The Philippines follows the K-12 Curriculum in accordance with the Enhanced

Basic Education Act of 2013 (R.A. 10533), an educational system spanning 12 years from
kindergarten to Grade 12. It addresses the need for a globally competitive and holistic
education system, aiming to improve the quality of education, produce graduates
equipped for the workforce or higher education, and reduce the education gap.

The levels of the K-12 educational structure in the Philippines are:

1. Kindergarten
o Designed for five-year-old children, focusing on early childhood
development and foundational learning.
2. Elementary Level (Grades 1-6)
o Covers basic education in core subjects and introduces values
education, arts, and PE.
3. Junior High School (Grades 7-10)
o Continues core subjects with additional specialized courses and
prepares students for career pathways.
4. Senior High School (Grades 11-12)
o Offers specialization in tracks such as ABM, STEM, HUMSS, and GAS.

The K-12 curriculum is guided by two standards: content and performance.

Teachers play critical roles as assessors, facilitators, and designers within this system,
ensuring the delivery of a comprehensive and effective education.

21st Century Skills Developed for Learners

1. Information, Media, and Technology Skills

2. Learning and Innovation Skills
3. Communication Skills
4. Life and Career Skills

Seven Cs of 21st Century Learners:

1. Critical Thinking
2. Creativity (considered the most important)
3. Collaboration
4. Cross-Cultural Understanding
5. Communication
6. Computing/ICT Literacy
7. Career and Learning Self-Reliance
 The Philippine education system has experienced a historical shift from knowledge-
based to lifelong learning paradigms, but the adaptation to learner-focused approaches
has been slow. This transition has been further challenged by systemic constraints and
the impact of COVID-19. Structural issues affecting education include persistent poverty,
malnutrition, and high dropout rates, a cultural preference for college degrees over
vocational training, insufficient budgets and infrastructure, a mismatch between
education outcomes and labor market demands, limited research and innovation
ecosystems, and inadequate preservice teacher training.

Early Childhood Education: Enrollment rates have steadily increased since the 1990s,
yet key challenges remain, including high malnutrition rates (stunting), overcrowded
child-teacher ratios, high dropout rates between kindergarten and Grade 4, and the
absence of a cohesive framework and quality standards.

Basic Education: The sector suffers from severe learning poverty, with 90% of children
aged 10 unable to read age-appropriate texts. Results from global assessments such as
PISA and TIMSS highlight low proficiency in reading, math, and science. Key issues
include poor proficiency across demographics, declining private school enrollment,
uneven public school quality, and resource deficits, such as inadequate materials and
limited ICT access.

Higher Education: Access to higher education is largely tied to income levels, resulting
in disparities. The quality of education is uneven, as evidenced by poor board licensure
exam performance, low global university rankings, and underdeveloped research
ecosystems. There is also a significant mismatch between graduate skills and labor
market demands.

Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET): While enrollment and
graduation rates are increasing, challenges persist. These include inconsistent
recognition of TVET certifications, insufficient funding and resources, and limited
integration with formal education pathways.

Cross-Cutting Challenges The Philippine education system faces a lack of a coordinated

lifelong learning framework and uneven implementation of quality assurance systems.
The roles of local government units in education governance remain undefined, and
there is no roadmap for aligning education with sustainable development goals.
Persistent inequality in access to quality education continues to exacerbate these
issues.
Policy Recommendations

General Recommendations: The government should increase education funding and

resource allocation, improve teacher training and professional development, strengthen
academe-industry linkages, and promote public-private complementarity in education
delivery.

Specific Actions: Policymakers should develop a lifelong learning framework to enable

flexible education access, enhance infrastructure and technological support, align
education policies with the Philippine Qualifications Framework, and foster research
and innovation capacities.

Quo Vadis Philippine Education? The nation faces a critical learning crisis that requires
urgent action. The Education Commission II (EDCOM II) plays a pivotal role in addressing
this crisis by identifying 28 priority areas for intervention and enacting legislative
reforms through collaborative efforts. Multi-sectoral partnerships are crucial for
achieving comprehensive education reform.
Classes, Changes, and Challenges in the Post-COVID-19 Period Philippines

I. The Philippines Class System

During the pre-colonial period, Philippine society was organized into distinct social
classes. The nobles (Maginoo) held ruling power in barangays, while freemen (Timawa)
were freed dependents and property owners. Warriors (Maharlika) were respected for
their role in defense, and servants (Alipin) were further divided into semi-independent
servants (Aliping Namamahay) and fully dependent servants (Aliping Sagigilid).

In the Spanish Era (1565–1898), the social structure was reorganized based on race.
Peninsulares were Spaniards born in Spain, Insulares were Spaniards born in the
Philippines, Mestizos had mixed Filipino and Spanish ancestry, and Indios, the native
Filipinos, occupied the lowest rank. This era also saw the emergence of a middle class
due to expanded trade and education.

The American Era (1898–1946) introduced universal education and new economic
opportunities. Social classes included hacienderos, a growing middle class of
professionals and merchants, and a burgeoning working class. After World War II, the
post-1946 period witnessed the growth of the middle class alongside a widening gap
between the rich and poor.

II. Changes in Social Classes

Economic opportunities have historically been scarce for the lower classes, perpetuating
cycles of poverty. Systems like the feudal hacienda model limited economic mobility.
Access to education has been a critical determinant of social class, but colonial and
postcolonial restrictions often deprived lower classes of quality education. The
emergence of an educated middle class, or Ilustrados, began to challenge this dynamic.
Political power, however, has consistently remained concentrated among elites.
Political dynasties and patronage politics have reinforced social and economic
inequalities throughout history.

III. Challenges in the Post-COVID-19 Period

Poverty remains persistent despite anti-poverty programs, with COVID-19 exacerbating
income inequality and poverty levels. Intergenerational poverty continues, driven by
limited access to resources and education. Economic recovery has been uneven; while
pre-pandemic growth was reversed by lockdowns, recovery efforts have
disproportionately benefited the upper classes. Key industries have suffered, leading to
job losses and a reduced GDP.

Labor issues also intensified during the pandemic, with high unemployment and
underemployment rates. Informal workers and Overseas Filipino Workers (OFWs) were
hit hardest, and while recovery efforts have shown some improvements, challenges
such as job quality and income inequality persist.
Concept of Social Stratification
Social stratification refers to the division of large social groups into smaller ones based
on economic categories. It involves arranging members of society hierarchically based
on their access to or control over basic economic resources. This process creates
inequality and determines an individual's social standing.

Common Bases of Social Stratification: Stratification is commonly based on factors such

as wealth and property, gender, access to political power, race and religion, and access
to material and cultural goods.

Social Exclusion: Social exclusion occurs when individuals are cut off from full societal
participation. This can result from poor housing, lack of employment, inferior schools,
and limited transportation. Such exclusion restricts opportunities for self-improvement
and perpetuates inequality.

Systems of Stratification
Closed Systems: These systems have rigid boundaries between social groups, limiting
interaction and mobility between hierarchical levels. They are resistant to changes in
social roles. The caste system is an example, where social position is fixed by birth,
promoting beliefs in fate, destiny, or divine will. Socialization in such systems
encourages acceptance of one’s standing for life.

Open Systems: These systems are based on achievement and allow for flexibility in
social roles and interactions, encouraging social mobility. The class system is a
prominent example, where stratification is determined by resources and occupation,
with mobility possible through education and employment. Marriages in these systems
can be exogamous (between different classes) or endogamous (within the same class).

Meritocracy: In a meritocratic system, stratification is determined by individual effort

and merit. Social advancement depends on performance of social roles. While
meritocracy is an ideal system, it is rarely implemented outside business or industry due
to societal influences of inheritance and conformity pressures.
Theoretical Perspectives on Social Stratification
Functionalism: This perspective examines societal stability and the purpose of roles,
suggesting that each aspect of society serves a necessary function. According to the
Davis-Moore thesis, social roles with higher functional purposes earn greater rewards.
Tasks valued highly by society are associated with greater income, prestige, and power.

Conflict Theory: Conflict theory takes a critical view of stratification, emphasizing

inequality and its consequences. Karl Marx's ideas influence this perspective that
stratification is driven by economic forces and factors of production. Society is divided
into the bourgeoisie (capitalists who own resources) and the proletariat (workers who
provide labor without control over production). Inequality leads to alienation, isolation,
and misery for workers, with the potential for class conflict arising from their
powerlessness.

Symbolic Interactionism: This perspective focuses on micro-level interactions and how

social standing influences these interactions. Social groups are formed based on shared
interests, backgrounds, and lifestyles. Appearance often reflects social standing, and
conspicuous consumption—buying goods to display status—serves as a social
statement.

Social Mobility
Social mobility refers to the ability to change positions within the stratification system.
Upward mobility involves moving to a higher social class, often due to education,
employment, or marriage. Downward mobility involves moving to a lower social class,
often caused by economic setbacks, unemployment, illness, or dropping out of school.

Generational mobility can be intragenerational, focusing on mobility changes within a

single generation, or intergenerational, examining changes between generations.
Structural mobility occurs due to large-scale societal changes, such as those
experienced during the Industrial Age.

Social Inequality
Social inequality marks the division of society through the unequal distribution of status,
wealth, and power. It causes societal divisions and is often linked to poverty and
restricted access to opportunities, perpetuating cycles of disadvantage and exclusion.