Overview

Last week we introduced the notion of an abstract vector space, and we

saw that apparently different sets like polynomials, continuous functions,
and symmetric matrices all satisfy the 10 axioms defining a vector space.
We also discussed subspaces, subsets of a vector space which are vector
spaces in their own right. To any linear transformation between vector
spaces, one can associate two special subspaces:
the kernel
the range.

Today we’ll talk about linearly independent vectors and bases for abstract
vector spaces. The definitions are the same for abstract vector spaces as
for Euclidean space, so you may find it helpful to review the material
covered in 1013.

(Lay, §4.3, §4.4)

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 1 / 18

Linear independence

Definition (Linear Independence)

A set of vectors {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } in a vector space V is said to be linearly
independent if the vector equation

c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + cp vp = 0 (1)

has only the trivial solution, c1 = c2 = · · · = cp = 0.

Definition
The set {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } is said to be linearly dependent if it is not linearly
independent, i.e., if there are some weights c1 , c2 , . . . , cp , not all zero,
such that (1) holds.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 2 / 18

Here’s a recipe for proving a set of vectors {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } is linearly
independent:
1 Write the equation

c1 v1 + c2 v2 + · · · + cp vp = 0.

2 Manipulate the equation to prove that all the ci = 0. Done!

3 If you find a different solution, then you’ve instead proven that the set
is linearly dependent.

!
If you start by assuming the ci are all zero, you can’t prove anything!

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 3 / 18

Example 1
Show that the vectors 2x + 3, 4x 2 , and 1 + x are linearly independent in
P2 .

1 Set a linear combination of the given vectors equal to 0:

a(2x + 3) + b(4x 2 ) + c(1 + x ) = 0.
2 Now manipulate the equation to see what coefficients are possible:
(3a + c) + (2a + c)x + 4bx 2 = 0.
This implies
3a + c = 0
2a + c = 0
4b = 0
But the only solution to this system is a = b = c = 0, so the given
vectors are linearly independent.
Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 4 / 18
Span of a set
Example 2
Consider the plane H illustrated below:

Which of the following are valid descriptions of H?

(a) H = Span {v1 , v2 } (b) H = Span {v1 , v3 }
(c) H = Span {v2 , v3 } (d) H = Span {v1 , v2 v3 }
Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 5 / 18
The spanning set theorem
Definition
Let H be a subspace of a vector space V . An indexed set of vectors
B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } in V is a basis for H if
(i) B is a linearly independent set, and
(ii) the subspace spanned by B equals H:

H = Span {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp }.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 6 / 18

The spanning set theorem
Definition
Let H be a subspace of a vector space V . An indexed set of vectors
B = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } in V is a basis for H if
(i) B is a linearly independent set, and
(ii) the subspace spanned by B equals H:

H = Span {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp }.

Theorem (The spanning set theorem)

Let S = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp } be a set in V , and let H = Span {v1 , v2 , . . . , vp }.

(a) If the vector vk in S is a linear combination of the remaining vectors

of S, then the set formed from S by removing vk still spans H.
(b) If H 6= {0}, some subset of S is a basis for H.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 6 / 18

Example 3
Find a basis for P2 which is a subset of S = {1, x , 1 + x , x + 3, x 2 }.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 7 / 18

Example 3
Find a basis for P2 which is a subset of S = {1, x , 1 + x , x + 3, x 2 }.

First, let’s check if we have any hope: does S span P2 ?

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 7 / 18

Example 3
Find a basis for P2 which is a subset of S = {1, x , 1 + x , x + 3, x 2 }.

First, let’s check if we have any hope: does S span P2 ?

The spanning set theorem says that if any vector in S is a linear
combination of the other vectors in S, we can remove it without changing
the span.

Span {1, x , 1 + x , x + 3, x 2 } = Span {1, x , x 2 }.

The set {1, x , x 2 } spans P2 and is linearly independent, so it’s a basis.
Other correct answers are {1, 1 + x , x 2 }, {1, x + 3, x 2 }, {x + 3, 1 + x , x 2 },
{x , x + 3, x 2 }, and {x , 1 + x , x 2 }.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 7 / 18

Bases for Nul A and Col A

Given any subspace V , it’s natural to ask for a basis of V .

When a subspace is defined as the null space or column space of a matrix,
there is an algorithm for finding a basis.
Recall the following example from the last lecture:
Example 4
Find the null space of the matrix
 
1 5 −4 −3 1
A = 0 1 −2 1 0 .
 
0 0 0 0 0

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 8 / 18

Row reducing the matrix gives
   
1 5 −4 −3 1 1 0 6 −8 1
 r 1→r 1−5r 2 
0 1 −2 1 0 −−−−−−−→ 0 1 −2 1 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

This is equivalent to the system of equations

x1 + 6x3 − 8x4 + x5 = 0
x2 − 2x3 + x4 = 0

The general solutions is x1 = −6x3 + 8x4 − x5 , x2 = 2x3 − x4 . The free

variables are x3 , x4 and x5 .

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 9 / 18

We express the general solution in vector form:

   
x1 −6x3 + 8x4 − x5
x 
 2

 2x3 − x4 

x3  =  x3
   

   
x4   x4 
x5 x5

     
−6 8 −1
 2  −1  0 
     
= x3  1  + x4  0  + x5  0 
     
     
 0   1   0 
0 0 1
↑ ↑ ↑
u v w
We get a vector for each free variable, and these form a spanning set for
Nul A. In fact, this spanning set is linearly independent, so it’s a basis.
Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 10 / 18
A basis for Col A

Theorem
The pivot columns of a matrix A form a basis for Col A.

Although we won’t prove this is true, we’ll see why it should be plausible
using this example.
Example 5
We find a basis for Col A, where
h i
A = a1 a2 · · · a5
 
1 0 6 −3 0
 4 3 33 −6 8
= 
 
 2 −1 9 −8 −4


−2 2 −6 10 2

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 11 / 18

We row reduce A to get
   
1 0 6 −3 0 1 0 6 −3 0
 4 3 33 −6 8  0 1 3 2 0 
A= → =B
   
 2 −1 9 −8 −4  0 0 0 0 1 
−2 2 −6 10 2 0 0 0 0 0

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 12 / 18

We row reduce A to get
   
1 0 6 −3 0 1 0 6 −3 0
 4 3 33 −6 8  0 1 3 2 0 
A= → =B
   
 2 −1 9 −8 −4  0 0 0 0 1 
−2 2 −6 10 2 0 0 0 0 0
h i h i
a1 a2 · · · a5 → b1 b2 · · · b5

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 12 / 18

We row reduce A to get
   
1 0 6 −3 0 1 0 6 −3 0
 4 3 33 −6 8  0 1 3 2 0 
A= → =B
   
 2 −1 9 −8 −4  0 0 0 0 1 
−2 2 −6 10 2 0 0 0 0 0
h i h i
a1 a2 · · · a5 → b1 b2 · · · b5
Note that
b3 = 6b1 + 3b2 and b4 = −3b1 + 2b2

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 12 / 18

We row reduce A to get
   
1 0 6 −3 0 1 0 6 −3 0
 4 3 33 −6 8  0 1 3 2 0 
A= → =B
   
 2 −1 9 −8 −4  0 0 0 0 1 
−2 2 −6 10 2 0 0 0 0 0
h i h i
a1 a2 · · · a5 → b1 b2 · · · b5
Note that
b3 = 6b1 + 3b2 and b4 = −3b1 + 2b2
We can check that

a3 = 6a1 + 3a2 and a4 = −3a1 + 2a2

Elementary row operations do not affect the linear dependence

relationships among the columns of the matrix.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 12 / 18

  
1 0 6 −3 0
 0 1 3 2 0 
B=
 
0 0 0 0 1

 
0 0 0 0 0

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 13 / 18

  
1 0 6 −3 0
 0 1 3 2 0 
B=
 
0 0 0 0 1

 
0 0 0 0 0
Looking at the columns of B, we can guess that b1 , b2 , b5 form a basis
for Col B.
We check
1 b2 is not a multiple of b1 .
2 b5 is not a linear combination of b1 and b2 .

Elementary row operations do not affect the linear dependence

relationships among the columns of the matrix.

Since {b1 , b2 , b5 } is a basis for Col B,

{a1 , a2 , a5 } is a basis for Col A.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 13 / 18

Review

1 To find a basis for Nul A, use elementary row operations to transform

[A 0] to an equivalent reduced row echelon form [B 0]. Use the row
reduced echelon form to find a parametric form of the general
solution to Ax = 0. If Nul A 6= {0}, the vectors found in this
parametric form of the general solution are automatically linearly
independent and form a basis for Nul A.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 14 / 18

Review

1 To find a basis for Nul A, use elementary row operations to transform

[A 0] to an equivalent reduced row echelon form [B 0]. Use the row
reduced echelon form to find a parametric form of the general
solution to Ax = 0. If Nul A 6= {0}, the vectors found in this
parametric form of the general solution are automatically linearly
independent and form a basis for Nul A.
2 A basis for Col A is is formed from the pivot columns of A.
The matrix B determines the pivot columns, but it is important to
return to the matrix A.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 14 / 18

The unique representation theorem

Theorem (The Unique Representation Theorem)

Suppose that B = {v1 , . . . , vn } is a basis for a vector space V . Then each
x ∈ V has a unique expansion

x = c1 v1 + · · · cn vn (2)

where c1 , . . . , cn are in Rn .

We say that the ci are the coordinates of x relative to the basis B, and we
c1
 

write [x]B =  ... .

 

cn

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 15 / 18

Example 6
We found several bases for P2 , including

B = {1, x , x 2 } and C = {1, x + 3, x 2 }.

Find the coordinates for 5 + 2x + 3x 2 with respect to B and C.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 16 / 18

Example 6
We found several bases for P2 , including

B = {1, x , x 2 } and C = {1, x + 3, x 2 }.

Find the coordinates for 5 + 2x + 3x 2 with respect to B and C.

We have
5 + 2x + 3x 2 = 5(1) + 2(x ) + 3(x 2 ),
 
5
so [5 + 2x + 3x 2 ]B =  2 .
 
3

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 16 / 18

Example 6
We found several bases for P2 , including

B = {1, x , x 2 } and C = {1, x + 3, x 2 }.

Find the coordinates for 5 + 2x + 3x 2 with respect to B and C.

We have
5 + 2x + 3x 2 = 5(1) + 2(x ) + 3(x 2 ),
 
5
so [5 + 2x + 3x 2 ]B =  2 .
 
3
Similarly,
5 + 2x + 3x 2 = −1(1) + 2(x + 3) + 3(x 2 )
 
−1
so [5 + 2x + 3x 2 ]C =  2 .
 
3
Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 16 / 18
Why is the Unique Representation Theorem true?

Suppose that B = {b1 , . . . , bn } is a basis for V , and that we can write

x = c1 b1 + · · · + cn bn
x = d1 b1 + · · · + dn bn .

We’d like to show that this implies ci = di for all i.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 17 / 18

Why is the Unique Representation Theorem true?

Suppose that B = {b1 , . . . , bn } is a basis for V , and that we can write

x = c1 b1 + · · · + cn bn
x = d1 b1 + · · · + dn bn .

We’d like to show that this implies ci = di for all i. Subtract the second
line from the first to get

0 = (c1 − d1 )b1 + · · · + (cn − dn )bn .

Since B is a basis, the bi are linearly independent. This implies all the
coefficients ci − di are equal to 0.
Thus, ci = di for all i.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 17 / 18

Coordinates
Coordinates give instructions for writing a given vector as a linear
combination of basis vectors.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 18 / 18

Coordinates
Coordinates give instructions for writing a given vector as a linear
combination of basis vectors.
In Rn , we’ve been implicitly using the standard basis E = {i, j, k}:
 
a
 b  = ai + bj + ck
 
c
.

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 18 / 18

Coordinates
Coordinates give instructions for writing a given vector as a linear
combination of basis vectors.
In Rn , we’ve been implicitly using the standard basis E = {i, j, k}:
 
a
 b  = ai + bj + ck
 
c
.
However, we can express a vector in Rn in terms of any basis.
Example 7
" # " # " # " #
1 1 1 1 1 1
Suppose B = { , }. Then i = 2 + 2 , so
1 −1 1 −1
" # E E E E
1
i= 2 .
1
2 B

Dr Scott Morrison (ANU) MATH1014 Notes Second Semester 2015 18 / 18