BCC.

XII ORGANISMS & POPULATION

OIKOS = HOME = HABITATION = A PLACE TO LIVE; OLOGY = TO STUDY

ODUM (1969) – the study of interrelationships between organisms and environment

Ramdeo Misra - Father of Ecology in India

Organismal ecology – concerns how an organism’s structure, physiology and behavior (In animals) meet the
challenges posed by the environment.

Physiological Ecology - how different organisms are adapted to their environments in terms of not only survival
but also reproduction.

A population can be defined as a group of individuals of the same species residing in a particular geographical
area at a particular time and functioning as a unit. For example, all human beings living at a particular place at
a particular time constitute the population of humans.

Population ecology – focuses on factors that affect how many individuals of a particular species live in an area

Community: A community is defined as a group of individuals of different species, living within a certain
geographical area. Such individuals can be similar or dissimilar, but cannot reproduce with the members of other
species.

Community ecology - deals with the interactions between the species such as predation, competition, and
diseases etc.

Carrying capacity- total no. of individuals of a population that can be accommodated in an area at a particular
time.

Environmental resistance- Restriction imposed by environmental factors on population growth. It prevents the
population from achieving the maximum biotic potential. Envi. Factors like- food, space within the habitat,
diseases, water availability etc.

Estuarine- river water mixes with sea water.

Environment- all the external factors, conditions and influences that affect an organism or a biological
community.

Heliophytes – grow under direct light.e.g. Mango;

Sciophytes – grow in shade – e.g. fern

Phenology= study of periodic life cycle events with reference to seasonal variation

Homeostasis- maintenance of internal optimal temperature and osmotic concentration despite of varying
external environmental conditions.
PARTIAL REGULATORS - organisms which change their body temperature to a certain level of ambient
temperature. When the temp. Continues to increase they are able to maintain constant body temperature.

Adaptations - Adaptation is a morphological, physiological, behavioral attribute that enables the organism to
survive and reproduce in its habitat. Many adaptations have evolved and are genetically fixed

Allen’s Rule - Effect of temperature on the absolute size of organs of an animal. In endothermic animals from
cold climates have shorter ears, tail & leg than in the warmer parts; thus reducing their surface: volume ratio.

Bergman’s rule: Effect of temperature on the absolute size of an animal. The birds & mammals of colder areas
are larger in size as compared to their equivalents in warmer area -to reduce their surface area: volume ratio.

Gause’s exclusion principle: if two species have almost completely overlapping niches they cannot continue to
coexist. One of the two species will outcompete the other and persist. The other will go locally extinct.

Asymptote – is a line that a curve approaches as it heads towards infinity.

Interspecific competition: It is an interaction between individuals of different species where both species get
negatively affected. Competition between flamingoes and resident fishes in S. American lakes for zooplankton.

Camouflage: Organisms are cryptically colored so that they can easily mingle in their surroundings and escape
their predators. frogs and insects

Q. what are the four levels of biological organization with reference to ecology?
Ecology is concerned with 4 levels of biological organization
1. Organism – an individual. It is the unit of ecology
2. Population – group of individuals of the same species
3. Community – group of populations of different species
4. Biome - Ecologically, the terrestrial habitat is subdivided into a number of sub units called biomes.

Q. NOTE ON HABITAT
Habitat = Place where an organism lives.
 Regional and local variations within each biome lead to the formation of a wide variety of habitats.
 life can exists in extreme and harsh habitats such as – SCORHING RAJASHTAN DESERT; MEGHALAYA RAIN
FOREST; DEEP OCEAN TRENCHES; TORRENTIAL STREAMS; PERMAFROST; HIGH MOUNTAIN TOPS;
BOILING THERMAL SPRINGS; STINKING COMPOST PITS; INTESTINE FOR MICROBES.
 Light; temperature; water; soil brings about variations in the physical and chemical conditions of
different habitats.
 Habitat includes both ABIOTIC (physico-chemical) & BIOTIC (pathogens; parasites, predators,
competitors) COMPONENTS.

Q. NOTE ON NICHE –
 in a given habitat each organism has an invariably defined range of conditions that it can tolerate,
diversity in the resources it utilizes and a distant functional role in the ecological system – all these
together comprises organisms niche.
  Niche represents profession of the organism while habitat represents address of an organism.
 Many niches present in one habitat. E.g. producers; herbivores; carnivores

Q. NOTE ON TEMPERATURE AS AN ABIOTIC FACTOR

 It is the most ecologically relevant environmental factor.
 The average temperature on land varies seasonally, decreases progressively from the equator poles
and from plains to the mountain tops.
 It ranges from subzero levels in polar areas and high altitudes to >500C in tropical deserts in summer.
 Average temperatures exceed 1000C in thermal springs and deep-sea hydrothermal vents.
 Mango trees do not and cannot grow in temperate countries like Canada and Germany, snow leopards
are not found in Kerala forests, tuna fish are rarely caught beyond tropical latitudes in the ocean.
 Eurythermal – organisms which can tolerate and thrive well in a wide range of temperatures. Cat, Dog,
Human; roses, daisies, oak trees,
 Stenothermal – organisms can thrive well in a narrow range of temperature. Snow Leopards, Tuna Fish.
 thermal tolerance of different species determine to a large extent their geographical distribution.

Q. NOTE ON WATER AS AN ABIOTIC FACTOR

 Next to temperature, water is the most important factor influencing the life of organisms.
 In fact, life on earth originated in water and is unsustainable without water.
 Its availability is so limited in deserts that only special adaptations make it possible to live there.
 The productivity and distribution of plants is also heavily dependent on water.
 For aquatic organisms the quality (chemical composition, pH) of water becomes important.
 The salt concentration is measured as salinity in parts per thousand.
 Salinity is less than 5 % in inland waters, 30-35% in sea & > 100 % in some hypersaline lagoons.
 EURYHALINE - organisms tolerant of a wide range of salinities. GREEN CRAB
 STENOHALINE - Organism’s tolerance to salinity is restricted to a narrow range. GOLD FISH
 Many freshwater animals cannot live for long in sea water and vice versa because of the osmotic
problems, they would face.

Q. NOTE ON IMPORTANCE OF LIGHT TO PLANTS:

 Sunlight acts as the ultimate source of energy for plants.
 Plants are autotrophs which need light for photosynthesis.
 Plays an important role in generating photoperiodic responses. Plants respond to changes in intensity
of light during various seasons to meet their photoperiodic requirements for flowering.
 Light also plays an important role in aquatic habitats for vertical distribution of plants in the sea.

Q. NOTE ON IMPORTANCE OF LIGHT TO ANIMALS –

 They use the DIURNAL and seasonal variations in light intensity and duration (photoperiod) as cues for
timing their foraging, reproductive and migratory activities.
 The availability of light on land is closely linked with that of temperature
 Deep (>500m) in the oceans, the environment is dark & its inhabitants are not aware of the existence of
a Sun.
 The spectral quality of solar radiation is also important for life.
 The UV component of the spectrum is harmful to many organisms.
 Not all the color components of the visible spectrum are available for marine plants living at different
depths of the ocean.
Q. Among the red, green and brown algae that inhabit the sea, which is likely to be found in the deepest
waters? Why?
 Red algae (Rhodophyceae) is found in the deepest waters.
 Bluish portion of the spectrum has the shortest wavelength and the highest energy.
 bluish light is able to penetrate deep down in the ocean depths.
 red algae pigment -‘phycoerythrin’ can absorb the blue light and use it for photosynthesis,
 Hence, the red algae is able to survive the deepest quarters of the oceans while the others can’t.

Q. NOTE ON SOIL (EDAPHIC) AS AN ABIOTIC FACTOR

 The nature and properties of soil is dependent on
o the climate,
o the weathering process,
o whether soil is transported or sedimentary
o how soil development occurred.
 soil composition, grain size and aggregation determine the percolation and water holding capacity
 These characteristics along with pH, mineral composition & topography determine the vegetation in any
area.
 This is in turn dictates the type of animals that can be supported.
 In the aquatic environment, the sediment-characteristics often determine the type of benthic animals
that can thrive there.

Q. DESCRIBE ORGANISMS SHORT TERM RESPONSES TO ABIOTIC FACTORS.

To cope up with unfavorable conditions animals exhibit and short term adaptations – MIGRATE, SUSPEND.

Migrate – organisms move away temporarily from stressful habitat to a more suitable area and return after the
unfavorable period. Every winter the famous Keoloado National Park (Bhartpur) in Rajasthan host thousands of
migratory birds coming from Siberia and other extremely cold northern regions.

Suspend – thick walled spores of bacteria, fungi and lower plants can survive in unfavorable conditions. Can
germinate when favorable conditions are favorable.
 Dormancy - In higher plants, seeds and some vegetative reproductive structures serve as means to tide
over periods of stress besides helping in dispersal. They do so by reducing their metabolic activity and
going into a date of ‘dormancy’. They germinate under favorable moisture and temperature conditions..
 In animals, the organism, if unable to migrate, might avoid the stress by escaping in time. Hibernation &
aestivation exhibited by animals is also a way of suspending the activities.
 DIAPAUSE - Under unfavorable conditions many zooplankton enter a stage of suspended development.

Q. DESCRIBE ORGANISMS LONG TERM RESPONSES TO ABIOTIC FACTORS.

To cope up with unfavorable conditions animals exhibit and long term adaptations – REGULATE; CONFORM.

Regulate – birds, mammals – can maintain homeostasis by physiological /behavioral means.

 Ensures constant body temperature, constant osmotic concentration, etc.
 All birds, mammals, very few lower vertebrate & invertebrates- capable of thermoregulation &
osmoregulation.
 Evolutionary biologists believe that the ‘success’ of mammals is due to their ability to maintain a constant
body temperature and thrive whether they live in Antarctica or in the Sahara desert.
  Humans maintain 370C. In summer, we sweat profusely. The resulting evaporative cooling, similar to a
desert cooler in operation. In winter we shiver, a kind of exercise which produces heat and raises the
body temperature.
 Plants, on the other hand, do not have such mechanisms to maintain internal temperatures.

Conform – majority of animals & all plants cannot maintain homeostasis.

 Osmoconformers: In aquatic animals, the osmotic conc. of the body fluids matches (ISOTONIC) with the
surrounding environment osmotic conc.
 Thermoregulation is energetically expensive for small animals like shrews and humming birds.
 Heat loss or heat gain is a function of surface area.
 Small animals have a larger surface area relative to their volume. They tend to lose body heat very fast
when it is cold outside. They have to expend much energy to generate body heat through metabolism.
This is the main reason why very small animals are rarely found in Polar Regions.
 Some sps have evolved the ability to regulate, but only over a limited range of environmental conditions,
beyond which they conform.
 e.g. Echinoderms, jellyfish, scallops, marine crabs, ascidians, and lobster, sharks, skates, and hagfish.

Q. Define phenotypic adaptation. Give one example.

Phenotypic adaptation - changes in the body of an organism in response to genetic mutation or certain
environmental changes. These responsive adjustments occur in an organism in order to cope with
environmental conditions present in their natural habitats. For example, desert plants have thick cuticles and
sunken stomata on the surface of their leaves to prevent transpiration. Similarly, elephants have long ears that
act as thermoregulators.

Q. Small sized mammals are not found in Polar Regions. Explain why?
• Small animals have a larger surface area relative to their volume,
• They tend to lose body heat fast when it is cold outside.
• They have to expend much energy to generate body heat through metabolism
• Therefore Small sized mammals are not found in Polar Regions

Q. note on altitude sickness:

Due to low atmospheric pressure of high altitudes, the body does not get enough O2. This causes altitude
sickness. Symptoms include nausea, fatigue & heart palpitations. But, gradually one get acclimatized and stop
experiencing altitude sickness. The body compensates low O2 availability by increasing RBC production,
decreasing the binding capacity of hemoglobin & by increasing breathing rate. Many tribes live in the high
altitude of Himalayas have a higher RBC count (total hemoglobin) than people living in the plains.
Q. DISTINGUISH:

OSMOREGULATORS OSMOCONFORMERS

Firmly regulate their osmotic pressure by actively Live in the marine environment and thus have the
controlling the salt conc within the body ability to maintain the internal body osmotic
irrespective of the salt conc. of external pressure irrelevant to that of the external
environment. environment.

Marine and freshwater FISH. Many marine invertebrates.

use a high amount of energy use a low amount of energy

Gills actively take up salt from the external

Gills expel excess salts from the body
environment.

Q. DISTINGUISH:
DIAPAUSE HIBERNATION
Dormant stage Inactive stage
Can occur in both summer and winter Only winter
Loses water and develops hard outer layers for No such adaptations
protection
Zooplanktons Poikilothermic animals - frog

Q. explain adaptations of aquatic animals and archaebacteria to extreme habitats

 Organisms living in such extreme environments show a fascinating array of biochemical adaptations
 Archaebacteria flourish in hot springs & deep sea hydrothermal vents where temperatures > 1000C due
to the presence of thermal resistant enzymes.
 Many fish thrive in Antarctic waters where the temperature is always below ‘O’.
 A large variety of marine invertebrates and fish live at great depths in the ocean where the pressure
could be >100 times the normal atmospheric pressure that we experience.

Q. NOTE ON MORPHOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS AGAISNT TEMPERATURE.

 Temperature is the most important ecological factor. Variations in temperature affect the distribution
of animals on the Earth.
 Animals found in colder areas have shorter ears and limbs that prevent the loss of heat from their body.
 Animals of Polar Regions have thick layers of fat below skin & thick coats of fur to prevent the heat loss.

Q. NOTE ON BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATIONS AGAISNT TEMPERATURE.

 Desert lizards are ectotherms (Poikilohtermal) - they do not have a temperature regulatory mechanism
to escape temperature variations.
 lizards bask in the sun during early hours when the temperature is quite low.
 As the temperature begins to increase, the lizard burrows itself inside the sand to escape the scorching
sun.
 Burrowing strategy is seen in other desert animals.
Q. NOTE WATER SCARCITY ADAPTATIONS.
 Kangaroo rats, lizards, snakes, etc. are well adapted to stay in their habitat.
 The kangaroo rat found in the deserts of Arizona never drinks water in its life.
 It has the ability to concentrate its urine to conserve water.
 Such adaptations can be seen to prevent the loss of water.

Q. If a marine fish is placed in a fresh water aquarium, will the fish be able to survive? Why or why not?
 If a marine fish is placed in a fresh water aquarium, then its chances of survival will diminish.
 Marine fish are osmoregulators & are adapted to high salt concentrations of the marine environment.
 In fresh water conditions, they are unable to regulate the water entering their body (through osmosis).
 Water enters their body due to the hypotonic environment outside.
 This results in the swelling up of the body, eventually leading to the death of the marine fish.

[Link]-ATTRIBUTES / CHARACTERISTICS:
 Natality; Mortality; Age distribution; Population Density; Population growth; Population interactions

[Link]/BIRTH RATE:
 Average number of new individuals produced by a population in a given time.
 Population size increases by Natality.
 Birth rate = no. of births per unit time/average population.
 If in a pond there are 20 lotus plants last year and through reproduction 8 new plants are added, taking
the current population to 28.
 Birth rate - 8/20 = 0.4 offspring per lotus per year..

[Link]/DEATH RATE:
 No. of individuals dying in a population in a given time.
 Mortality decreases population size.
 Mortality rate = No. of deaths per unit time /average population. In a laboratory population of 40 fruit
flies, 4 died in a week.
 The death rate -/40 = 0.1 individuals per fruit fly per week

[Link] DENSITY:
Total number of individuals in a unit area/unit volume in a given time. Population size = population density(N).
Change in the population size may be due to – competition with another species, the impact of a predator, the
effect of a pesticide application. The size, in nature, could be as low as <10 (Siberian cranes at Bharatpur
wetlands in any year) OR go into millions (Chlamydomonas in a pond).
Total number is the most appropriate measure of population density.
In some cases either meaningless or difficult to determine.
 if there are 200 Parthenium (carrot grass) plants but only a single huge banyan tree with a large canopy
- the population density of banyan is low relative to that of Parthenium. It underestimates the enormous
role of the Banyan in that community. In such cases, the % cover or biomass is a more meaningful
measure.
Density is measured indirectly without counting/seeing, if the population is huge & counting is
impossible/time-consuming
 The number of fish caught per trap is good enough measure of its total population density in the lake.
 The tiger census in our national parks and tiger reserves is often based on pug marks and fecal pellets.
[Link] DISTRIBUTION:
 An individual is either a male / a female but a population has a sex ratio.
 60 % of the population are females & 40 % males.
 A population is composed of individuals of different ages.
AGE PYRAMIDS:% individuals of a given age or age group is plotted for the population, the resulting structure
is called an age pyramid.
 For human population, the age pyramids generally show age distribution of males and females in a
combined diagram.
 The shape of the pyramids reflects the growth status of the population –
o EXPANDING - birth is greater than death rate. Prereproductive population is maximum
o STABLE - birthrate and death rate is more or less same
o DECLINING – death rate is greater than birth rate. Prereproductive population is least

Q. POPULATION GROWTH:
Increase in size of population; it’s not static and changes in course of time. Factors influencing ARE Food
availability, predation pressure, weather. These changes in population density helps to know whether the
population is flourishing or declining. 4 processes to determine population density:
Natality - the number of births during a given period in the population that are added to the initial density.
Mortality is the number of deaths in the population during a given period.
Immigration is the number of individuals of the same species that have come into the habitat from elsewhere
during the time period under consideration.
Emigration is the number of individuals of the population who left the habitat and gone elsewhere during the
time period under consideration.
Under normal conditions, births and deaths are the most important factors influencing population
density. Migration importance is only under special conditions. If a new habitat is just being colonized,
immigration may contribute more significantly to population growth than birth rates.
Nt+1= Nt + B + I – D + E (Nt+1 = density at a given time)
Q. note on EXPONENTIAL / GEOMETRIC / ‘J’ SHAPED GROWTH:
 Exponential growth- When resources in the habitat are unlimited, each species has the ability to realise
fully its innate potential to grow in number, as per Darwin’s theory of natural selection.
 If in a population of size N, the birth rates (not total number) are represented as b and death rates (per
capita death rates) as d, then the increase or decrease in N during a unit time period t .
 dN/dt = (b – d) × N; Let (b–d) = r, then dN/dt = rN
 The r - ‘intrinsic rate of natural increase’ -a very important parameter chosen for assessing impacts of
any biotic or abiotic factor on population growth.
 r - Norway rat = 0.015, r - flour beetle = 0.12. 1981,
 the r value for human population in India was 0.0205.

 One can derive the integral form of the exponential growth equation as Nt = N0 ert.
 Nt = Population density after time t ; N0 = Population density at time zero
 r = intrinsic rate of natural increase; e = the base of natural logarithms (2.71828)
 Nt = N0 ert describes the exponential or geometric growth pattern of a population. It results in J curve
when we plot N in relation to time.

Q. NOTE ON LOGISTIC / ‘S’ SHAPED / SIGMOID GROWTH/ WITH THE HELP OF SUITABLE DIAGRAM DESCRIBE
THE LOGISTIC POPULATION GROWTH CURVE
 The logistic population growth curve is commonly observed in yeast cells that are grown under
laboratory conditions. 3 phases:
 [Link] phase: Initially, the population of the yeast cell is very small. This is because of the limited resource
present in the habitat.
 [Link] phase: During this phase, the population of the yeast cell increases suddenly due to rapid
[Link] population grows exponentially due to the availability of sufficient food resources, constant
environment, and the absence of any interspecific competition. As a result, the curve rises steeply
upwards.
 When the environmental resistance increases and the growth rate of the population decreases. This
occurs due to an increased competition among the yeast cells for food and shelter.
 [Link] phase: During this phase, the population becomes stable. The number of cells produced in
a population equals the number of cells that die. Also, the population of the species is said to have
reached nature’s carrying-capacity in its habitat. A Verhulst−pearl logistic curve is also known as an S-
shaped growth curve.
  Since resources for growth for most animal populations are finite and become limiting sooner or later,
the logistic growth model is considered a more realistic one.

Q. If a population growing exponentially double in size in 3 years, what is the intrinsic rate of increase (r) of
the population?
Integral form of the exponential growth equation: Nt = No ert.
Nt is the population density after ‘t’ time; No is the population density at time zero; e is the base of natural
logarithm = 2.71828; r is the intrinsic rate of natural increase.
• Let the current population density be ‘x’
• ∴ The population density after two years will be 2x
• t given is 3 years
• Substituting these values in equation
• 2 X = X er3
• 2 = er3
• After applying log on both the sides
• Log 2 = 3 r log e
• r = log 2/3log e
• r = 0.301/3 X 0.434
• r – 0.2311
Therefore, the intrinsic rate of natural increase of the population is 0.231

Q. Life History Variations:

Darwinian fitness - Populations evolve to maximize their reproductive fitness (high r value), in the habitat in
which they live.
• Some breed once in their life time- Pacific Salmon fish, bamboo,
• Some breed many times - Birds, mammals
• Some produce large number of small sized offspring - Oysters, pelagic fishes (surface waters)
• Some produce small number of large offspring - Predatory birds, mammals
Ecologists suggest that life history traits of organisms have evolved in relation to the constraints imposed by the
abiotic and biotic components of the habitat in which they live.
Q. note on Predation (+;-):
Predation as nature’s way of transferring to higher trophic levels the energy fixed by plants. (P – H – C). Tiger &
the deer; a sparrow eating any seed. IN ECOLOGY - Herbivores, - predators.
IMPORTANCE of Predation–
1. Acting as ‘conduits’ for energy transfer across trophic levels
2. Keep prey populations under control
3. Predators also help in maintaining species diversity in a community by reducing the intensity of
competition among competing prey species.

Q. Biological control in agricultural - based on the ability of the predator to regulate prey population. Explain
giving example OR What is the ecological principle behind the biological control method of managing with
pest insects?
 When exotic species are introduced into a geographical area, they become invasive and start spreading
fast because this invaded habitat does not have its natural predators.
 The prickly pear cactus introduced into Australia (1920) for developing natural agricultural fence. It
caused havoc by spreading rapidly into millions of hectares of rangeland. The invasive cactus was
brought under control only after a cactus-feeding predator (MOTH) from its natural habitat was
introduced into Australia.

Q. explain how Predators help in maintaining species diversity in a community

 Predators also help in maintaining species diversity in a community by reducing the intensity of
competition among competing prey species.
 E.g. In the rocky intertidal communities of the American Pacific Coast the starfish Pisaster is an important
predator. In a field experiment, when all the starfish were removed from an enclosed intertidal area,
more than 10 species of invertebrates became extinct within a year, because of interspecific
competition.

Q. predators in nature are ‘prudent’. Explain

Predators are sensible and careful. Prey species have evolved various defenses to lessen the impact of predation.
 Some insects and frogs are CAMOUFLAGED.
 Some are poisonous - avoided by the predators.
 The Monarch butterfly is highly distasteful to its predator (bird) because of a special chemical
(CARDINOLIDES) present in its body. The butterfly acquires this chemical during its caterpillar stage by
feeding on a POISONOUS MILK WEED.

Q. Name important defense mechanisms in plants against herbivore

For plants, herbivores are the predators. 25 % of insects are - phytophagous (feeding on sap & other
parts). Severe problem for plants - they cannot run away from their predators.

Morphological defense mechanisms against herbivory:

(a) Cactus leaves (Opuntia) are modified into sharp spines to deter herbivores from feeding on them.
(b) Spines along with leaves are present in Acacia to deter herbivores.
(c) In some plants like Argemone, the leaf margins are spiny or have sharp edges that prevent herbivory

Chemical defense mechanisms against herbivory:

(a) All parts of Calotropis weeds contain toxic Cardiac Glycosides, which is fatal if ingested by herbivores.
(b) Nicotine, Caffeine, Quinine, & Opium are produced in plants as a part of self-defense.
Q. note on competition (-;-):
 Darwin’s struggle for existence and survival of the fittest in nature
 interspecific competition - a potent force in evolution.
 Competition occurs when closely related species compete for the same resources that are limiting.
 Totally unrelated species could also compete for the same resource.
 In some shallow South American lakes visiting flamingoes and resident fishes compete for the
zooplankton.
 Resources need not be limiting for competition to occur.
 Competition is a process in which the fitness of one species (‘r’ the intrinsic rate of increase) is
significantly lower in the presence of another species.

Q. note on interference competition / Gause’s exclusion principle.

 In interference competition, the feeding efficiency of one species might be reduced due to the interfering
and inhibitory presence of the other species, even if resources (food and space) are abundant.
 Gause’s exclusion principle - two closely related species competing for the same resources cannot co-
exist indefinitely and the competitively inferior one will be eliminated eventually. When resources are
limited the competitively superior species will eventually eliminate the other species.
 E.g The Abingdon tortoise in Galapagos Islands became extinct within a decade after goats were
introduced on the island, tortoise became extinct due to the greater browsing efficiency of the goats.

Q. note on ‘competitive release’/ relief from competition –

A species whose distribution is restricted to a small geographical area because of the presence of a
competitively superior species, is found to expand its distributional range dramatically when the competing
species is experimentally removed.
 It occurs when one of two species competing for the same resource disappears, allowing the remaining
competitor to utilize the resource more fully than it could in the presence of the first species.
 CONNELL’S - field experiments on BARNACLES on the rocky sea coasts of Scotland. BALANUS niche -
the intertidal zone, CHTHAMALUS niche above high tide. The experimental removal of BALANUS allowed
CHTHAMALUS to undergo competitive release (relief from competition). in the presence of BALANUS,
CHTHAMALUS can occupy only its realized niche (above high tide), when BALANUS is absent,
CHTHAMALUS can occupy its fundamental niche (above high tide and the intertidal zone).

Q. note on resource partitioning / McArthur’s experiment:

 Species facing competition might evolve mechanisms that promote co-existence rather than exclusion.
 MacArthur - five closely related species of warblers living on the same tree were able to avoid
competition & co-exist due to behavioral differences in their foraging activities. If two species compete
for the same resource, they could avoid competition by choosing, for instance, different times for
feeding or different foraging patterns.

Q. note on Parasitism (+;-):

 It is an interaction between two species in which one species (usually smaller) gets positively affected,
while the other species (usually larger) is negatively affected.
 Parasitic mode of life ensures free lodging and meals from the host.
 If the host evolves special mechanisms for rejecting/resisting the parasite, the parasite has to evolve
mechanisms to counteract & neutralize them.
Special adaptations –
 Loss of unnecessary sense organs,
 Presence of adhesive organs or suckers to cling on to the host,
 Loss of digestive system & high reproductive capacity.

The life cycles of parasites are complex, involving 1 or 2 intermediate hosts/vectors to facilitate parasitisation
of its primary Host.
The liver fluke depends on 2 intermediate hosts (snail & fish) to complete its life cycle.
The malarial parasite needs mosquito- a vector to spread to other hosts.
Majority of the parasites harm the host, reduce the survival, growth and reproduction of the host, reduce its
population density and Make the host more vulnerable to predation by making it physically weak.

TYPES:
ECTOPARASITES. - feed on the external surface of the host. LICE - humans; TICKS - dogs; COPEPODS - Many
marine fish -.
Cuscuta, a parasitic plant found growing on hedge plants, has lost its chlorophyll and leaves in the course of
evolution. It derives its nutrition from the host plant which it parasitizes.

ENDOPARASITES that live inside the host body at different sites (liver, kidney, lungs, red blood cells, etc.). Their
life cycles are more complex because of their extreme specialization. Their morphological and anatomical
features are greatly simplified while emphasizing their reproductive potential.

Q. note on Brood parasitism in birds –

 The parasitic bird lays its eggs in the nest of its host and lets the host incubate them.
 During evolution, the eggs of the parasitic bird have evolved to resemble the host’s egg in size and color
to reduce the chances of the host bird detecting the foreign eggs and ejecting them from the nest.
 E.G cuckoo (koel) LAYS EGGS IN CROW’S NEST

Q. NOTE ON COMMENSALISM (+; O):

This is the interaction in which one species benefits and the other is neither harmed nor benefited. E.G.
 AN ORCHID growing as an epiphyte on a mango branch,
 barnacles growing on the back of a whale.
 Neither the mango tree nor the whale derives any apparent benefit.
 The cattle egret and grazing cattle in close association. The egrets always forage close to where the cattle
are grazing because the cattle, as they move, stir up and flush out from the vegetation insects that
otherwise might be difficult for the egrets to find and catch.
 Interaction between sea anemone that has stinging tentacles and the clown fish that lives among them.
The fish gets protection from predators which stay away from the stinging tentacles. The anemone does
not appear to derive any benefit by hosting the clown fish.

Q. NOTE ON MUTUALISM (+; +):

This interaction confers benefits on both the interacting species.

 LICHENS - intimate mutualistic relationship between fungus & photosynthesising algae/ cyanobacteria.
 MYCORRHIZAE are associations between fungi and the roots of higher plants.
 PLANT-ANIMAL RELATIONSHIPS for pollination & seed dispersal.e.g. fig and wasps; Ophrys and Bees.
Q. NOTE ON PLANT-ANIMAL MUTUAL BENEFIT RELATIONSHIPS –
 Plants need the animals for pollinating their flowers and dispersing their seeds.
 Animals obviously have to be paid ‘fees’ for the services that plants expect from them.
 Plants offer rewards or fees in the form of pollen and nectar for pollinators and juicy and nutritious fruits
for seed dispersers.
 In fig trees, there is a tight one-to-one relationship with the pollinator species of wasp. A given fig
species can be pollinated only by its ‘partner’ wasp species and no other species. The female wasp uses
the fruit not only as an oviposition (egg-laying) site but uses the developing seeds within the fruit for
nourishing its larvae. The wasp pollinates the fig inflorescence while searching for suitable egg-laying
sites. In return for the favour of pollination the fig offers the wasp some of its developing seeds, as food
for the developing wasp larvae.
 The Mediterranean orchid OPHRYS employs ‘sexual deceit’ to get pollination done by a species of bee.
One petal of its flower resembles the female of the bee in size, colour and markings. The male bee is
attracted to what it perceives as a female, ‘pseudocopulates’ with the flower, and during that process is
dusted with pollen from the flower. When this same bee ‘pseudocopulates’ with another flower, it
transfers pollen to it and thus, pollinates the flower.

Q. COEVOLUTION:
 Coevolution is a change in the genetic composition of one species (or group) in response to a genetic
change in another.
 IT is the reciprocal evolutionary change in a set of interacting populations over time
 E.G. If the female bee’s colour patterns change even slightly for any reason during evolution,
pollination success will be reduced unless the orchid flower co-evolves to maintain the resemblance of
its petal to the female bee.

Q. AMMENSALISM (-; O):

 THE type of interrelationship in which one sps. is harmed, other species is neither gained or affected
 gram positive bacteria; penicillium fungi

Q. An orchid plant is growing on the branch of mango tree. How do you describe this interaction between the
orchid and the mango tree?
 An orchid epiphyte.
 Epiphytes are plants growing on other plants only for habitat and they do not derive nutrition from them.
 the relationship between a mango tree and an orchid is an example of commensalisms, where one
species gets benefited while the other remains unaffected.
 In the above interaction, the orchid is benefited as it gets support while the mango tree remains
unaffected.

Q. Why coral reefs are not found in the regions from west Bengal to Andhra Pradesh but are found in Tamil
Nadu and on the east coast of India?
• In case of high siltation and water flow, coral reef do not colonise
• In West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh, freshwater is released from the Ganges; Godavari & Krishna rivers.
Due to this, coral reefs are not found in regions from West Bengal to Andhra Pradesh.
• From Tamil Nadu to the southern tip of the east coast, coral reefs are present because of no interference
from freshwater.
Q. Why do the fresh water organisms have contractile vacuoles whereas marine organisms lack them?
• In fresh water organisms, inside the cell is hypertonic.
• The external environment is hypotonic.
• This leads to movement of water inside the cells because of osmosis.
• Contractile vacuoles work like safety devices and prevent lysis of cell.
• In marine organisms, inside the cell is hypotonic. This means that the external environment is hypertonic.
• the cell does not have to face the risk of lysis. Hence no contractile vacuoles in marine organisms.

Q. In an association of two animal species, one is a termite which feeds on wood and the other is a protozoan
Trichonympha present in the gut of the termite. What type of association they establish
• In an association of two animal species, one is a termite which feeds on wood and the other is a
protozoan Trichonympha present in the gut of the termite. What type of association they establish?
• Termite and Trichonympha show mutualism;
• Trichonympha breaks down cellulose in the wood and thus help the termite in digestion of wood.
• The termite provides shelter and space for the protozoan Trichonympha to live.

Q. In 2005, for each of the 14 million people present in a country, 0.028 were born and 0.008 died during the
year. Using exponential equation, the number of people present in 2015 is predicted as:
Exponential equation gives population growth rate = dN/dt= rN. (r= b-d; N=Size of original population)
 r = 0.028 - 0.008 = 0.02
 {dN}{dt} = 0.02 x 14 million = 0.28 million
 t= 10 years (2005 - 2015), this number will become = 2.8 miillion
 Expected population in 2015 = (14+2.8) million = 17 million (approx),

Q. EXAMPLES OF POPULATION INTERACTIONS

SPECIES A SPECIES B NAME OF THE
INTERACTION
ALGAE FUNGI LICHENES
ROOTS OF HIGHER FUNGI MYCORRHIZHAE
PLANTS
ROOTS OF GROUND RHIOBIUM ROOT NODULES MUTUALISM
NUT +; +
ANDRENA MALE OPHRYS PSEUDOCOPULATION
BEE
HUMMING BIRD FLOWERS
SUN BIRD ALOE VERA

FUNGI GRAM+VEBACTERIA AMMENSALISM

0; -

PRICKLY PEAR CACTUS FEDING

CACTUS (OPUNTIA) MOTH
BARNACLES PISAASTER PREDATION
(STARFISH) +; -
MORACH BIRDS
BUTTERFLY
 FLAMINGOS & ZOOPLANKTONS COMPETITION BY
FISHES TOTALLY UNRELATED
SPECIES
ABANDON GOAT COMPETITIVE COMPETITION
TORTOISE EXCLUSION -; -
BALANUS CHATHAMALUS COMPETITIVE
RELEASE
WARBLERS SPRUCE TREE RESOURCE
PARTITIONING

HUMAN LIVER SNAIL & FISH PARASITISM

FLUKE WORM +; -
PLASMODIUM MOSQUITO
LICE HUMANS
TICKS DOGS
COPEPODS MARINE FISH
CUCKOO CROW
CUSCUTA TREES

ORCHID MANGO COMMENSALISM

+; 0
CATTLE EGRET CATTLE
SEA ANEMONE CLOWN FISH

Q. Give one example for each of the following types.

(a) Migratory bird - Siberian crane (5-thousand km)
(b) Camouflaged animal - Chameleon
(c) Predator animal - Lion
(d) Biological control agent – Dragonfly; aphids
(e) Phytophagous animal - Honey bee; butterfly
(f) Chemical defense agent – ricin of castor
G. migratory animal – wild beast; zebras; antelope

Q. Give one example for each of the following:

(a) Eurythermal plant species - Gracilaria
(b) A hot water spring organism -Alycyclobacillus
(c) An organism seen in deep ocean trenches - Giant tube worms
(d) An organism seen in compost pit - Earthworm
e) A parasitic angiosperm - Misteltoe
(f) A stenothermal plant species - ) Pine
(g) Soil organism - Earthworm
(h) A benthic animal - Sponge
(i) Antifreeze compound seen in Antarctic fish - Antifreeze glycoproteins
(j) An organism which can conform- Mangifera.