a wide range of approach for strengthening the Tsunami
Preparedness and mitigation. It focuses on:
• Tsunami Warning System
• Capacity Building
• Education
• Building codes and Safety Standards
• Land Use planning and other engineering solution
• These guidelines are an important step towards comprehensive Tsunami Risk
Management in India.
4. Regular Mock Drills are conducted by NDMA, INCOIS and Ministry of Home Affairs
• These exercises help familiarize participants with their responsibilities, actions required
and further help them evaluate the Standard Operating Procedure (SOP) for Tsunami
warnings.
5. Awareness generation programs in coastal area is also conducted regularly since 2004.

- Steps that we further needs to take

» Improve EWS: Advanced technology such as Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning should
be incorporated to improve the Early Warning System in the country.
» Increased International Collaboration in real time monitoring will help support each other
during emergencies.
• BIMSTEC can play a very important role in promoting this collaboration in Bay of Bengal
region.
» Regular training and Capacity building through workshops, drills etc. can help us avoid the
2004 scenario.
» Land use planning is one area which has been mostly ignored
• There is a requirement of more vegetation cover in coastal region, but various studies
have shown that mangrove cover has gone down over the years
» Removing the limitations of India's disaster management institutional framework

4. EARTHQUAKE

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- Introduction
» India lies at the northwestern end of the Indo-
Australian Plate, which encompasses India,
Australia, a major portion of the Indian Ocean and
other smaller countries.
» The major reason for the high frequency and
intensity of earthquakes is that Indian plate is
driving into Asia at a rate of approximately 47
mm/year.
» According to NDMA, about 59% of India's land
could face moderate to severe earthquakes.

- Different zones
• Bureau of Indian Standards, based on the past
seismic history, grouped the country into four
seismic zones, viz. Zone-2, Zone-3, Zone-4 and
Zone-5. Of these, Zone 5, is the most seismically
active region, while zone 2 is the least.

- Causes of Earthquakes
» The important causes of earthquakes can be divided into two categories: Natural and Manmade
i. Natural Causes
1. Tectonic Movements
2. Volcanic Activities
3. Adjustment in the inner rocks beds (Plutonic Earthquakes)
§ Adjustment between Sima and Sial in the interior of the earth's crust.

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 4. Pressure of Gases in the interior
§ The expansion and contraction of gases in the interior of the earth
sometimes cause a sudden shake on the earth's surface
5. Other causes
§ Landslides and avalanches
§ Denudation of landmasses and deposition of materials
ii. Man-made causes
1. Dams: Impounding of large quantity of water behind the dams disturb the crustal
balance and can cause earthquakes
2. Nuclear Bombs
§ The shockwaves through the rocks set up by underground testing of Atom
bombs or Hydrogen bombs may be severe enough to cause an
earthquake.
iii. Causes which make India very vulnerable
§ Fragile built environment (Similar sized earthquake in Japan or USA will cause
much smaller damage)

- Consequences of Earth Quakes

» Human and livestock loss
» Damage to Property
» Tsunamis
» Change in river course - floods
» Fountain of muds
» Landslides

- NDMA Guidelines for Management of Earthquake: Six Pillars of Earthquake Management in India
a. Ensure the incorporation of earthquake resistant design features for the construction of new
structures.
b. Facilitate selective strengthening and seismic retrofitting of existing priority and lifeline
structures in earthquake-prone areas.
c. Improve the compliance regime through appropriate regulation and enforcement.
d. Improve the awareness and preparedness of all stakeholders.
e. Introduce appropriate capacity development interventions for effective earthquake
management (including education, training, R&D, and documentation).
f. Strengthen the emergency response capability in earthquake-prone areas

- Earthquake hazard Reduction and Mitigations

§ Earthquake is a natural phenomenon which is difficult to prevent and therefore we can only
prepare for the earthquake and post-earthquake response. The foreknowledge of potential
danger areas can help mitigate the impact of a disaster.

- Steps that needs to be taken

» Short Term Steps:
1. Preparing Vulnerability Map of the country
2. Infrastructure improvement for Risk Reduction:

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 Implementing Building Codes: Municipalities need to ensure that BIS codes and
§
guidelines are properly being followed in new buildings.
§ The lifeline buildings which have been built in the past and are not earthquake
resistant needed to be upgraded by retrofitting techniques
§ Improving building code through a new architecture regime and this be made
mandatory for all builders and developers.
3. Strengthening Early Waring Infrastructure -> for providing those crucial extra seconds
of a minute in disaster scenario.
4. Educating people through dissemination of information about the ways and means of
minimizing the adverse impacts of earthquakes. Dissemination of techniques such as
'Drop, Cover and Hold' is very important reducing the loss of life during earthquakes.
• Community preparedness is very important for dealing with earthquake. Most
of the time it is the community which plays the first hand role in disaster situation
and therefore they have to be given proper training regarding search and rescue
as well.
• Community should have a disaster emergency kit ready for disaster situation
• Community also needs to participate in planning, implementation and
monitoring process of any method being used

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5. Strengthening Institutional Framework -> Shortage of manpower in SDRF and NDRF

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should be rectified. Local governments, NGOs etc also need to be prepared for post
disaster response especially in vulnerable areas.

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» Long Term steps:
1. International Collaboration
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• We should collaborate with other countries in development of earthquake
resistant infrastructure. Our collaboration with countries like Japan will be very
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crucial in enhancing our preparedness for earthquakes.

2. Decongesting of Cities to reduce risk and vulnerabilities
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3. Research and Development to find new technologies for improved warning and reduce
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losses.
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- Conclusion
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» Earthquake may not yet be predictable and certainly not preventable, still if effective and timely
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steps are taken, the adverse impact of Earthquakes can be considerably blunted.
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5. HEATWAVES
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- Why in news?
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» In July 2024, Kashmir grappled with a rare heatwave triggered by day temperature that runs six
degree Celsius above normal temperature

- Example Questions
» What are heat waves? Suggest a strategy to reduce India's vulnerability to heatwaves. [15 marks,
250 words]
- Definition
» A heat wave is a period of abnormally high temperatures, more than the normal maximum
temperature that occurs during the summer season usually in the north-western parts of India.
In India, heat waves typically occur between March and June, and in some rare cases extend till
July.

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 » Indian Meteorological Department (IMD) has given following criteria for heat waves.
§ Maximum Temperature of at least 40 degree Celsius for Plains, 37 degree Celsius for
coastal regions and atleast 30 degree Celsius for hilly regions.
» Following conditions are used declare heat waves:
a. Based on Departure from Normal
§ Heat Wave: Departure from normal is 4.5 degree to 6.4 degree
§ Severe Heat Wave: Departure from normal is > 6.4 degree

b. Based on Actual Maximum Temperature (for plains only)

§ Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature >= 45 degree Celsius
§ Severe Heat Wave: When actual maximum temperature >= 47 degree Celsius.
- Note: Heat wave has not been notified as a disaster by the Government of India yet and hence is not
eligible for relief under National/State Disaster Response Fund norms.

- Increasing cases of Heat Waves in India: According to Lancet Report, India faced 60 million heatwave
exposure events in 2016, a rise from 40 million exposures in 2012. Similarly, the average length of heat
waves in India ranged from 3-4 days, which is more than double of global average of 0.8 - 1.8 days. The
key factors responsible for this are:
» Climate change -> higher temperatures: According to a report by UNICEF "The Coldest year of
the Rest of Their Lives" - nearly every child will face frequent heatwaves by 2050.
» Sparser Pre Monsoon shower and Delayed Monsoon: This whether pattern coupled with El-
Nino effect, which often increases temperature in Asia, combine to create the record high
temperatures.
» The Loo (hot and dry winds) originating from Pakistan and Northwest India, has also
contributed to increasing temperature in India.
» Urbanization and its problems like Urban Heat Island (UHI) Effect exacerbates the problem of
heat wave in many parts of our country.
» Decreasing Tree Covers -> concrete jungles, land heats up more.
» Decreasing water bodies like lakes, ponds etc.

- Impact of Heatwaves
» Health Impacts: Prolonged exposure to heatwaves can result into dehydration, cardiovascular
diseases, respiratory diseases and even death. Children, elderlies and those with pre-existing
morbidities are particularly vulnerable.
§ According the NDMA, more than 24,000 people have died in India due to heat waves
between 1992-2015.
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» Economic Loss: According to Lancet, the output of workforce in India declined by 7%, equivalent
to 75 billion labor hours every year.
» Worsening of air pollution problems: -> increased electricity use -> more fuel burned.
» Social Impacts:
§ Vulnerable sections like daily wage earners, farm labourers, women etc are
disproportionately affected by extreme heat, largely because of unequal power
dynamics and unequal access to resources.
§ Heatwave is limiting the time children are engage with their peers and the world around
them through play.

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- Steps Taken So Far
» The IMD has regularly issued heat wave warnings in different parts of the country to make
people aware of the worsening situation.
» The NDMA has suggested things like covering of head, cross-ventilating rooms and sleeping
under a slightly wet sheets.
» Heat Action Plans (HAPs) have been prepared by governments at various level - state, district,
city etc. HAPs aim to increase preparedness and lower the adverse impacts of extreme heat by
outlining strategies and measures to prepare for, address, and recover from heatwaves.

- NDMA's revised guidelines for prevention and management of Heat Waves in India (Oct 2019)
§ Aim/Objective
§ The guideline aims to provide framework for developing Heat Action Plans for
implementation, inter-agency coordination and impact evaluation of heat wave
response activities in cities/towns.

§ Developing a Heat-wave Plans

§ Generating heat wave risk and vulnerability map and mapping hotspots for developing a
strategic mitigation action plan.
• The Scope of heatwave needs to be expanded to accommodate humid heat and warmer
nights in addition to extreme dry heat. This requires development of heat index that
accounts for multiple factors beyond temperature.
• Identifying Vulnerable Population - elderlies, pregnant women, chronic disease patient,
resident of a particular type of housing, certain type of occupations etc.
• Identification and Evaluation of factors leading to disproportionate increase in
temperature in the city

§ Risk Reduction Measures:

• Reducing Temperature in the cities through vertical gardens, small parks with water
fountains, increased afforestation etc.
• Curb Future UHI manifestation by incorporating findings from the built environment
assessment
• Adhere to city building codes.
• Other Steps: Reviewing the existing occupational health standards, labor laws, and
sector regulation for worker's safety.
§ Special focus on farm laborers as the agricultural sector was more vulnerable
compared to the industrial and service sectors because workers there were more
likely to be exposed to heat.

§ Establish Early Warning System and Communication Systems

§ Making communities more aware and resilient to after effects of the heatwaves.
§ Capacity Building for better response
• Preparedness at the local level for health eventualities.
• Health care system capacity building
• Developing inter-agency response plan and coordination in the field.
• Collaboration with private and Non-Government and Civil Society

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 § Coordinate with Research institutions for better built environment.
• Government budget should allocate funds for R&D in this field

§ International Cooperation: Internationally, the global community should work towards

achieving the climate change mitigation goals by working towards Paris Climate targets and
making the NDCs more ambitious.

- Other Steps that can be taken:

» Response:
§ Ensuring quick advanced communication and guidelines during heatwave condition.
§ Drinking water supply should be increased along the roadside during heatwave
conditions
§ Health facilities should respond with all the relevant facilities.
6. DROUGHT
- Important Quotes:
§ "Indians know that the Monsoon is the real finance minister of India" - Environmental Activists
Sunita Narain

- Intro: Drought is a period of below average precipitation in a given region, resulting in prolonged
shortages of its water supply, whether atmospheric, surface water or ground water. A drought can last
for months or for years.

- Types of droughts
» Meteorological drought is brought about when there is a prolonged time with less than average
precipitation. Meteorological drought usually precedes other kinds of drought.
» Agricultural droughts are droughts that affect crop production or ecology of the range. They are
caused by shortfall in water available to the crops. It can be caused by extended period of low
precipitation, poor water management, soil erosion or other such situations.
» Hydrological drought is brought about when water reserves available in sources such as
aquifers, rivers, lakes and reservoirs fall below the statistical average. Hydrological drought tend
to show up more slowly because it involves stored water that is used but not replenished. Like
an agricultural drought this can be triggered by more than just a loss of rainfall.
» Socioeconomic droughts occur when water shortage starts to impact people's lives, individually
and collectively.

• Causes
§ Natural Factors
§ Precipitation deficiency
• El Nino Southern Oscillation: All the severe meteorological and hydrological
droughts between 1870-2018 were found to be caused due to positive phase of
ENSO (El Nino Southern Oscillation)
• Indian Ocean Dipole Effect (IOD): IOD, also known as the Indian Nino is an
irregular oscillation of sea-surface temperature, in which the Western Indian
Ocean becomes alternately warmer and then colder than the eastern part of
the ocean, affecting the Indian monsoon

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 • Lack of pre-Monsoon shower. For e.g. in 2019, India witnessed the second driest
pre-monsoon season in 65 years.
§ Dry Season
§ Land Degradation - Desertification, erosion etc.

§ Anthropological factors
§ Poor water management
• Subsidies on equipment and electricity usage has encouraged over-exploitation
of ground water.
• Surfeit of dams have wreaked havoc on riverine system.
• Poor rainwater conservation - Currently India captures only 8% of its rainfall - one
of the lowest in the world.
§ Too much focus on water consuming power generation (like coal based power plants)
§ Agricultural inefficiencies - Agriculture consumes more than 90% of India's water use.
80% of this water is used for water guzzling crops like rice, wheat and sugarcane. Further,
less penetration of technologies like drip irrigation and other forms of micro-irrigation
also leads to inefficient water utilization.
§ Improper and Unsustainable implementations of Watershed Development Programs
§ Water pollution: - India ranks 120th among 122 countries in a global water quality index.
§ Climate Change - The global temperature is already higher by more than 1 degree Celsius
from the pre-industrial era. This has also contributed in the spell of drought in India. For
instance, drought continued in India post 2016 despite a change from El-Nino conditions
due to climate change.

• Impacts of Droughts in India:

i. Physical - Geographical-Environmental Impact:
• Meteorological drought adversely affects the recharge of soil moisture, surface runoffs
and ground water. Rivers, lakes, ponds etc. tend to dry up.
• Exacerbates ground water extraction and depletion
• Increases water and soil pollution - for instance deeper borewell have higher chances of
arsenic and fluoride contamination.
ii. Economic Impact: According to MoEF&CC - desertification, land degradation and drought cost
India nearly 2.5% of GDP every year.
iii. Impact on Agriculture - Large percentage of agriculture rain dependent -> reduction in agri
output
• shortage of food and other agri-produce -> inflation
• Reduced farmers income -> increased farmer distress -> increased farmer suicide
iv. Other Economic and Social Impacts
• Water Security: Scarcity of drinking water -> Health issues
• Energy supply may get impacted if the country increases its dependency on
hydropower. (Note: India gets 17% of its electricity from Hydropower)
• Loss of livelihood -> unemployment -> Poverty -> Distress migration to cities, sale of
property & livestock
• Slowing down of secondary and tertiary activities due to fall in agricultural production
and decline in purchasing power.

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 • Increasing inequality -> Drought hampers weaker section of society including farmers,
landless workers, weavers, artisans etc.
• Social stress and tension, disruption of social institutions and increase in social crime
§ Growth in superstition, increasing belief in supernatural powers etc.
v. Increased inter-state and International river water dispute -
• e.g. the Cauvery water dispute between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu exacerbated during
less rainfall year.
• E.g. the disputes between India and China for the water distribution of 10 major rivers
originating in Tibet

- Drought Relief Measures / Coping with droughts

§ Management of drought has now been outlined in much elaborate manner in the drought
manual issued by the ministry of Agriculture:
• Drought Monitoring;
• Contingency Crop Planning;
• Relief Employment;
• Water Resource Management
• Food Security: It is provided through food for work programs etc.
• Relief through tax waivers and concessions
• Cattle Camp and Fodder Supply
• Health and Hygiene

- Way Forward
» Scientific mapping of Drought Prone areas
» Reducing the risk of droughts:
▫ Holistic and sustainable development of watershed;
▫ Improved water use efficiency in Agriculture: Awareness, Micro-Irrigation; Changes in
cropping patter; rationalize electricity charges.
▫ Conservation of rainwater in both urban and rural areas;
▫ Recycling of waste water
▫ Properly implement building codes to promote conservation and recycling.
▫ Afforestation activities can increase water retaining capacity of the soil and also
increases the chance of rainfall.
» Developing a robust mechanism of EWS in drought prone areas.
▫ This will also require a robust methodology for drought declaration.
» Awareness Generation: Mission LIFE which promote sustainability among masses can go a long
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way in promoting water conservation and sustainable water utilization.

» Capacity building of institutions to respond to drought situation in an holistic manner.
» More Research and Development:
▫ Effective Prediction of drought
▫ Promoting less water use in washing machines, car washes etc.
▫ Affordable, water conserving desalination plants.
» Paris Agreement Targets
▫ The global efforts towards achieving "Net Zero" emission needs to be intensified to fight
climate change in long run.
- Conclusion:

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 » By adopting a holistic approach which includes hazard mapping, drought risk reduction efforts,
developing a mechanism of EWS, people's participation, scientific advancements in desalination
etc, India can reduce its vulnerability to the frequent occurrence of droughts in different parts
of the country.

7. DAM SAFETY
- Why in news?
» In Oct 2023, Sikkim's highest Dam (Teesta-III Dam at Chungthang) was washed away after an
GLOF which raised doubts about hydropower projects being developed in the country (Oct 2023)
§ Various reports have since revealed that there were no EWS, no risk assessment or
preventive measures in place as required under the 2021 Dam Safety Act.
- Example Questions
» Discuss the key provisions of the Dam Safety Act 2021. How far does it go in ensuring structural
and operational safety of dams [12.5 marks, 200 words]
» What are the key concerns related to Dam Safety in India? How far will the Dam Safety Act, 2021
be able to resolve these concerns? [10 marks, 150 words]

- Introduction
» Dams play a crucial role in the development of the country by supplying water for irrigation,
flood control, and energy generation. India has 6,000 large dams in operation (which is third
highest in the world). Further, around 4,00 large dams are under various phase of construction.
» However, a poorly maintained and ill-operated dam can become a source of threat not only for
human life and infrastructure, but also for the environment. Therefore, there has been a long
felt need of a uniform law and administrative structure in the country for the purpose of dam
safety.

- Key concerns associated with Dam Safety in India

» Very Old Dams: around 4% (227) of large dams are more than 100 years old and 80% are more
than 25 years old.
» Earthquake prone areas: Dams in Himalayas and other earthquake prone areas are under
constant threat.
» History of accidents: India has faced 36 major dam failure in the past, the worst one of
Machchhu Dam (Gujarat) in 1979 in which about 2000 people had died.
» Inadequacies in maintaining Dam health and Safety:
§ Poor Implementation of the existing safety provisions under DAM Safety Act, 2021
§ A report by CAG has found that the structural strength of 348 large dams are suspect
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and they have not been inspected for over a decade.

§ Similarly, the world bank report on Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project
(DRIP) indicates that the implementation of the program has been moderately
unsatisfactorily.

- Institutional Framework/Programs/Schemes dealing with dam safety in India

» The Central Water Commission, Ministry of Jal Shakti through the National Committee on Dam
Safety (NCDS), NDSO, SDSCO etc has been making constant endeavours in the direction of Dam
Safety.

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 » Dam Rehabilitation and Improvement Project (DRIP) is being implemented by Ministry of Jal
Shakti with assistance from World Bank.
§ The main objectives of DRIP are:
a. TO improve the safety performance of selected existing dams (223 dams across
7 states) in a sustainable manner
b. To strengthen the dam safety institutional set up in participating states as well as
at central level.
§ The seven DRIP states are - Uttarakhand, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand, Odisha,
Karnataka, Kerala and TN.
» The Dam Health & Rehabilitation Monitoring Application (DHARMA)
§ It is a webtool/app which is focused on digitizing dam related data effectively. It will help
in easy identification of vulnerable dams and ensure need based rehabilitation.
» Ministry of Power and DRDO have signed an MoU for vulnerable Hydro Projects/ Power
Stations in Hilly Areas
§ Under this they would work jointly together towards developing suitable mitigation
measures against avalanches, landslides, glaciers, glacial lakes, and other geo-hazards
§ For vulnerable projects in hilly areas, expertise of DRDO will be used for developing
comprehensive EWS.

- Dam Safety Act, 2021

» The act is aimed at helping states and UTs to adopt uniform safety procedure and thus ensure
safety of the dams. It also gives statutory backing to various dam safety institutions and provides
for strict punishment in case of the violation of the law.

» It provides for surveillance, inspection, and maintenance of all specified dams across the
country.
§ These dams are with height more than 15 meters, or height between 10 meters to 15
meters but with certain design and structural principle.
§ The act establishes a robust Institutional Framework for Dam Safety:
• It sets up two national bodies
i. The National Committee on DAM SAFETY which would evolve policies
and recommend regulations regarding dam safety.
ii. The National Dam Safety Authority which would implement policies of
the National Committee, provide technical assistance to State Dam Safety
Organizations (SDSO) and resolve matters (dispute resolution) between
SDSOs of states or between SDSOs and Dam Owners.

• The law also sets up two state bodies

i. State Committee on Dame Safety which will review work of SDSO, order
Dam Safety Investigation, recommend dam safety measures and review
the progress of such measures.
ii. State Dam Safety Organization (SDSO) will be responsible for
surveillance, inspection, monitoring, operation, maintenance and
investigation of dams.

§ Jurisdiction over dams

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 § All specified dams will fall under jurisdiction of the SDSO of the state in which dam is
situated.
§ For dams owned by CPSU or which extends in two or more states or when a dam owned
by one state is situated in other state, NDSA will have the jurisdiction and will play the
role of SDSO.

§ What are states required to do?

§ Provisions require states to classify dams based on hazard risk, conduct regular
inspections, create emergency action plan, institute emergency flood warning systems,
undertake safety reviews and period risk assessment studies.

§ Duties and Functions of DAM owners ( sufficient funds, trained manpower, dam safety units to
conduct regular inspections, mandatory presence of engineers during floods and emergency,
install emergency flood warning system; carry out risk assessment at regular intervals)

§ Comprehensive DAM Safety Evaluation (CSE)

§ The act provides for comprehensive safety evaluation by independent panel of experts
at regular intervals.
§ Offences and Penalties for violation of provisions

- Analysis of the act : Key challenges/Limitations

» Jurisdiction of Parliament on the issue (Entry 17 of the State List read with Entry 56 of the
Union List, gives powers to state to make laws on water supply, irrigation and canals, drainage
and embankments, storage etc for intra state rivers) .
» The functions of the NCDS, NDSA, SCDS are listed in the schedule of the act which can be
modified by government through notification. Experts have raised concerns over this kind of
overwhelming powers with central government.
» States Raising Concerns regarding NDSA having jurisdiction over dams owned by one state but
situated in others. Some states feel that this takes away rights of states over their dams.
• Note: TN own dams in the state of Kerala (in Mullaperiyar, Parambikulam, Tunakadavu,
and Peruvaripallam)
» States lack technical capability to really implement the act in terms of number of trained
personnel's, engineers etc.
§ The Sikkim GLOF reveals poor compliance at all levels of dam safety, from the dam's
design to the spillway capacity.
» Environment Impact ignored: The act des not contain any norms which relates to
environmental impact in the upstream and downstream of the rivers.
» Lack of focus on operational safety (like rate of filling or rate of water release) could lead to
continuance of cases of Dam induced floods (e.g. Kerala floods, 2018)

- Other problems related to Dam

» Lack of coordination between states leads to faulty management of dams.
§ For e.g., the recent floods in Odisha was caused by faulty management of Hirakud Dam.
One of the reasons for it was lack of information from Chhattisgarh to Odisha regarding
the flow of water.

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 - Way forward
» Set up the institutional framework envisaged under the law: Dam Safety Policy should be
finalized quickly to act as a guiding principle towards protection of Dams.
» Promote More transparency: Dam Safety is a public purpose and thus everything about dame
safety, functions of institutions, their reports, decision minutes and agendas, everything should
be promptly available to public.
» Human Resource development: We will need huge human resource for ensuring that trained
people man dams, engineers are available for inspection and monitoring, emergency action plan
etc.
» Land use plans should have dam safety issues integrated in it.
» Operational Safety and Environment Impact needs to be better integrated in the act and any
future policies.
» Increased coordination between states:
§ E.g. of the United States web-based integrated risk management tool called Dam Sector
Analysis tool. The tool was developed using variables from dam failure models and
decision support systems, which enables the software to project downstream risk in the
case of a dam failure.
- Conclusion:
» India's first prime minister, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, had referred to dams as the 'temples of
modern India'. These temples would remain a boon, only if all the stakeholders work towards
eliminating risks associated with Dam Safety.

8. FIRE SAFETY
- Introduction: Context Based:
» Two fire accidents in May 2024, one in Delhi's private nursing home killing 8 people and another
in Game zone in Gujarat killing 33 people have highlighted the vulnerability of Indian cities to
fire accidents.
- Institutional Framework/Initiatives for fire safety in India:
» Fire Service is a state subject in India and has been included as municipal function in the 12th
schedule of the constitution. The municipal corporations and local bodies are responsible for
providing fire services in many states.
» Part 4 of the National Building Code, 2016 is titled 'Fire Safety and Life Safety' and covers
requirements for fire prevention, life safety in relation to fire and fire protection of buildings.
» Model Building Bylaws, 2003 also provides provisions related to fire safety, including the
approval of building plan by Chief Fire Office.
» "Scheme for Expansion and Modernization of Fire Services in the States" - Launched by
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Ministry of Home Affairs in July 2023.

• It has a total outlay of Rs 5,000 crores.
• Objective of the scheme is to modernize Fire Services within National Disaster Response
Fund (NDRF) with a view that activities for strengthening of fire services at the state-
level through preparedness and capacity building component of the NDRF will be
ensured.
- Kee reasons for Increasing fire accident cases:
» Poor implementation of fire safety norms in buildings:
§ Fire safety is not given high priority in building plans.

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 § Poor compliance, specially in older buildings in the form of non-compliant structures,
lack of precautionary maintenance like upkeep of extinguishers etc; gross overlook of
safety procedures such as evacuation drills etc.
§ E.g. in May 2024 hospital fire in Delhi, emergency exits were absent, fire extinguishers
were non functioning, lack of operational fire alarm.
» Increasing Fire-Load of Indian Buildings: An IIT Gandhinagar study has found that fire load in
Indian cities today is 3 times of what was seen in late 1990s. It is due to use of false ceiling panel,
electrical equipment, plastic door etc.
» Electrical issues: Faulty wiring, overloaded circuits, substandard wires and equipment etc are
major initiators of fire accidents.
» Negligence and human errors: Improper handling of inflammables; unsafe practices like cooking
near inflammables etc.
» Unplanned Cities: Hanging wires, storage of inflammable material, blocked pathways etc are
common in various parts of the Indian cities making them highly vulnerable to fire accidents.
• Small-crowded streets, unplanned colonies, narrow streets, incorrect parking, crowded
markets etc. make it difficult for fire-brigade trucks difficult to reach the accident sites
» Fire Safety audits lack legal backing: Absence of clear provisions in any of the safety legislations
regarding the scope, objective, methodology and periodicity of fire safety audits.
» Deficiency of resources in Urban Local Bodies: Thus ULBs in India are ill equipped in providing
adequate fire safety cover to the population.
» Climate Change is also causing high temperatures and very dry weather. It increases the chance
of fire accidents.

- Way Forward
» Comprehensive Risk-Assessment of our cities
» Fire Safety has to imbibed in the process from the planning phase
▫ Step to make fire safety a necessary part of B-Arch is a step in the right direction.
» Strict implementation of the National Building Code, 2016
▫ NBC is a detailed set of guidelines for the construction, maintenance and operation of
buildings of all kinds (residential, educational, institutional, assembly, mercantile,
industrial, business, etc.) and includes a separate and comprehensive chapter on fire and
life safety.
▫ The National Building Code specifies, for instance, how many exits should be provided
in a specific kind of building and where they must be placed.
» Reducing the fire-load of Indian Buildings: Building should be constructed with fire-resistant/
retardant materials and there should be provisions for smoke detection systems and fire alarms.
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» Awareness Generation among masses: Through firefighting workshops periodically in localities,

schools, etc; Focus on how to handle inflammable material, why good quality wiring is crucial
etc.
» Empowering local bodies with more resources and modernization of fire departments for quick
response.
» Legal backing to mandatory FSA: It should provide for scope, methodology and periodicity
» R&D for developing for developing affordable, aesthetic and fireproof building material.

9. CHEMICAL DISASTER
- Introduction

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 » Chemical disaster includes accidental release of toxic chemicals into the environment, resulting
in death or injury to workers or members of nearby communities.
• E.g.
§ Bhopal Gas Tragedy of 1984 - release of methyl isocyanate from the Chemical
plant in Bhopal - killed at least 2,000 people.
§ Vizag gas leak of May 2020 - release of styrene gas from a Chemical Plant in Vizag
- killed at least 12 people.
» Industrial accidents include chemical disasters as well as other machine
failures/blasts/mishappening in various industries. Gas leak, explosive blasts etc are included in
it.

- Institutional Mechanisms to deal with Chemical Disasters in India

i. Ministry of Environment and Forest (MoEF) is the nodal Ministry for the management of
chemical disaster.
ii. NDMA has prepared guidelines to direct various ministries, department and state authorities
for the preparation of disaster management plans.

- Factors that make India more Vulnerable to Chemical Disaster

i. Non Availability of Accident Investigation Agency in India and Exclusive Chemical Accident
Database
§ They would have played an important role in learning lessons from past and investigate
the root cause of the accidents and prevent its recurrence.

ii. Industrial Factors

§ Lack of modernization in Industries and poor maintenance of equipment
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§ e.g. In Vizag gas leak, the tank was an old one without adequate temperature
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monitoring apparatus
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§ Design Defects
• A lot of times even the new machines don't satisfy all the regulatory mechanisms
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and lead to chemical leaks and accidents

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§ Poor training of workforce - Human errors cause industrial accidents.

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• This also results due to poor implementation of regulatory mechanisms.

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§ Lack of focus on out-of-factory disasters

• e.g. there is almost no mechanism to deal with leakage in case it happens during
transportation.
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§ Poor Disposal Mechanism

• Hazardous waste processing and its proper disposal needs special attention as
these activities can also contribute to fire, explosions and toxic releases to the
environment.
iii. Regulatory Inefficiencies - For instance, LG Polymers which accidently released styrene gas, was
also operating without requisite environment clearance.
iv. Terrorism and sabotage: In the last two decades, threat of terrorism has also become a major
worry in preventing chemical disasters.
v. Natural Disasters which have also increased in frequency may also lead to chemical disasters

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 § e.g. Fukushima nuclear leak or the recent fire in chemical industry in Texas during
Cyclone
vi. High Population density especially around industrial hubs

• Prevention and Response

§ As far as chemical accidents are concerned, proactive approach and prevention is way better
than the reactive approach. Each of the following stakeholders can play a role:
i. Role of Industry
1. Identification of Hazardous Activities
• A knowledgeable and dedicated team of qualified professionals to
evaluate the hazards and risks arising from the day to day activities is
essential.
2. Maintenance of Plant Facilities and Equipment
• Proper maintenance
• Regular site safety and health inspection needs to be carried out to ensure
that the plant facility is safe and all the equipment's are operating at the
intended method.
3. Installation of vapor/gas detection system
4. Compliance with existing rules and regulations
• Various rules and regulations of the state and centre government should
be strictly adhered for a sustainable and safe process
5. Development of Human Resource Management
6. Emergency Preparedness
• The industry must have a good emergency response team that can react
swiftly to mitigate propagating disasters.
ii. Role of Government
1. Strictly enforcing all the safeguards
2. Setting up of accident investigation Board and Chemical Accident Database
• An accident investigation board in similar lines of Chemical Safety Board
of USA can be set up in India to investigate the chemical disaster and bring
out guidelines based on the lessons learn in each accident would be
helpful in preventing the recurrence.
3. Awareness Campaign
• Awareness regarding hazards arising out of a chemical disaster to the
workers as well as public.
• A good knowledge about the hazards by the workers themselves would
help in reducing unsafe acts as well as in tackling the disaster if it were to
happen.
4. Research and Development
• R&D towards newer technologies that can minimize the toxicity of the by-
products of chemical industries can be carried out by the government.
5. Offsite Emergency Planning
6. Dealing with transportation of Hazardous Chemicals
• Swift and timely availability of emergency response for disaster during
transportation of hazardous chemical will help in mitigating and rescue
the public involved.

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iii. Role of Public
1. A general awareness of the risk associated with any chemical accident would help
in reducing the outcome of the accident.
2. A mutual aid group can be set up to organize the general public in case of any
disaster and provide training and awareness about the potential actions to be
taken in case of chemical leakage.
iv. Some other suggestions by Committee to investigate Vizag gas leak
§ Environment should be included in 'Concurrent List' of the Constitution of India.
This will empower states to enact laws according to the requirements (local
conditions, pollution problems etc.)

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