Received 14 September 2024, accepted 1 October 2024, date of publication 10 October 2024, date of current version 24 October 2024.

Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3477729

Complexities of Power Quality and

Harmonic-Induced Overheating in Modern Power
Grids Studies: Challenges and Solutions
ZIAD M. ALI 1 , (Member, IEEE), MARTIN ĆALASAN 2 , (Member, IEEE),
FRANCISCO JURADO 3 , (Senior Member, IEEE),
AND SHADY H. E. ABDEL ALEEM 4 , (Senior Member, IEEE)
1 Electrical
Engineering Department, College of Engineering at Wadi Addawaser, Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University, Wadi Al Dawasir 11991, Saudi Arabia
2 Facultyof Electrical Engineering, University of Montenegro, 81000 Podgorica, Montenegro
3 Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Jaén, 23700 Linares, Spain
4 Department of Electrical Engineering, Institute of Aviation Engineering and Technology, Giza 12658, Egypt

Corresponding author: Ziad M. Ali ([email protected])

This work was supported by Prince Sattam Bin Abdulaziz University under Project 2023/RV/15.

ABSTRACT The issue of power quality (PQ) has become increasingly critical in modern power systems due
to the growing integration of sensitive electronic devices, electric vehicles, and renewable energy sources.
Among the various PQ concerns, harmonics have emerged as a significant contributor to the overheating of
power system components. This overheating phenomenon can have detrimental effects, including reduced
equipment lifespan, increased maintenance costs, and unexpected failures. This comprehensive review paper
provides an in-depth examination of the impact of harmonics on power system components, with a focus
on the overheating problems they induce. The paper delves into an analysis of PQ indices and standards,
underscoring the necessity for efficient mitigation techniques to address harmonic-related overheating and
other PQ concerns. The review explores the key PQ devices employed to mitigate harmonics, such as passive
power filters, active power filters, and advanced devices like D-STATCOM, unified PQ conditioners, and
dynamic voltage restorers. Furthermore, it investigates the various control algorithms and optimization
techniques utilized in the design of these power filters, emphasizing their pivotal role in addressing
harmonics and preventing overheating. It also discusses the applicability of artificial intelligence techniques
in mitigating power harmonics and improving PQ in modern power grid studies.

INDEX TERMS Active power filters, artificial intelligence, harmonics management, optimization, over-
heating, power quality, passive power filters, renewables integration.

I. INTRODUCTION electrical infrastructure [1], [2]. Several factors contribute to

A. BACKGROUND AND CONTEXTUALIZATION the deterioration of PQ in power systems, posing challenges
Power quality (PQ), in the context of power systems, refers for the reliable and efficient operation of electrical net-
to the ability of electrical power to consistently meet the works. Firstly, the increasing integration of renewable energy
requirements of various electrical equipment and devices sources (RESs), such as solar and wind power, introduces
without causing disturbances or interruptions. Ensuring high variability and intermittency into the grid, leading to volt-
PQ is important for reliable operation of sensitive equipment, age fluctuations and frequency deviations. Additionally, the
including computers, medical devices, and industrial machin- proliferation of nonlinear loads, including electronic devices
ery, as well as for maintaining the efficiency and longevity of and adjustable speed drives, generates harmonic distortion in
voltage and current waveforms, impacting the stability and
The associate editor coordinating the review of this manuscript and performance of connected equipment. Furthermore, aging
approving it for publication was Bijoy Chand Chatterjee . infrastructure and inadequate maintenance practices result in
2024 The Authors. This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 License.
For more information, see https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/
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voltage sags, interruptions, and equipment failures, exacer- resistance, resulting in greater I2 R losses, which diminish
bating PQ issues. Environmental factors such as lightning transmission efficiency and elevate operational costs [7], [8],
strikes and geomagnetic disturbances can also cause tran- [9], [10].
sient overvoltage and voltage spikes, further compromising Overheated transformers and generators face risks of wind-
system reliability. Moreover, the growing electrification of ing damage and core degradation, while circuit breakers and
transportation and industrial processes imposes additional switchgear may malfunction, jeopardizing system safety and
stress on power systems, increasing the likelihood of PQ reliability [11], [12]. Thermal expansion in overhead lines
disruptions. Addressing these challenges requires a holis- can cause sagging and faults due to reduced clearance, and
tic approach encompassing advanced monitoring, mitigation repeated thermal cycling induces mechanical stress in trans-
techniques, grid modernization efforts, and stringent regula- formers and motors, leading to structural damage [13], [14].
tory measures to ensure the resilience and quality of power ESSs such as batteries and capacitors experience accelerated
supply in modern power systems. aging under high temperatures, reducing their effective-
PQ issues in power systems represent a significant con- ness [15]. System reliability is compromised as component
cern due to their adverse effects on the performance and failures can lead to widespread outages and blackouts, affect-
reliability of electrical networks. These issues encompass a ing numerous consumers and critical infrastructure [16], [17].
range of disturbances, including voltage sags, swells, inter- Additionally, semiconductors and power electronics are sus-
ruptions, harmonics, and flicker [1], [2]. PQ standards serve ceptible to thermal runaway, where increased temperature
as crucial guidelines for ensuring the reliability, safety, and escalates power dissipation, causing further heating and even-
efficiency of electrical power systems. These standards define tual component failure [18], [19].
acceptable levels of various PQ parameters [3]. International Mitigating the impacts of overheating in power systems
organizations launch and update these standards to align with requires a multifaceted approach that encompasses power
technological advancements and industry requirements [4]. harmonic attenuation strategies, proactive maintenance, and
Compliance with these standards is essential for utilities, advanced monitoring and control technologies, as explained
manufacturers, and consumers to guarantee the proper func- in Fig. 1. Power harmonic attenuation strategies are crucial
tioning of electrical equipment, prevent damage, and ensure in mitigating the impacts of overheating in power systems,
the quality of delivered power. Additionally, adherence to PQ offering significant advantages in enhancing system perfor-
standards fosters interoperability among devices and systems, mance and reliability [20], [21]. The use of cooling systems in
facilitates international trade, and promotes innovation in critical components like transformers and power electronics
power system design and operation [3], [4]. is effective in promoting heat dissipation [22], [23]. Thermal
Power harmonics can have several adverse impacts on design optimization is crucial, ensuring adequate spacing
power systems [5]. First, they cause overheating and between components and proper ventilation in enclosures to
increased losses in the electrical network, including trans- prevent heat buildup [24], [25].
formers and transmission lines, due to the additional heating Regular maintenance practices and monitoring and control
effects of higher frequency currents. This can reduce the systems are essential in preventing overheating. Also, load
lifespan of these components and increase maintenance management strategies, like demand response programs and
costs. Second, power harmonics can lead to voltage distor- load balancing, support reduce thermal stress by distribut-
tion, adversely affecting the performance and lifespan of ing electrical loads more evenly and reducing peak period
sensitive electronic equipment and leading to malfunctions demands [26]. Additionally, upgrading to power system com-
or failures. Moreover, they can cause erroneous readings ponents with higher thermal and electrical ratings ensures
in metering devices, complicating energy management and that the system can handle increased loads and temperatures
billing. Harmonics can also induce resonance in the power without degradation [27].
system, potentially leading to overvoltage and equipment In this regard, PQ devices play an important role in
damage. Finally, the presence of harmonics can interfere mitigating PQ issues and enhancing the reliability of electri-
with communication systems and control signals, leading cal power systems. These devices encompass a wide range
to operational inefficiencies and increased operational risk. of technologies designed to address specific PQ concerns,
Mitigating these impacts requires the employment of har- such as voltage sags, harmonics, flicker, and voltage fluc-
monic filters, PQ monitoring, and adherence to harmonic tuations [28]. The most common PQ devices used in the
standards [6]. Overheating in power system components literature are shown in Fig. 2.
poses significant challenges to the reliability, efficiency, and PQ devices could be classified into classical devices
safety of the entire electrical infrastructure, as illustrated and custom power devices. The classical matured devices
in Fig. 1. include passive power filters, active power filters, and hybrid
Excessive heat expedites insulation degradation in devices, while the custom devices involve dynamic volt-
cables and transformers, undermining dielectric proper- age restorers, distributed static synchronous compensators
ties and shortening their lifespan, ultimately leading to (D-STATCOMs), and unified PQ conditioners. Each device
failures. In conductors, increased temperatures heighten has its advantages and disadvantages. In this work, more

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FIGURE 1. Overheating impacts on power systems and mitigation strategies.

FIGURE 2. Types of PQ devices.

discussion about their topologies and design and control of new technologies and methodologies for PQ monitoring
strategies is presented [28]. and mitigation requires continuous updates and evaluations
to ensure their effectiveness and applicability in real-world
B. CHALLENGES AND MAIN CONTRIBUTIONS scenarios.
Power systems are becoming increasingly complex due to the Additionally, PQ issues often have multifaceted causes
integration of RESs, distributed generation, and the electrifi- and effects, necessitating interdisciplinary approaches that
cation of various sectors, leading to dynamic and nonlinear combine expertise from electrical engineering, control theory,
behaviors that affect PQ. Moreover, the rapid development signal processing, and other related fields. Furthermore, the

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lack of standardized methodologies for PQ assessment and

characterization poses challenges in comparing and interpret-
ing research findings across different studies and regions.
This review synthesizes and analyses the existing literature
in the period from 2015 to early 2024 on PQ. It provides
insights into current trends, identifying research gaps, eval-
uating the effectiveness of existing solutions, and guiding
future research directions.
The main concisely listed contributions of this work are:
• This review offers a detailed examination of the impact
of PQ issues, particularly power harmonics, on power FIGURE 3. Annual distribution of the PQ articles.
system components;
• It discusses the various PQ indices and standards,
underscoring the importance of effective mitigation
techniques;
• The analysis includes key PQ devices such as passive
power filters, active power filters, and advanced tech-
nologies like D-STATCOM, unified PQ conditioners,
and dynamic voltage restorers;
• Additionally, the review explores various control algo-
rithms and optimization techniques used in designing
power filters, highlighting their essential role in mitigat-
ing power harmonics.
This review is performed using data from two main scientific
databases: Scopus and Web of Science (WoS). The key search FIGURE 4. A map illustrating the co-occurrence of terms in articles about
PQ.
terms used were ‘‘power quality’’ and ‘‘power systems’’
or ‘‘passive filters’’ or ‘‘active filters’’ or ‘‘D-STATCOM’’
or ‘‘dynamic voltage restorer’’ or ‘‘unified PQ condition-
ers’’. The review considers only papers published in English
between 2015 and early 2024. Fig. 3 illustrates the pertinent
studies on PQ systems from 2015 to early 2024. To better
understand the main research themes of these papers, Fig. 4
displays the keywords and their distribution. The size of the
circles in Fig. 4 represents the frequency of the keywords,
with larger clusters indicating higher occurrences. Moreover,
as shown in Fig. 5, the geographic distribution of publications
in this domain reveals that India and China have been spec-
ified as the most productive contributors to research in this FIGURE 5. Geographic distribution of PQ articles from 2015 to early 2024.

area.
The rest of this article is arranged as follows: Section II operational setting of utilities [29]. The principal purpose
presents the issues, indices, and standards related to PQ. of classification is to streamline the recognition of different
Section III discusses the types of power harmonics and their types of disturbances, as varying solutions may be needed
adverse impacts on power systems. Sections IV and V cover depending on the specific variation encountered.
the various topologies and control algorithms of passive Classification facilitates the adoption of suitable
and active power filters, respectively. Section VI illustrates approaches and analysis methods. Fig. 6 presents the catego-
the classification of custom power devices along with their rization of PQ or electromagnetic phenomena per the IEEE
topologies and control strategies. Section VII discusses the 1159 standard [30]. Moreover, the phenomena outlined in
application of artificial intelligence (AI) for PQ. Section VIII Fig. 6 might be further delineated by identifying relevant
introduces the main challenges and future trends related to attributes.
PQ. Finally, Section IX concludes the paper. For steady-state electrical phenomena, pertinent attributes
include but are not limited to amplitude, frequency, spectral
II. PQ ISSUES, INDICES, AND INTERNATIONAL composition, modulation characteristics, source impedance,
STANDARDS notch depth, and notch area. Conversely, for non-steady-
A. PQ ISSUES state phenomena, additional attributes may be required, such
The classification and identification of disturbances typically as rate of rise, amplitude, temporal duration, spectral pro-
conform to standards and guidelines that are pertinent to the file, frequency, rate of occurrence, energy potential, and

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source impedance. The comprehensive categorization pre- current, expressed as a percentage. TDD provides a more
sented in Fig. 6 serves as a valuable conceptual framework comprehensive assessment of harmonic distortion by consid-
for the clear identification and delineation of various elec- ering the system’s loading conditions.
tromagnetic disturbances. These systematically organized True power factor (TPF) is defined as the ratio of the real
categories, accompanied by their corresponding explana- power (measured in watts) flowing to the load to the apparent
tions, play a pivotal role in the structured organization of power (measured in volt-amperes) in the circuit. TPF indi-
measurement data and articulating the underlying electro- cates how effectively the electrical power is being used, with
magnetic phenomena that may give rise to PQ concerns [30]. values closer to 1 representing more efficient power usage.
Mikkili and Panda [31] have classified PQ issues into The displacement power factor (DPF) is like the TPF but with
various types, including short-duration voltage variations only the fundamental component considered.
(such as very short interruptions, voltage sags, and volt- The telephone influence factor (TIF), for voltage and cur-
age swells), long-duration voltage variations (such as long rent, is a measure used to assess the potential interference that
interruptions, undervoltage, and overvoltage), voltage flicker, harmonic distortion can cause in telephone communication
voltage imbalance, voltage notching, transient disturbances, systems. TIF quantifies the impact of harmonic components
and harmonic distortion. Table 1 presents detailed descrip- on communication lines by weighting the harmonics accord-
tions, causes, and implications of the most notable PQ issues. ing to their potential interference with voice frequencies.
It helps in understanding and mitigating the effects of elec-
trical noise on telecommunication systems. The C-message
B. PQ INDICES weight (CMW) index for voltage and current is another metric
Across all engineering disciplines, indices serve as prevalent used to evaluate the impact of harmonic distortion on commu-
tools for representing, quantifying, and comparing intri- nication systems, particularly voice transmission. This index
cate phenomena. In the realm of electric PQ, this entails applies a weighting curve that corresponds to the frequency
examining voltage and current waveforms and juxtaposing sensitivity of the human ear, emphasizing the harmonics that
them with ideal sinusoids. Factors such as the intricacies of are more likely to interfere with voice signals. The CMW
polyphase circuits, probabilistic phenomena, reliability, and index provides a practical assessment of the potential auditory
frequency are commonly considered. The primary indices impact of electrical noise. The I -T product and V -T product
employed in PQ are detailed in Fig. 7 [4]. These indices are critical parameters in evaluating the thermal effects of
have evolved through practical experience. Total harmonic electrical currents and voltages, particularly in transformers
voltage distortion (THDV) and total harmonic current distor- and other electrical equipment. The I -T product refers to
tion (THDI) are critical metrics for assessing PQ in electrical the product of current (I ) and time (T ), representing the
systems [21]. THDV is defined as the ratio of the root-mean- cumulative thermal stress imposed on electrical conductors
square (RMS) value of all harmonic voltage components to or insulation due to current flow over a specified duration.
the RMS value of the fundamental voltage, expressed as It is crucial to assess the potential for overheating and thermal
a percentage. It quantifies the extent of voltage waveform damage in electrical components. Similarly, the V -T product
distortion due to the presence of harmonics. Likewise, THDI is the product of voltage (V ) and time (T ), which indicates
is the ratio of the RMS value of all harmonic current com- the thermal impact of voltage stress over time on insulation
ponents to the RMS value of the fundamental current, also systems. Both parameters help in understanding and miti-
expressed as a percentage. This metric indicates the degree of gating thermal aging and failure risks in electrical systems.
current waveform distortion caused by harmonics. In addition The K factor is a measure used to quantify the additional
to THD metrics, individual harmonic distortion values are heating effects caused by harmonic currents in transformers.
also crucial. Individual harmonic voltage distortion (IHDV) Harmonic currents generate more heat than the fundamental
measures the distortion caused by a specific harmonic volt- current due to their higher frequencies, leading to increased
age component, defined as the ratio of the RMS value of a losses in the transformer’s windings and core. The K fac-
particular harmonic voltage to the RMS value of the funda- tor is calculated depending on the harmonic content of the
mental voltage [30]. Individual harmonic current distortion load current and provides a multiplier to the transformer’s
(IHDI) similarly evaluates the distortion due to a specific rated load to account for the increased heating. Transformers
harmonic current component, calculated as the ratio of the with a higher K factor rating are designed to handle greater
RMS value of a particular harmonic current to the RMS value harmonic content without overheating, ensuring reliability
of the fundamental current. These individual metrics help and longevity in environments with significant harmonic dis-
in identifying specific harmonic frequencies contributing to tortion. This parameter is essential for selecting appropriate
overall distortion, enabling targeted mitigation strategies to transformers in modern power systems where nonlinear loads
improve PQ [30]. Besides, total demand distortion (TDD) are prevalent.
is a key metric in PQ that quantifies the level of harmonic The crest factor, imbalance factor, and flicker factor are
distortion relative to the maximum demand load current. It is critical parameters in electrical engineering used to quantify
defined as the ratio of the RMS value of the harmonic current specific characteristics of electrical signals or systems. Crest
components to the RMS value of the maximum demand load factor refers to the ratio of the peak amplitude of a signal to

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FIGURE 6. Categories of PQ.

its RMS value. It provides valuable insight into the sharpness electrical systems, guiding engineers in design, analysis, and
of a waveform, aiding in assessing the dynamic range and maintenance endeavors.
potential for distortion in power systems or audio signals.
Imbalance factor, on the other hand, evaluates the asymmetry C. PQ STANDARDS
in a polyphase power system by measuring the deviation of Numerous national and international organizations have
the magnitudes of the phase currents or voltages. It helps established PQ standards, including (i) the IEC, (ii) the
identify inefficiencies or faults in power distribution systems IEEE, (iii) the American National Standards Institute (ANSI),
and facilitates the optimization of system performance. The (iv) the National Institute of Standards and Technology
flicker factor assesses the fluctuation in voltage levels over (NIST), (v) National Fire Protection Association (NFPA),
time, particularly in power distribution networks, caused by (vi) European Committee for Electrotechnical Standard-
varying loads. It quantifies the rapid and repetitive variations ization (CENELEC), (vii) International Council on Large
in voltage, typically resulting from large loads being switched Electric Systems (CIGRE), (viii) National Electrical Manu-
on or off, which can affect the quality of power supply and facturers Association (NEMA), (ix) Electric Power Research
sensitive equipment performance. These factors play cru- Institute (EPRI), (x) Underwriters Laboratories (UL), and
cial roles in ensuring the reliability, efficiency, and PQ of (xi) ESKOM for South African standards [3], [4], [48], [52].

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TABLE 1. Summary of PQ issues in power systems.

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FIGURE 7. PQ indices.

Among these, the IEC and IEEE are the most well-known interoperability of distributed energy resources (DERs) with
organizations defining PQ standards, often referred to as electrical power systems is IEEE Std 1547-2018. Significant
electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) standards. The most PQ problems such as DC offset, flicker, overvoltage, rapid
common PQ standards are presented in Fig. 8. voltage changes (RVC), harmonics, and EMI are addressed
The IEC has published numerous standards and technical by these standards. Eliminating background voltage harmon-
reports on EMC, primarily within the IEC 61000 series. Many ics that already exist highlights current harmonics produced
IEC standards closely align with those of the IEEE, with by DERs and sets explicit boundaries for these occurrences
IEEE 519 being one of the most significant alternatives. Fig. 8 at the point of common coupling (PCC).
presents various IEEE, IEC, and European Norm (EN) stan- The IEC 61000 standards for EMC in electrical and elec-
dards related to different PQ aspects. PQ in electrical systems, tronic equipment are comprehensive, consisting of seven
especially in microgrids and renewable energy-powered sys- distinct parts: Part 1 lays the foundation by discussing gen-
tems, depends on the IEEE standards. An important standard eral EMC concepts and defining specific terms to ensure
that provides thorough guidance for the integration and consistency and clarity throughout the standards; Part 2

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categorizes different environments where the standards apply form of eddy currents and hysteresis in magnetic
and sets acceptable levels of electromagnetic disturbances components.
that equipment should withstand to function correctly; Part 3 • Signal interference: Harmonics can interfere with
outlines the maximum allowable electromagnetic emissions communication lines and data transmission. This inter-
from equipment to prevent interference with other devices, ference can lead to data loss and signal degradation,
and it specifies the required resilience against various electro- impacting the performance of control systems and com-
magnetic disturbances; Part 4 details methods for measuring munication networks.
electromagnetic disturbances and describes testing proce- • Voltage fluctuations: The presence of harmonics can
dures to ensure compliance with the standards; Part 5 offers cause voltage fluctuations and distortions. These can
best practices for installing equipment to minimize electro- malfunction sensitive electronic equipment and affect
magnetic disturbances and suggests mitigation methods and the stability of the power supply.
devices reduce interference; Part 6 covers general require- • Erroneous operation of protection devices: Harmonics
ments and acts as a catch-all for issues not specifically can cause improper functioning of protection devices
addressed in the other parts; and Part 7 addresses addi- such as relays and circuit breakers. This can result in
tional considerations and emerging topics in EMC. Of them, false tripping or failure to trip during fault conditions,
Parts 3 and 4 of the IEC 61000 series are the most essential compromising the safety and reliability of the power
for PQ. To reduce voltage distortion, IEC 61000-3-2 places system.
restrictions on harmonic current emissions for equipment • Reduced efficiency and increased losses: Harmonics
with rated currents up to 16 A. For equipment with a rated increase the overall losses in the power system due to
current of up to 16 A, IEC 61000-3-3 establishes limits for additional heating and energy dissipation in transmis-
voltage fluctuations and flicker in public low-voltage supply sion and distribution lines. This reduces the efficiency
systems. Measurement techniques for PQ parameters in AC of the power system and increases operational costs.
power supply systems are defined by IEC 61000-4-30, which
guarantees accurate and consistent findings. There are three 2) INTER-HARMONICS
classes of measurements (A, S, and B), with Class A being Inter-harmonics are non-integer multiples of the power
the most exact. network’s f1 . They can be generated by various sources
IEEE Std 519-2022, which addresses harmonic control in such as double conversion systems, cyclo-converters, time-
electric power systems, is another important standard. For varying loads, wind turbines, and unexpected harmonic-
systems with both linear and nonlinear loads, this standard source sources [20]. Inter-harmonics can cause several
places restrictions on the harmonic distortion of voltage and adverse effects on power systems, including:
current at the PCC. To accurately represent the strength of • Voltage fluctuations and flicker: Inter-harmonics can
the grid, it offers guidelines for determining the maximum interact with lighting systems and cause flicker, which
demand load current and defines restrictions depending on is the visible fluctuation of light intensity. This can
the ratio of short-circuit current to the maximum demand load be particularly problematic for systems sensitive to
current. This distinction improves overall PQ by guaranteeing voltage quality.
stiffer limitations for weaker grids. • Additional losses and heating: Equipment like trans-
formers and motors can experience additional losses
III. POWER SYSTEM HARMONICS AND NOISES: TYPES and heating due to the presence of inter-harmonics,
AND THEIR ADVERSE IMPACTS potentially leading to reduced efficiency and lifespan.
A. POWER SYSTEM HARMONICS • Interference with control systems: Inter-harmonics can
Power harmonics are variations in voltage or current in power interfere with the operation of control systems, such
systems from the ideal sinusoidal waveform. Usually, non- as those used in thyristor apparatus and remote-control
linear loads—which draw currents in sudden bursts instead systems, leading to malfunction or reduced perfor-
of smoothly, sinusoidally—are the source of these distortions. mance.
The following are the primary types of power harmonics: • Difficulties in measurement and modeling: The pres-
ence of inter-harmonics complicates the measurement
1) TRADITIONAL HARMONICS and modeling of power system waveforms due to their
Harmonics in power systems are voltages or currents that low values, variable frequencies, and sensitivity to
operate at frequencies that are integral multiples of the fun- spectral leakage.
damental frequency (f1 ). The adverse impacts of traditional • Mechanical oscillations: For generators, especially in
harmonics involve [53]: wind turbines, inter-harmonics can cause mechanical
• Equipment heating and damage: Harmonics can cause oscillations, affecting the entire generation system sta-
excessive heating in electrical equipment such as bility.
transformers, motors, and capacitors. This heating • Impact on communication systems: Inter-harmonics
reduces the efficiency and lifespan of the equipment. can affect signaling and communication systems,
The heating effect is due to increased losses in the potentially leading to erroneous signals or data loss.

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FIGURE 8. Summary of the most common PQ standards.

3) SUB-HARMONICS systems involve power electronic devices, grid interactions,

Sub-harmonics refer to frequency components that are frac- and mechanical oscillations.
tions of the fundamental power system frequency (e.g., 50 Hz The adverse impacts of sub-harmonics on power systems
or 60 Hz) [54]. The sources of subharmonics in power include:

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• Resonance issues: Sub-harmonics can cause resonance • Increased power losses: Supra-harmonics can boost
in power systems, amplifying certain frequencies and power losses due to distortions provided by nonlinear
potentially damaging equipment. loads. This negatively impacts the efficiency of distri-
• Increased losses: Sub-harmonics increases losses in bution systems and components of electric utilities.
electrical machines and transformers, reducing overall • Spurious inverter tripping: In networks with RESs and
system efficiency. inverters, supra-harmonics can cause instability, lead-
• EMI: Sub-harmonics can interfere with communication ing to spurious tripping of inverters, which disrupts
systems and sensitive electronic equipment, leading to power supply continuity.
malfunction or degraded performance. • Operational lifespan reduction: The overall operational
• Protection system malfunction: Sub-harmonics can lifespan of various components in the power grid can
affect the operation of protection systems, leading to be reduced due to the continuous impact of supra-
incorrect tripping or failure to trip when necessary. harmonics.
• Audible noise: Sub-harmonics can induce audible
noise in electrical machines and transformers, which B. POWER SYSTEM NOISES
can be a nuisance in residential and commercial Noise in power systems refers to unwanted electrical distur-
areas. bances that can originate from various sources and negatively
• Overheating: Sub-harmonics can cause increased reac- impact overall power quality. These disturbances, which often
tive power flows, which can lead to higher line currents manifest as voltage fluctuations, transients, or harmonic dis-
and subsequent overheating of the power lines. This is tortions, can arise from both external and internal sources
challenging in long-distance transmission lines, where within the power system. Noise can disrupt the ideal sinu-
the resistance of the lines can cause significant heat- soidal waveform of voltage and current, leading to various
ing due to the increased current. Also, sub-harmonics issues such as equipment malfunction, increased system
can cause increased rotor and stator losses in electric losses, and overall degradation of power quality.
motors, leading to higher operating temperatures. This
can reduce the motor’s efficiency, shorten its lifespan, 1) SOURCES OF NOISE IN POWER SYSTEMS
and in extreme cases, lead to thermal overload and In power systems, noise can arise from various sources, each
failure. associated with specific types of wave interference and char-
acterized by particular frequency ranges or wavelength bands.
4) SUPRA-HARMONICS These sources of noise can impact system performance and
Supra-harmonics refers to emissions in the frequency range the accuracy of signal transmission [56].
of 2 kHz to 150 kHz, resulting from the operation of power • Light: Noise due to electromagnetic radiation within
electronics devices and RES integrated into the power grid. the wavelength band of approximately 380–765 nm pri-
These emissions fall outside the traditional PQ concerns, marily affects visual systems and can interfere with the
which typically address lower-frequency harmonics [55]. The operation of optical components in power systems. This
adverse impacts of supra-harmonics can be summarized as type of noise is related to the visible spectrum of light,
follows: where fluctuations or disruptions in light intensity can
• Increased capacitive currents: The presence of lead to signal degradation or interference with photo-
supra-harmonics can lead to increased capacitive cur- electric devices.
rents. This can harm the power supply system and pose • Sound: Noise within the frequency range of 20 Hz to
safety risks. 20,000 Hz is generated by fluid pressure energy and
• Unexpected faults in devices: Supra-harmonics can is perceived by the human ear as a hearing sensation.
cause faults in various devices, including tactile opera- In power systems, this noise can result from vibrations in
tor modules and lamp dimmers. They can also reduce mechanical components, turbulent fluid flow, or acoustic
the operational life of LED lamps. emissions from transformers and other equipment. Such
• Communication issues: Supra-harmonics can interfere noise can lead to mechanical resonance, affecting the
with power line communication systems, causing com- system’s stability and reliability.
munication problems. • Heat: Noise caused by temperature variations within the
• Overheating: These emissions can cause transformers electromagnetic radiation range of 0.1 µm to 100 µm is
and capacitor banks to overheat, leading to inefficiency typically associated with thermal radiation. This noise
and potential failures. is significant in power systems where temperature fluc-
• Protection devices: Supra-harmonics can cause mal- tuations can induce thermal stress, leading to materials
functions in protection devices, compromising the degradation, overheating components, and inefficiencies
safety and reliability of the power system. in thermal management systems.
• Loss of communication: They can disrupt the com- • Electricity: One significant source of noise is switching
munication of smart meters, leading to issues in operations. Frequent switching of electrical equipment,
monitoring and billing. such as circuit breakers, relays, and power electronic

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devices, generates transients and spikes that introduce and medical devices, potentially causing data loss or
high-frequency noise into the system. This noise can equipment failure.
propagate through the network, particularly affecting • Harmonic Interaction: Harmonics introduced by
sensitive loads. EMI is another external source of noise. non-linear loads can resonate with the system’s natural
It can originate from radio frequency signals, lightning frequencies, amplifying voltage or current distortions.
strikes, and nearby electrical infrastructure, inducing This resonance can lead to overheating transformers,
unwanted electrical currents in power lines. This noise capacitors, and cables, reducing equipment lifespan
can cause erratic operation of electronic devices, data and overall system efficiency.
loss, or even equipment damage. • Interference with Control Systems: Noise can dis-
• Grounding issues also play a significant role. Improper rupt the operation of critical control systems, such as
grounding can lead to the accumulation of electrical phase-locked loops (PLLs) or automatic voltage regu-
noise, particularly in the form of ground loops. These lators (AVRs). This disruption can result in incorrect
loops create voltage differences, resulting in noise cur- system responses, such as improper synchronization or
rents destabilizing the power system. Load fluctuations voltage regulation, further degrading power quality.
also introduce noise, especially during sudden changes
in load demand, such as switching on or off large 3) IMPACT ON POWER QUALITY
motors or industrial machinery. These fluctuations can The presence of noise in power systems has several detrimen-
cause voltage sags, swells, or flicker, affecting both tal effects on power quality:
voltage and current profiles. Finally, transmission and • Equipment malfunction and failure: High-frequency
distribution lines are susceptible to noise from envi- transients and other noise types can cause sensitive
ronmental factors like wind, rain, or contamination of equipment to malfunction or fail prematurely. For
insulators. These factors can cause partial discharges or instance, these disturbances can damage insulation or
corona effects, introducing high-frequency noise into the cause dielectric breakdown in transformers and motors,
system. leading to costly repairs and downtime.
• Fluid: Noise generated from fluid movement, which • Increased losses: Harmonic distortions increase losses
includes ventilation and breathing sensations, is relevant within the system due to the additional heat gen-
in systems involving cooling or fluid transport. This erated in transformers, motors, and cables. These
type of noise can cause pressure fluctuations, cavitation, losses reduce system efficiency and raise operational
or turbulence, which in turn may affect the efficiency costs, impacting the power system’s overall economic
of pumps, compressors, and other fluid-handling equip- performance.
ment, leading to reduced performance or mechanical • Power factor degradation: Noise, particularly har-
damage. monic distortion, degrades the power factor, increasing
• Fire: Noise resulting from radiant energy and fluid reactive power demand. This degradation can result in
interactions on a surface, particularly from burning, higher energy bills and necessitate additional compen-
is associated with the thermal and chemical effects of sation equipment to correct the power factor.
combustion. In power systems, fire noise can be critical • Reduced system reliability: Noise-induced distur-
in environments where flammable materials are present, bances compromise the reliability of the power system.
as it can lead to the breakdown of insulation, the ignition They can cause unintended tripping of protection
of surrounding materials, and the potential for catas- devices, misoperation of control systems, and increased
trophic failures. wear and tear on equipment, leading to more frequent
These noise sources not only interfere with the smooth maintenance and potential outages.
operation of power systems but can also pose significant • Interference with communication systems: In power
challenges in maintaining power quality, system reliability, systems that rely on power line communication (PLC)
and equipment longevity. Understanding and mitigating these for control and monitoring, noise can interfere with sig-
noise sources is essential for designing robust power systems nal transmission. This interference can lead to data loss,
operating under various conditions. communication errors, or delays in system responses,
further complicating system operations and reducing
overall efficiency.
2) INTERACTION WITH THE POWER SYSTEM
Noise interacts with the power system by distorting the ideal IV. PASSIVE POWER FILTERS (PPFS)
sinusoidal waveform of voltage and current. This distortion PPFs are essential components in power systems designed to
can lead to several issues: mitigate harmonic distortion and improve PQ. PPFs, unlike
• Voltage fluctuations: Noise can cause momentary dips active filters, do not need external power sources or con-
or surges in voltage levels, leading to voltage sags trol systems, making them simpler and more economical for
or swells. Such fluctuations can disrupt the operation harmonic mitigation. These filters are made up of passive
of sensitive electronic equipment, including computers components like capacitors, inductors, and resistors, arranged

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in various configurations [57]. PPFs operate by selectively exhibit reduced sensitivity to parameter variations, main-
absorbing or diverting harmonic currents generated by non- taining their effectiveness over time and under changing
linear loads, thereby reducing harmonic distortion levels operating conditions. The flexible design and implementation
in the system. They are particularly effective in applica- of these filters also allow for customization to meet the spe-
tions with relatively constant harmonic profiles and moderate cific requirements of different power systems, making them
harmonic levels. However, PPFs faced different challenges, a preferred choice for PQ improvement in modern power
including the unadaptable harmonic compensation capabil- grids [61]. Table 2 compares some popular shunt PPFs in
ities and the potential for resonance issues under certain terms of frequency responses, frequency ranges, and cost.
operating conditions. Proper design and tuning are crucial
to ensure the effectiveness and stability of passive filters 2) SERIES PPFS
in power systems. Despite these limitations, passive power These filters are strategically placed in series with the load,
filters remain widely used due to their simplicity, reliability, effectively preventing harmonic currents from entering the
and cost-effectiveness in mitigating harmonic distortion and load by imposing a high impedance to these frequencies.
improving PQ in electrical networks [58]. Fig. 10 presents some configurations of series PPFs. By doing
so, they efficiently isolate the load, allowing only f1 to pass
A. TYPES OF PPFS through [62], [63]. Series PPFs offer notable advantages,
PPFs are mainly categorized into two types relying on including simplicity and cost-effectiveness. However, it is
their connection with the power system – parallel- (low- important to acknowledge their limitations regarding ratings
impedance path) and series-connected (high-impedance path) of electric currents flowing through them. Like parallel filters,
filters. However, other hybrid series/shunt connections are series PPFs necessitate tuning to specific harmonics to ensure
also available in the literature [59]. optimal performance. Also, they may require redesigning
when applied to different applications, considering particular
requirements and characteristics.
1) PARALLEL PPFS
Parallel-connected PPFs are installed alongside the load. B. DESIGN METHODS
They establish a low-impedance pathway for harmonic cur-
These transfer function (TF) and optimization-based algo-
rents, effectively diverting these undesirable currents away
rithms provide systematic approaches to designing and
from the primary power system. The filter’s design involves
optimizing PPFs, considering system characteristics, perfor-
carefully selecting the inductance and capacitance values
mance requirements, and design constraints. The choice of
to ensure a high impedance at f1 , while presenting a low
algorithm relies on the complexity of the system, the tar-
impedance at the targeted harmonic frequencies, enabling the
get level of optimization, and the accessible computational
absorption of these harmonic currents. The principal topolo-
resources.
gies of parallel PPFs are depicted in Fig. 9.
Parallel PPFs offer several advantages, including sim-
ple design, cost-effectiveness, and high reliability. However, 1) TRANSFER FUNCTION-BASED ALGORITHMS
they do have certain limitations. One of the limitations TF-based algorithms involve analyzing the frequency
is the need for a new design for each application, which response characteristics of the power system and the pas-
can be time-consuming and require additional resources. sive filter to design an effective filter configuration. These
Additionally, parallel PPFs require tuning to a specific har- algorithms typically employ mathematical models and TFs
monic, which adds complexity to the implementation process. to describe the system dynamics and the filter’s behavior.
Another limitation is the potential for overvoltage during The design process involves determining the TF of the power
periods of low power demand, which may result in inef- system with the filter and optimizing the filter parameters
ficiencies or damage to the system [60]. In addition, the to achieve desired performance objectives, such as harmonic
new damped filters represent a significant advancement in attenuation or power factor correction. Common TF-based
PQ filter technology. These filters incorporate a damping algorithms include:
mechanism, typically achieved through the addition of resis- • Pole placement method: This method aims to place the
tive components, which helps to improve their stability and poles of the system’s TF at desired locations to achieve
reduce the potential for resonance issues. specific performance goals. By selecting appropriate
Unlike traditional PPFs that are tuned to specific harmonic pole locations, the filter’s response can be optimized to
frequencies, the damped filters, such as the C-type, damped attenuate specific harmonic frequencies or improve PQ
third-order, damped fourth-order, damped double-tuned fil- parameters.
ters, and other configurations, can effectively mitigate a • Frequency domain analysis: Frequency domain analy-
broader range of harmonics, making them more versatile. sis involves evaluating the system’s TF and the filter’s
Additionally, the damping mechanism enhances the filtering TF in the frequency domain. Techniques such as Bode
performance, allowing for better attenuation of harmonics plots, Nyquist plots, and frequency response analysis
and improved PQ. Furthermore, the new damped filters are used to assess the filter’s performance and optimize

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FIGURE 9. Parallel PPFs: (a) single-tuned PPF; (b) second-order damped PPF; (c) third-order damped PPF; and (d) C -type
damped PPF.

TABLE 2. Comparison between some parallel PPF.

its parameters to achieve desired frequency response specified performance criteria. These algorithms involve for-
characteristics [64], [65]. mulating an objective function that quantifies the desired
filter performance and defining constraints relying on sys-
tem requirements and limitations. The objective function is
2) OPTIMIZATION-BASED ALGORITHMS subsequently optimized by adjusting the filter parameters
Optimization-based algorithms utilize optimization tech- using various advanced optimization algorithms. Commonly
niques to determine the optimal filter parameters that satisfy employed algorithms include genetic algorithms (GA),

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FIGURE 10. Series PPF: (a) single-tuned, (b) double-tuned, and (c) high block filter.

TABLE 3. Highlights of some studies focused on PPFs.

particle swarm optimization (PSO), and simulated annealing demonstrated the efficiency of PSO in achieving high-
(SA). These algorithms are instrumental in fine-tuning the quality solutions. Bajaj et al. [68] utilized a Pareto-based
filter parameters to achieve optimal performance. Table 3 firefly algorithm (FFA) to determine the parameters of
presents the main optimization algorithms used in the litera- a third-order damped PPF. The objectives included mini-
ture for designing PPFs. In Cabral et al. [66], PPFs, including mizing TDD and THD while maximizing PF. Simulations
the STPPFs, second-order HPPF, and a hybrid of STPPFs and showed that the Pareto-based FFA outperformed NSGA-
HPPF, were utilized to compensate for reactive power and II, MOPSO, and MOSMA in optimizing filter parameters.
reduce harmonics in power systems. The design challenge Yang and Liu [69] proposed using a teaching-learning-
for these selected PPFs was structured as a multi-objective based optimization (TLBO) algorithm combined with a fuzzy
optimization problem, and the NSGA-II algorithm was logic controller (FLC) to design various PPFs, including the
employed to determine the optimal parameters for the filters. STPPF, second-order damped PPF, third-order damped PPF,
Azab et al. [67] proposed using PSO to estimate the and C-type damped PPF. The TLBO-based FLC demon-
parameters of a third-order damped LCL-PPF and a trap strated superior performance compared to other methods,
filter. A multi-objective model was developed to enhance such as the bat algorithm (BA), PSO, GA, and SA, in gen-
harmonic attenuation, minimize the size of filter com- erating high-quality solutions. In Zobaa [70], mixed integer
ponents, and maximize the damping resistor. The results distributed ant colony optimization (MIDACO) was applied

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to tune the parameters of STPPF. Yang and Le [71] uti-

lized the STPPF and C-type damped PPF to address PQ
issues. A multi-objective model was formulated, and the
multi-objective bat algorithm (MOBA) was applied to iden-
tify the optimal parameters for the filters. The results
indicated that MOBA was more efficient than multi-objective
PSO. In Yang and Mehmood [72], the multi-objective bee
swarm optimization (MOBSO) algorithm was proposed to
determine the optimal parameters for the STPPF, second-
order damped PPF, and C-type damped PPF. The MOBSO
outperformed both the MOPSO and Simulated Annealing
(SA) algorithms in designing PPFs for effective harmonic
attenuation. Yang et al. [73] applied the multi-objective arti-
ficial bee colony (MOABC) algorithm to design the STPPF,
second-order damped PPF, and C-type damped PPF. The
multi-objective model aimed to minimize THDV, THDI,
and investment costs while improving reactive power com-
pensation. The findings demonstrated that the MOABC
algorithm outperformed MOPSO, MOBA, and SA in design-
ing PPFs to enhance PQ in systems. Hernández et al. [74]
presented an optimized design methodology for passive
damped LCL filters using a multi-objective approach. The
NSGA-II algorithm was implemented to determine the opti-
mal parameters for the filters. The design model aimed
to minimize both the filter size and the filter power
losses. In Elkholy et al. [75], the multi-objective grasshop-
per optimization algorithm (MOGOA) was investigated for
its effectiveness in minimizing THDV and reducing fil-
ter costs through the use of STPPFs. The study found
that MOGOA was highly competitive in attenuating har-
monics and enhancing system compensation compared to
MOGA. Milovanović et al. [76] proposed a methodology for
the optimal placement and sizing of PPF in radial distribu-
tion systems. The study evaluated four objective functions,
demonstrating the efficacy of the proposed model in enhanc-
ing system hosting capacity (HC). The GA was employed to
solve the optimization problem. A methodology for assess-
ing hosting capacity in a distorted distributed system was
introduced by Sakar et al. [77], considering harmonic dis-
tortion limitations. The study employed the C-type PPF,
and the GA was utilized to solve the optimization prob-
lem. Mohammadi et al. [78] introduced a planning approach
aimed at minimizing the THDV and power loss. The study
utilized the artificial bee colony firefly optimization (ABFO)
algorithm to solve the problem. FIGURE 11. Types of APFs: (a) shunt APF, (b) series APF, and (c) hybrid
APF.

V. ACTIVE POWER FILTERS (APFS) functions, further improving the stability and reliability of
Unlike passive filters, which absorb harmonics, APFs employ power systems.
active control techniques to actively inject compensating
currents, effectively canceling out harmonic components A. TYPES OF APFS
from the load current. This active compensation capabil- APFs typically comprise power electronic converters, such
ity enables APFs to achieve superior harmonic suppression as voltage source inverters or current source inverters, which
performance across a wide range of load conditions and are regulated to generate specific compensating currents to
harmonic orders [79], [80]. Additionally, APFs can support suppress the harmonic currents generated. The main types of
systems with reactive power and provide voltage regulation APFs are illustrated in Fig.11 [81]:

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FIGURE 12. Control loops of APFs: (a) shunt APF and (b) series APF.

TABLE 4. Highlights of some studies focused on APFs.

1) SHUNT APFS (SHAPFS) appropriate control methods are applied. Fig. 11(a) describes
This type of filter compensates for current harmonics by the configuration of these ShAPFs.
injecting a harmonic current with the same magnitude but
opposite phase to the harmonic current in the system. This 2) SERIES APFS (SEAPFS)
results in a near-sinusoidal grid current that is in phase with This filter addresses voltage harmonics by generating a har-
the source. ShAPFs can also compensate for reactive power if monic voltage in series with the grid voltage but in the

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opposite phase. It can also correct voltage imbalances. The to handle unbalanced and distorted waveforms effectively,
primary drawback is the high cost of high-power applications, making it suitable for various industrial applications.
as they must generate equivalent power to counteract harmon- Another significant TD method is the synchronous ref-
ics. Fig. 11(b) illustrates the setup of these SeAPFs. erence frame (SRF) theory, which is also known as the
dq method [30], [31], [32], [33]. This technique involves
3) HYBRID APFS transforming the AC quantities into a rotating reference
These filters combine both active and passive filtering tech- frame synchronized with the grid voltage. By converting
niques, offering advantages such as lower cost and higher the three-phase system into two orthogonal components, the
efficiency. Hybrid APFs can overcome the physical limits of SRF method simplifies the detection and extraction of har-
tuned passive filters while reducing the cost associated with monics. This approach is particularly effective for dynamic
active power filters. Fig. 11(c) shows the setup of the hybrid and non-stationary conditions, providing accurate harmonic
APFs. compensation and improved system stability.
They come in various configurations, including shunt
active series passive, shunt active shunt passive, and series b: FREQUENCY-DOMAIN METHODS (FD)
active shunt passive filters. Frequency-domain methods, such as the Fast Fourier Trans-
form (FFT), are utilized for their precision in analyzing
B. CONTROL ALGORITHMS the harmonic spectrum. The FFT algorithm decomposes the
As shown in Fig.12, the main control strategies applied for TD signals into their frequency components, enabling the
APFs can be categorized into four primary control loops: identification of individual harmonics. Despite its accuracy,
(1) the harmonic extraction loop, (2) the DC-link voltage FFT-based methods are computationally intensive and may
regulation loop, (3) the current control loop, and (4) the syn- not be suitable for real-time applications due to the processing
chronization loop. They are essential for ensuring effective delay. However, they are highly effective for offline analysis
harmonic mitigation and the overall performance of APFs. and design optimization of APFs [85], [86], [87]. Another FD
Table 4 presents the main control strategies applied in studies technique is the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), which,
in the literature. like the FFT, decomposes signals into their frequency com-
ponents. DFT is less computationally efficient than FFT but
1) HARMONIC EXTRACTION LOOP can be applied in scenarios where high-resolution harmonic
The harmonic isolation loop plays a critical role in this analysis is required. These methods are advantageous for
system. It is responsible for extracting the harmonic com- their ability to provide detailed harmonic information, aiding
ponents from the distorted load current signal. By doing so, in the precise design of filter parameters to target specific
it generates a reference current signal that guides the APF harmonic orders [85], [86], [87].
in effectively mitigating the harmonics. The process involves
taking the load current input, separating the harmonic fh c: ADAPTIVE METHODS
and f1 components, and then producing a reference current Adaptive methods have gained popularity due to their abil-
signal to control the APF’s operation. The main harmonic ity to handle varying load conditions and dynamic system
extraction algorithms used for active power filters are catego- behavior. One notable adaptive approach is the adaptive
rized into four groups: time-domain (TD), frequency-domain noise cancellation technique, which employs adaptive filter-
(FD), adaptive techniques, and advanced digital filtering tech- ing algorithms to continuously adjust the filter parameters in
niques. TD methods are favored for their real-time processing response to changes in the harmonic spectrum.
capabilities, FD methods for their precision, and adaptive This method enhances the APF’s performance by ensur-
methods for their robustness and adaptability to dynamic ing robust harmonic compensation even under fluctuating
conditions. The ongoing advancements in digital signal pro- load conditions [88]. NNs and FLCs represent advanced
cessing and AI continue to enhance the efficacy of these adaptive methods that leverage AI to improve harmonic
techniques, paving the way for more efficient and reliable extraction [88]. NNs can be trained to recognize and pre-
APF systems operation. dict harmonic patterns, enabling real-time adaptive filtering
with high accuracy [89], [90], [91]. Similarly, FLCs utilize
a: TIME-DOMAIN METHODS (TD) heuristic rules to manage complex and non-linear systems,
Time-domain methods are widely employed due to their providing flexible and robust harmonic extraction capabili-
straightforward implementation and real-time processing ties. These methods, while computationally intensive, offer
capabilities. One of the most popular TD techniques is the superior adaptability and precision compared to traditional
instantaneous reactive power theory (pq theory) [82], [83], techniques.
[84]. This method transforms the three-phase current and A new linear self-regulating (LSR) sustainable energy
voltage signals into a two-dimensional α-β coordinate sys- management system was proposed by [92], designed to adjust
tem, allowing for the separation of harmonic components the power factor by compensating for power outages, reactive
from f1 . The primary advantage of pq theory is its ability power, and eliminating harmonics. Unlike the PLL, which

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has a slow response and overshoots, the LSR provides a superior to conventional control algorithms, which often
consistent dynamic response at 50 Hz, even in the presence struggle to accommodate system complexities and variations
of harmonics. without the need for extensive retuning or model updates.
The application of a sliding mode controller (SMC) in
d: ADVANCED DIGITAL FILTERING TECHNIQUES
regulating the DC-link voltage of an active power filter
offers significant advantages in terms of robustness, dynamic
The authors in [112] proposed a Kalman Filter-based cur-
response, and precision [103]. SMC is inherently robust
rent reference generation method that removes the need for
to system disturbances and uncertainties, which is crucial
a synchronization circuit and PI controller loop, thereby
for active power filters operating under fluctuating load
enhancing the ShAPF’s reliability and cost-efficiency. They
and supply conditions. Its ability to maintain performance
also introduced an H∞ controller for the current control loop,
despite these variations ensures reliable voltage regulation.
which improves the SAPF’s stability and resilience against
Furthermore, SMC provides a fast dynamic response, effec-
grid disturbances and modeling uncertainties. The authors
tively damping transients and achieving desired voltage levels
in [113] introduces the Savitzky-Golay Filter-based PLL that
rapidly, which is essential for maintaining stability in power
produces reference phases directly from distorted grid volt-
systems.
ages without causing phase delays or distortions. This PLL
The model predictive controller (MPC) is also recom-
offers better performance compared to conventional PLLs
mended in the literature to regulate the DC-link volt-
used in ShAPFs.
age [104]. MPC employs a dynamic model of the system
A digital comb filter was suggested in [118] to improve the
to predict future behavior and optimize control actions
dynamic response of active harmonic compensators, specif-
accordingly. This predictive approach allows MPC to han-
ically targeting the shortcomings of conventional low-pass
dle multi-variable control problems effectively, making it
filters that hinder performance during load transients. The
well-suited for the complex dynamics of APFs. A key advan-
linear optimal discrete-time filtering method, known as
tage of MPC is its capability to anticipate future disturbances
the Wiener filtering-based control algorithm, was intro-
and system changes. This forward-looking approach allows
duced in [114] for extracting reference supply currents from
MPC to maintain the DC-link voltage within the desired
distorted load currents. Comparison results indicated that
limits with high precision. By proactively accounting for
the Wiener filter-based control algorithm achieves quicker
potential system variations, MPC can take appropriate con-
weight convergence under various steady-state and dynamic
trol actions to counteract the effects of these disturbances,
load conditions.
ensuring the stability and optimal performance of the DC-link
voltage regulation.
2) DC-LINK CAPACITOR VOLTAGE REGULATION LOOP
The DC-link voltage control algorithm is responsible for
maintaining the DC-link capacitor voltage at the desired 3) CURRENT CONTROL LOOP
reference value. It accomplishes this by continuously com- The current control algorithm utilizes the outputs from the
paring the instantaneous DC-link voltage with the predefined harmonic extraction and DC-link voltage regulation algo-
reference voltage. The error resulting from this comparison rithms to generate the appropriate switching pulses for the
determines the necessary DC-link charging current, which inverter. This algorithm incorporates a pulse-width modulator
in turn regulates the switching losses and keeps the voltage (PWM) and a local current control loop to ensure that the
stable. This voltage regulation is crucial, as it ensures the injected current precisely matches the reference current sig-
proper functioning of the inverter and the overall system nal. This tight current control is vital for achieving accurate
stability. The proportional-integral (PI) controller [119] and current injection and effective harmonic cancellation. The
the fuzzy logic controller (FLC) [102] are commonly used to main current control algorithms for APFs are specifically
estimate the output current needed to regulate the DC-link designed to generate the necessary switching pulses for the
voltage. The PI controller adjusts relying on proportional power-switching devices. This ensures that the desired ref-
and integral actions, while the FLC employs linguistic rules erence current signal can be accurately reproduced as the
to handle non-linearity and uncertainties within the system. injection current, which is crucial for effectively mitigating
The literature recommends the use of a fuzzy neural net- harmonics. These current control algorithms can be cate-
work for regulating the DC-link voltage. This approach offers gorized into two main schemes, direct and indirect current
a faster response and greater stability compared to the PI control.
and FLC. An adaptive FLC controller has also been pro- APFs employ a variety of current control algorithms,
posed for this task [119]. Unlike traditional control methods, each with unique advantages and limitations. These include
the adaptive FLC does not require a mathematical model PI control, hysteresis current control [120], [121], and
of the system. Instead, it relies on a linguistic description SMC [105]. SRF control, also known as dq0 control,
of the control logic, which enables the FLC to self-adapt transforms AC quantities into a rotating reference frame,
to various operating conditions and parameter changes. facilitating easier control and effectively handling harmon-
This inherent adaptability of the FLC architecture makes it ics to provide accurate current control, although it requires

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FIGURE 13. Types of D-STATCOM and the main control loops applied.

precise synchronization with the grid voltage [122]. FLC to multiple zero crossings and inaccurate synchronization.
is recommended for optimizing control actions in complex Moreover, ZCD is limited by its slow response time, as zero
and non-linear systems due to their high adaptability and crossings occur only twice per signal period [123]. Another
robustness, despite demanding extensive training and com- commonly used method is the SRF-phase-locked loop (SRF-
putational power [106]. MPC is also proposed for the current PLL), which is highly effective under ideal grid conditions.
control [107]. MPC predicts future system behavior using a SRF-PLL transforms the AC signal into a rotating reference
dynamic model and optimizes control actions to minimize frame, allowing for precise phase detection and synchroniza-
a cost function, effectively handling multi-variable control tion. However, it relies on a PI controller that needs optimal
problems and constraints with high precision and adaptabil- tuning and struggles under distorted or unbalanced voltage
ity, though it is computationally complex and requires an conditions [124]. The enhanced versions, such as the dual
accurate system model. Lastly, repetitive control targets peri- second-order generalized integrator PLL and the enhanced
odic disturbances and harmonics by using a memory of past PLL, address some of these issues by improving robust-
disturbances to predict and cancel them, making it highly ness against voltage disturbances and providing additional
effective for eliminating specific harmonics but requiring phase and amplitude information [88]. Space vector (SV)
precise timing and being less effective for non-periodic dis- methods detect the angular frequency of the voltage space
turbances [108]. vector, providing robust and disturbance-tolerant synchro-
Sophisticated control units, such as fuzzy neural nization. These methods are particularly effective in handling
SMC [109] and neural network-based model reference adap- frequency variations and imbalances, though they require
tive control [110] have been developed. These algorithms careful parameter tuning to maintain stability and accuracy.
commonly integrate the characteristics of traditional methods Adaptive algorithms like the adaptive linear optimal filter
to enhance the overall compensation level of the control unit. PLL (ALOF-PLL) and the predictive PLL (PPLL) offer high
robustness and adaptability to grid changes. These methods
4) SYNCHRONIZATION LOOP use advanced filtering and predictive techniques to maintain
Synchronization methods for APFs are crucial for their effec- synchronization even under significant voltage distortions.
tive performance, particularly in environments with distorted However, they demand substantial computational resources
or unbalanced voltages. These methods ensure that the com- and precise parameter settings, which can be complex and
pensation current generated by the APF is in phase with time-consuming [88].
the fundamental component of the source voltage, enabling While traditional methods such as ZCD and PLL are
accurate harmonic mitigation [88]. widely utilized, recent advancements offer promising alterna-
One of the earliest and simplest synchronization tech- tives that could enhance performance. Among these, methods
niques is zero-cross detection (ZCD). ZCD generates a pulse based on the Adaptive Linear Neuron (ADALINE) neural net-
whenever the voltage crosses zero volts. This method is work have gained attention due to their ability to accurately
straightforward to implement and cost-effective but is highly estimate grid parameters under distorted conditions, improv-
sensitive to noise and higher harmonics, which can lead ing the resilience of the synchronization process [125], [126].

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Additionally, self-tuning filters present a robust approach by • Two-level voltage source inverter (VSI) D-STATCOM
dynamically adjusting their parameters in real-time, ensuring This is the most straightforward topology, where the
precise synchronization even in the presence of significant inverter switches between two voltage levels (positive
grid disturbances. Integrating these advanced techniques into and negative of the DC bus voltage) [131]. It is suit-
the synchronization loop could lead to more reliable and able for lower-voltage applications and provides fast
accurate performance, particularly in complex and fluctuat- response time and ease of control.
ing grid environments [127], [128]. However, it can generate significant harmonic content, requir-
For instance, [125] introduced a PLL control strategy ing extensive filtering. Fig. 14(a) shows a configuration of a
for ShAPF that leverages the ADALINE network. This VSI-based D-STATCOM.
approach utilized PSO to optimize the ADALINE, result- • Multilevel Inverter D-STATCOM
ing in enhanced system dynamic performance. The findings As shown in Fig. 15, this type is classified as follows:
demonstrated a significant improvement over traditional PLL  Neutral Point Clamped (NPC) Multilevel Inverter
control techniques. In another study, [126] further developed This topology utilizes multiple voltage levels (more than
the ADALINE network to extract fundamental signals from two), which helps in reducing the harmonic distortion and
distorted supply voltages effectively. Comprehensive simu- improving the PQ. It is achieved using additional switch-
lations were conducted to assess the system’s performance ing devices and clamping diodes, as shown in Fig. 15(a).
under both steady-state and transient conditions, highlighting It is effective for medium to high-voltage applications
the robustness of the proposed method. [132], [133].
As outlined in [127], the development of a harmonic  Cascaded H-Bridge (CHB) Multilevel Inverter
compensator utilizing a self-tuning filter based on pq the- As shown in Fig. 15(b), this topology consists of several
ory demonstrated superior performance compared to the H-bridge inverters connected in series, each with its own iso-
traditional low-pass filter approach within the same theoret- lated DC source. It provides superior harmonic performance
ical framework—meanwhile, [128] presented an innovative and modularity, making it highly scalable and suitable for
grid synchronization configuration designed to accurately high-voltage applications [134].
detect the positive-sequence component of voltage under  Flying Capacitor (FC) Multilevel Inverter
unbalanced and distorted conditions. This configuration In this topology, capacitors are used instead of clamping
employed a frequency-locked loop technique and integrated diodes to create multiple voltage levels, as described in
a self-tuning filter with a conventional second-order gener- Fig. 15(c). It offers good harmonic performance and flexibil-
alized integrator, enhancing synchronization accuracy and ity but is complex in terms of control and balancing capacitor
robustness. voltages [135].
 Modular Multilevel Converter (MMC)D-STATCOM
VI. CUSTOM PQ DEVICES The MMC topology is highly modular, consisting of submod-
A. D-STATCOM ules (SMs) that can be added or removed to scale the voltage
Distributed-level STATCOM is a power electronic device levels as needed. Fig. 15(d) illustrates the configuration of
utilized in electrical power systems to enhance PQ. Its an MMC-based D-STATCOM. It provides excellent har-
primary function revolves around reactive power compen- monic performance, high efficiency, and reliability. MMCs
sation and voltage regulation within distribution networks. are particularly suitable for very high-voltage and high-power
D-STATCOMs regulate load voltage by either absorbing or applications [136].
injecting reactive power into the system [129], [130]. They • Current Source Inverter (CSI) D-STATCOM
maintain voltage stability and enhance PQ by acting fast Unlike voltage source inverters, CSI uses an inductor as the
reactive power support. D-STATCOMs operate by generating main energy storage element and provides current regulation
a voltage wave synchronized with the AC system. This con- rather than voltage regulation, as shown in Fig. 14(b). This
tinuous operation enables them to provide or absorb reactive topology is less common but can be advantageous in applica-
power seamlessly, distinguishing them from traditional Static tions where current control is more critical [137].
VAR Compensators (SVCs) that adjust reactive power in dis- • Hybrid D-STATCOM
crete steps using thyristor-controlled reactors or capacitors. This topology combines elements of the above configurations
Fig. 13 summarizes the types of D-STATCOM, and main to optimize performance, cost, and efficiency. For instance,
control loops used for regulating D-STATCOMs. Configu- a hybrid D-STATCOM might use a combination of VSI or
rations of different D-STATCOM topologies are depicted in CSI-integrated passive filters to enhance harmonic mitiga-
Figs. 14 and 15. tion, as illustrated in Fig.14(c) [138].
• Interline DSTATCOM (I-DSTATCOM)
1) TOPOLOGIES I-DSTATCOM is an advanced version of DSTATCOM used
Their configuration and control mechanisms distinguish the in power systems. While a standard DSTATCOM is typically
main topologies of D-STATCOM. Table 5 compares the dif- connected to a single distribution line to provide voltage
ferent topologies of the D-STATCOM. They are categorized regulation, power factor correction, and harmonic mitigation,
as follows: an I-DSTATCOM is designed to be connected across multiple

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FIGURE 14. Different configurations of DSTATCOM: (a) VSI, (b) CSI, (c) hybrid, (d) I-DSTATCOM, and (e) DSTATCOM-DG.

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FIGURE 15. Multi-level inverter D-STATCOM: (a) NPC multilevel inverter, (b) CHB multilevel inverter, (c) flying capacitor multilevel inverter, and
(d) M-multilevel inverter.

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distribution lines or feeders, as illustrated in Fig.14(d) [129], them into their harmonic components, and allow for real-time
[130]. This interline configuration allows the I-DSTATCOM monitoring and correction.
to manage and balance the power flow across different lines • Voltage, Reactive Power, And Current Control Loops
simultaneously, improving the overall stability, power quality,
In the voltage control loop, a reference voltage is gener-
and efficiency of the distribution network.
ated to represent the desired voltage at the PCC. Voltage
• DSTATCOM With Distributed Generators sensors measure the real-time voltage, and an error signal
(DSTATCOM-DG) is computed from the difference between the measured and
A DSTATCOM can be effectively utilized as an interfacing reference voltages. A control algorithm processes this error
device between distributed generation (DG) resources and the signal to adjust the D-STATCOM’s output voltage. In the
utility grid, a configuration often referred to as DSTATCOM- reactive power control loop, a reference reactive power signal
DG. In this setup, the DSTATCOM plays a crucial role in is derived from the system’s compensation requirements or
seamlessly integrating DG units—such as solar panels, wind power factor correction objectives. The actual reactive power
turbines, or other small-scale generation sources—into the is measured, and the discrepancy between the reference and
grid, as depicted in Fig.14(e) [129], [130]. It manages the measured values forms an error signal. A control algorithm
variability and intermittency of DG resources by providing uses this error signal to adjust the D-STATCOM’s reactive
real-time voltage stabilization, reactive power compensation, power output. In the current control loop, a reference current
and harmonic filtering. This ensures that the power injected signal is generated depending on desired current waveforms
into the grid is of high quality, with minimal disruptions, and or harmonic compensation requirements.
maintains grid stability even during fluctuations in genera- Among control algorithms, PI control remains prevalent
tion or load. The DSTATCOM-DG configuration enhances due to its simplicity and effectiveness in reducing steady-state
the overall performance and reliability of the power system, errors [143], [144]. Proportional-resonant control is favored
making it a vital component in modern distributed energy for its ability to eliminate steady-state errors in sinusoidal sig-
networks. nal tracking, making it particularly useful in grid-connected
applications [145]. Hysteresis control offers a fast dynamic
2) CONTROL STRATEGIES response and straightforward implementation, albeit with the
The control loops of a D-STATCOM play a crucial role drawback of variable switching frequencies.
in regulating various parameters such as voltage, current, SMC provides robustness against system uncertainties
and reactive power to mitigate PQ issues in the distribu- and disturbances, ensuring high performance and stabil-
tion system. These control loops typically consist of several ity [146], [147]. FLC effectively manages nonlinearities
components and operate together to achieve the desired per- and uncertainties, enhancing the adaptive capabilities of D-
formance of the D-STATCOM, as shown in Fig.16. STATCOM [148]. ANN-based control leverages learning
algorithms to adapt to changing conditions, thereby boost-
ing system performance and robustness [149], [150]. MPC
predicts future system behavior to provide optimal control
actions, resulting in superior transient and steady-state per-
formance [151], [152].
Adaptive control continuously adjusts parameters in
real-time to accommodate varying system dynamics and
external disturbances [153], [154], [155]. Additionally,
optimization algorithm-based control employs evolutionary
strategies to optimize control parameters, further enhancing
system efficiency and performance [156], [157].
These advanced control algorithms collectively aim to
improve the stability, responsiveness, and overall efficacy of
D-STATCOM systems in maintaining PQ and voltage regu-
FIGURE 16. Main control loops of D-STATCOM. lation.
• Synchronization Control Loop
The main control loops commonly found in D-STATCOM
Synchronization algorithms are critical for the effective oper-
systems are:
ation of D-STATCOM systems, ensuring accurate phase
• Harmonic Estimation Techniques alignment with the grid. PLL and SRF-PLL are the most
Accurate harmonic estimation enables the D-STATCOM to used synchronization techniques due to their reliability and
identify and suppress these unwanted components effec- simplicity. Adaptive PLL dynamically adjusts its parameters
tively. Techniques such as FFT [139], [140], Wavelet trans- to maintain synchronization under varying grid conditions.
form [141], and ANN [142] are employed for this purpose. Enhanced PLL techniques, such as decoupled double
These methods analyze the electrical signals, decompose SRF-PLL and frequency-adaptive PLL, provide improved

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TABLE 5. Comparison between different D-STATCOM topologies.

performance in the presence of unbalanced and distorted grid 1) TOPOLOGIES

voltages [158], [159]. These algorithms collectively ensure Table 6 provides a comparison between the different topolo-
that D-STATCOM systems can accurately synchronize with gies of DVRs. The DVR’s topologies are classified into the
the grid, thereby maintaining stability, minimizing PQ issues, following topologies [160], [161]:
and improving the overall efficiency of power distribution • DVR With No Energy Storage
networks. When the power supply is robust, converters such as AC-DC
and DC-AC converters are utilized, along with the option
of employing a matrix converter capable of directly con-
B. DVR verting AC into AC. This allows the DVR to achieve the
The DVR is a power electronic device designed to protect required voltage. In these setups, a passive shunt converter
sensitive loads against voltage sags, swells, and other distur- draws the necessary energy from the incoming side. During
bances in the power distribution system. It is connected in voltage sags, the boost energy provided by these config-
series with the sensitive load and acts promptly when a volt- urations allows for the attainment of full power at the
age disturbance is detected. The DVR injects a compensating rated voltage [162]. However, these topologies come with
voltage with the appropriate magnitude and phase angle to drawbacks, notably the excessive current drawn from the
correct the load voltage, ensuring a constant voltage supply line during faults, leading to larger voltage drops. Never-
to the sensitive load despite fluctuations in the main power theless, these configurations enable compensation for more
supply. significant voltage sags. The basic configuration of a DVR

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FIGURE 17. Types of DVR: (a) DVR with no energy storage, (b) DVR with energy storage unit, (c) IDVR, (d) Transformer-less DVR, (e) AC to AC
converter-based DVR and (f) Solar photovoltaic-based DVR.

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FIGURE 17. (Continued.) Types of DVR: (a) DVR with no energy storage, (b) DVR with energy storage unit, (c) IDVR, (d) Transformer-less DVR, (e) AC
to AC converter-based DVR and (f) Solar photovoltaic-based DVR.

TABLE 6. Comparison between the different DVR topologies.

without an energy storage unit is depicted in Fig. 17(a) as depicted in Fig. 17(b). These DVR systems can operate
[160], [161]. effectively with either constant or variable DC-link voltage,
• DVR With Energy Storage a feature that is crucial for achieving their desired converter
In the case of a weak power supply, the deployment of an characteristics. While variable DC-link voltage was previ-
auxiliary DC power source becomes indispensable for DVRs, ously achieved through self-charging DVR configurations,

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recent advancements have enabled the establishment of a traditional DVR setups typically employ a VSI, the AC/AC
constant, controlled DC-link [163], [164]. In typical supply conversion-based DVR topologies leverage the employment
voltage scenarios, the self-charging DVR accumulates the of a matrix converter.
requisite energy in the DC link, facilitating the seamless • Solar Photovoltaic-Based DVR (PV-DVR)
injection of voltage with the appropriate amplitude and phase In this innovative DVR topology, the system leverages the
angle under steady-state conditions. This ensures that sen- DC voltage provided by a solar photovoltaic (PV) system,
sitive loads remain impervious to voltage fluctuations and thereby eliminating the need for a dedicated energy storage
unforeseen phase shifts, thereby maintaining the stability and unit, as depicted in Fig. 17(f) [172], [173]. Conventionally,
integrity of the power supply [163], [164]. DVR configurations rely on the injection of voltage into
Despite the cost-effectiveness of this topology, which the load using a large-rated DC storage unit. However, the
stems from its independence from external energy storage, latest DVR designs incorporate a PV system in place of
this approach lacks the long-term compensation capability the traditional DC storage unit, a feature that significantly
necessary for effectively addressing deep voltage sags and enhances the overall efficiency, particularly in low-voltage
high load power factors. distribution systems. These PV-DVR systems are capable of
• Inter-Line DVR (IDVR) effectively managing voltage sags of up to 10% and voltage
The effectiveness of pre-sag voltage restoration in DVRs is swells of up to 190% without the requirement for a dedicated
primarily contingent upon the choice of energy storage device energy storage solution. This approach represents a note-
and compensation technique employed. However, the size worthy advancement in DVR technology, providing a more
and cost of the device are inherently constrained by the DVR’s efficient and cost-effective solution for voltage regulation and
voltage injection capacity. To redress this gap, an alternative PQ improvement [174].
approach involves the extraction of active power from the The control system for a DVR typically consists of multiple
nearest feeder, thereby diminishing the size and cost require- layers to effectively manage and regulate the voltage.
ments of the DVR. This innovative technique, known as the
inter-line DVR (IDVR), proves to be a beneficial solution. For 2) CONTROL STRATEGIES
the successful deployment of IDVR, the feeders must stem The schematic diagram of the control loops applied to the
from different grid stations or substations, ensuring compat- DVR is illustrated in Fig. 18. These loops can be divided into:
ibility with varying voltage magnitudes [165], [166]. The • Voltage Disturbance Detection Methods
configuration of the IDVR system is depicted in Fig. 17(c). Voltage disturbance detection methods play a crucial role in
• Transformerless DVR ensuring the effective operation of DVR systems, as they are
This DVR configuration provides the distinct advantages essential for safeguarding sensitive loads from supply-side
of lower cost and the removal of the injection transformer disturbances. Some of the common techniques employed in
found in conventional DVR designs. The elimination of the the literature include the RMS method. The RMS method
injection transformer is advantageous, as these devices are is the simplest approach, involving the measurement of the
prone to issues such as magnetic saturation and the occur- RMS value of the source voltage and its comparison to a
rence of inrush currents, which can compromise the overall predefined reference value. Voltage sags or swells are identi-
system performance. Although it maintains the same injec- fied if the difference surpasses a certain threshold. However,
tion capability as conventional DVRs, the performance of a
transformerless DVR is reduced to about one-third during
single-phase voltage sag [167], [168].
Transformerless DVRs are not suitable for high-voltage
installations because the converters must tolerate the full volt-
age, an issue that can be addressed by employing multilevel
converters [169]. Additionally, grounding problems can occur
in transformerless DVR systems. The transformerless DVRs’
configuration is depicted in Fig. 17(d).
• AC/AC Converter-Based DVR
One notable advantage of an AC/AC converter-based DVR
is the elimination of the requirement for a DC link. This
DVR topology supports both AC to DC to AC conversion,
as well as the capability for direct AC to AC conversion,
as depicted in Fig. 17(e) [170], [171]. In the AC to DC
to AC conversion process, the DC voltage is obtained by
a transformer in conjunction with a rectifier. In addition to
this conventional topology, various DVR configurations have
adopted the utilization of direct AC/AC converters. While FIGURE 18. Main control loops of the DVR.

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due to its inherently low response speed, this method is not ensuring more accurate compensation. Common in closed-
well-suited for fast-acting DVR applications. Other com- loop systems, PI, FLC [181], [182], ANN [183], SMC [184],
monly utilized techniques include the synchronous reference [185] and predictive controllers adjust the inverter output
frame (SRF) method, fast Fourier Transform (FFT), DFT, by comparing the actual and reference voltages, minimizing
and wavelet transform [175], [176], [177]. Additionally, the the error over time. Optimization-based algorithms are com-
second-order generalized integrator (SOGI) based PLL has monly applied to improve the performance of the DVR [186].
also been applied for disturbance detection in DVR-based They prove superior performance in comparison with tradi-
systems. This method combines single-phase detection and tional algorithms.
abc to dq transformation for each phase, enabling the detec-
tion of the phase angle and magnitude of each grid voltage
C. UNIFIED PQ CONDITIONERS (UPQC)
phase. This approach is particularly useful for single-phase
The unified PQ conditioner (UPQC) is a hybrid PQ solution
systems or unbalanced polyphase systems. The selection
that combines the functionalities of both series and shunt
of the appropriate voltage disturbance detection method is
active power filters to address a wide range of PQ issues
crucial for ensuring the optimal performance and responsive-
within electrical distribution systems. UPQCs are designed to
ness of DVR systems, enabling them to effectively mitigate
simultaneously mitigate voltage-related and current-related
supply-side disturbances and protect sensitive loads.
PQ problems, such as sags, swells, flickers, interruptions, and
• Reference Generation Unit harmonics [187]. The key components of a UPQC are the
The reference generation unit within a DVR plays a crucial series compensator and the shunt compensator, as depicted
role in determining the appropriate amplitude and phase angle in Fig. 19. The series compensator is connected in series
of the reference voltage that the DVR must inject into the with the line and addresses voltage-related issues by injecting
system to effectively compensate for voltage disturbances. a compensating voltage to correct voltage sags, swells, and
This process involves several compensation strategies and harmonics. It typically includes a series inverter connected
steps: through a transformer. The shunt compensator, on the other
Pre-sag compensation: In this strategy, the DVR com- hand, is connected in parallel with the load and mitigates
pensates the voltage to the value that existed before the current-related problems by injecting a compensating current
disturbance occurred. This approach is particularly effective to counteract harmonics, reactive power, and imbalances. The
for sensitive loads that cannot tolerate voltage changes, as it shunt compensator comprises a shunt inverter connected to
maintains the original voltage profile. the load side [188].
In-phase compensation: Here, the DVR injects a voltage By combining the capabilities of both series and shunt
that is in phase with the grid voltage during the disturbance. compensators, the UPQC can effectively manage a wide
This strategy minimizes the energy required but may not fully range of PQ issues, ensuring the stability and quality of the
restore the pre-disturbance voltage level. electrical distribution system while protecting sensitive loads
Minimum energy compensation: This strategy aims to from disturbances.
reduce the energy used by the DVR by adjusting the phase and
magnitude of the injected voltage to optimize energy usage.
1) TOPOLOGIES
Combined strategies: These strategies combine aspects of
pre-sag, in-phase, and minimum energy methods to strike a As shown in Fig. 19, the UPQC can have various struc-
balance between energy efficiency and voltage quality. tural configurations, each with its unique characteristics
The reference generation methods employed in DVR sys- and capabilities. Table 7 provides a comprehensive eval-
tems typically involve various techniques, such as SRF uation of different types of UPQC. The main types of
transformation, instantaneous PQ theory, Kalman filter, and UPQC, depending on their structural configurations, are as
WT [178], [179], [180]. The selection of the appropriate ref- follows:
erence generation method is crucial for ensuring the optimal • Conventional UPQC
performance and responsiveness of the DVR in mitigating This type consists of a series and a shunt voltage source
voltage disturbances and protecting sensitive loads. inverter connected back-to-back via a common DC link. The
• Voltage and Current Control Strategies series inverter handles voltage-related issues, while the shunt
inverter manages current quality problems [187]. The config-
The voltage controller in a DVR ensures that the refer-
uration of the type is depicted in Fig. 19(a).
ence voltage generated by the reference generation unit is
accurately injected into the system. The controller typically • UPQC With Multilevel Inverter
involves the following: As shown in Fig. 19(b), this type utilizes multiple levels and
Open-loop control: This method uses the reference voltage additional switching devices to generate smoother voltage
generated by the reference generation unit directly to control and current signals. Although it is more effective at mitigat-
the inverter without feedback [161]. ing voltage sags, swells, and current harmonics, it requires
Closed-loop control: This method uses feedback from more complex control because it involves a larger number of
the system to adjust the inverter output continually, switching devices [134], [189].

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FIGURE 19. Different Configurations of UPQC: (a) conventional topology, (b) multi-level topology, (c) inter-line topology, (d) UPQC-based
distributed generator, (e) modular topology, and (f) open UPQC.

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TABLE 7. Comparison between different UPQC topologies.

the control mechanism compared to other UPQC types with

multiple series converters [187].
• Modular UPQC
Fig. 19(e) presents the configuration of the modular UPQC.
This type incorporates multiple series and shunt inverters for
enhanced PQ improvement. However, it involves intricate
control mechanisms for reference voltage/current generation
and inverter control [193].
• Open UPQC
This type consists of separate series and shunt units that can
be installed at different points in the distribution network
for optimal performance, as presented in Fig. 19(f). It may
FIGURE 20. Main control loops of the UPQC. include distributed generation sources and allows for flexible
installation depending on network conditions [194], [195].
The choice of the UPQC configuration depends on the
• UPQC With DG specific PQ requirements, network characteristics, and the
desired level of performance and flexibility in the distribution
These configurations integrate distributed generation sources system.
across the DC link, allowing active power injection into the
system, as described in Fig. 19(c). However, they add struc- 2) CONTROL STRATEGIES
tural complexity and require additional control mechanisms The control loops of UPQC are designed to manage and
to regulate the voltage across the DC link [190], [191]. For improve PQ by controlling both series and shunt invert-
example, a PV-integrated UPQC was proposed in [192]. The ers. The primary control loops involved in a UPQC system
PV-UPQC featured shunt and series-connected voltage com- include:
pensators linked in series through a shared DC link. The shunt
• Harmonic Detection Loop
compensator served a dual purpose: it extracted power from
the photovoltaic array and compensated for harmonics in the The performance of UPQCs heavily relies on effective har-
load current. monic detection methods. The most common procedures, like
those used in other custom devices, include FFT, WT, PQ the-
• Inter-Line UPQC ory, SRF method, and ANN [196]. ADALINE is extensively
This type is connected across two feeders to eliminate PQ dis- used for parameter estimation. In [197], a unified ADALINE
turbances in either feeder, as shown in Fig. 19(d). It simplifies was introduced as a harmonic extractor.

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TABLE 8. Highlights of some studies that focused on custom power filters.

• Synchronization Loop shunt inverters. It balances the power between the series and
The most common synchronization methods used in the shunt inverters. The control loop adapts the shunt inverter’s
UPQC involve PLL, SRF-PLL, ZCD, and quadrature signal operation to either draw or inject power to keep the DC link
generation methods [198]. voltage stable.
• DC Link Voltage Control Loop • Series Inverter Control Loop
This loop maintains a constant DC link voltage, which is This loop compensates for voltage disturbances such as sags,
fundamental for the proper functioning of both series and swells, and harmonics in the supply voltage. It keeps the

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TABLE 9. Comparison between some control algorithms used in PQ devices.

TABLE 10. Average Costs of D-STATCOM, DVR, AND UPQC∗ . technique is the SRF theory. This method converts signals
into a synchronously rotating frame, separating fundamental
components as DC quantities. Commonly, a PI controller
is used [200], [201]. Modified versions of pq and dq the-
ories have been proposed to enhance performance under
distorted or unbalanced supply voltages. These adaptations
have been successfully applied in various UPQC imple-
mentations [202]. Additionally, advanced algorithms such as
MPC [203], [204], ANN [205], [206], [207], FLC [208],
[209], and SMC are used for complex UPQC control tasks.
desired voltage levels on the load side by regulating the These algorithms offer a robust and flexible approach to
voltage injected by the series inverter. controlling UPQC under various operating conditions.
• Shunt Inverter Control Loop Table 8 discusses the main control techniques used in
This loop compensates for current-related issues such as load various studies for custom power devices. The PID con-
harmonics, reactive power demand, and load unbalances. troller, FOPID, FLC, NN, ANFIS, sliding mode controller,
It ensures that the current supplied to the grid is sinusoidal and model predictive controllers are widely used to regulate
and in phase with the voltage. This loop uses the reference different custom devices and APFs. Table 10 explains the
current signals from the inner current control loop to generate strengths, limitations, and complexity of each algorithm.
the necessary compensating current.
Effective control techniques are essential for the efficient D. PROTECTION AND COST ANALYSIS OF CUSTOM
operation of UPQC. One prominent control technique is DEVICES
the Instantaneous PQ theory [199]. This method transforms 1) PROTECTION ANALYSIS
voltage and current signals into a stationary reference frame DSTATCOM, DVR, and UPQC are a family of power elec-
(α-β) and calculates instantaneous active and reactive pow- tronic controllers used to enhance power system performance
ers. It is widely used due to its effectiveness in separating and stability. Fig. 21 illustrates the main control schemes
fundamental and harmonic components. Another important applied for the custom devices.

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TABLE 11. Comparison between different AI methods in PQ.

• Overcurrent Protection dissipating excess energy. This protects the capacitor from
Fast-acting fuses are commonly used for overcurrent protec- damage. Active clamping circuits utilize active switches (e.g.,
tion in custom devices. They provide fast interruption of fault IGBTs) to clamp the DC-link voltage to a safe level. They
currents, protecting the power electronics from damage. The offer faster response and lower power dissipation compared
selection of the fuse rating depends on the device’s rated cur- to crowbar circuits.
rent and fault current levels. Circuit breakers offer adjustable • Ground Fault Protection
overcurrent protection and can be reset after fault clearance. Ground fault circuit interrupters detect imbalances in cur-
They are typically used in high-power FACTS devices where rent between the phase and neutral conductors, indicating a
fault currents are significant. ground fault. They quickly interrupt the circuit to prevent
• Overvoltage Protection shock hazards and equipment damage.
Metal oxide varistors are non-linear devices that conduct • Control and Communication Protection
heavily when the voltage exceeds a predetermined level, Implementing redundant control systems and communication
diverting surge currents away from sensitive components. channels ensures continued operation even if one compo-
Due to their fast response time and high surge handling capa- nent fails. Isolating control and communication systems
bility, they are commonly used for overvoltage protection from the power circuits minimizes the risk of interference
in custom devices. Surge arresters are similar to MOVs but and cyberattacks. Encrypting communication data protects
offer higher energy absorption capacity. They are used in against unauthorized access and manipulation.
applications where high-energy surges are anticipated.
• DC-Link Protection 2) COST ANALYSIS
Crowbar circuits consist of a thyristor connected across the When evaluating the cost-effectiveness of D-STATCOM,
DC-link capacitor. When the DC-link voltage exceeds a pre- DVR, and UPQC, the power system’s specific PQ chal-
set threshold, the thyristor turns on, shorting the capacitor and lenges and financial considerations must be considered. The

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A. MACHINE LEARNING (ML)

ML techniques play a pivotal role in improving PQ by offer-
ing sophisticated solutions across various facets of harmonic
mitigation and control in power systems. These techniques
encompass various applications tailored to address har-
monic issues comprehensively. Firstly, machine learning
algorithms such as support vector machines, decision trees,
and neural networks are utilized for detecting and classifying
harmonic distortions present in power signals. By ana-
lyzing waveform data acquired from sensors and meters,
these algorithms identify frequency components deviating
from f1 , thereby pinpointing harmonics [220]. Addition-
ally, ML facilitates predictive maintenance by forecasting
equipment failures or degradation resulting from harmonic
distortions. Historical data on PQ and equipment perfor-
FIGURE 21. Protection schemes of DSTATCOM, DVR, and UPQC. mance are scrutinized to detect patterns indicative of impend-
ing issues, enabling proactive maintenance interventions.
Moreover, ML optimizes power factor correction strategies
cost-effectiveness of FACTs devices is primarily influenced crucial for minimizing harmonics and improving system effi-
by their initial investment, operating costs, and lifespan. ciency. By leveraging real-time data, these techniques adjust
D-STATCOM is generally the most cost-effective solution capacitor banks or filters dynamically to mitigate harmonic
for applications focused on voltage stability and reactive distortions effectively [221]. Furthermore, adaptive filtering
power compensation. In contrast, DVRs are ideal for environ- methods enabled by ML algorithms, such as adaptive neu-
ments with frequent voltage disturbances where preventing ral networks and recursive least squares, enhance harmonic
financial losses outweighs the high initial costs. UPQC, suppression capabilities by adapting filter coefficients to the
while having the highest initial investment and maintenance dynamic characteristics of the power system. ML also aids
requirements, offers the best value in systems where multiple in fault detection and isolation by analyzing voltage and
PQ issues must be addressed simultaneously, providing com- current waveforms to identify specific faults contributing
prehensive protection and long-term operational savings. to harmonic disturbances, facilitating rapid restoration and
D-STATCOM has a high upfront cost due to advanced minimizing their impact on PQ. Lastly, machine learning
semiconductor technology and necessary auxiliary compo- models deployed in real-time monitoring systems continu-
nents. Still, it offers long-term economic benefits through ously analyze data streams from power sensors, detecting
low operating costs, high efficiency, and minimal mainte- anomalies in PQ metrics, including harmonics, and trigger-
nance needs, leading to lower lifecycle costs and consistent ing automated responses such as equipment adjustments or
operational savings. Due to sophisticated power electronics operator alerts [220], [221].
and energy storage systems, DVRs also involve significant
initial investment. Still, they are highly efficient in protecting
sensitive loads from voltage disturbances, preventing costly B. DEEP LEARNING (DL)
equipment damage and production losses. Maintenance costs DL techniques have been increasingly applied in the field
for DVRs are moderate, but their reliability in ensuring con- of power systems, specifically for assessing and monitoring
sistent voltage correction justifies these expenses. UPQC PQ. These techniques are utilized to analyze large volumes
represents the most complex and costly investment due to its of complex data collected from various sensors and devices
dual functionality in addressing multiple PQ issues. However, within power networks. By employing deep learning models
it provides substantial operational savings by maintaining such as convolutional neural networks and recurrent neural
high power quality levels, reducing system downtime, and networks, researchers and engineers can effectively detect
offering long-term economic benefits through its versatility and classify PQ disturbances such as harmonics, voltage sags,
and broad protective capabilities, making it a valuable invest- swells, and interruptions [222]. The application of DL in
ment in environments with diverse PQ challenges. Table 11 PQ monitoring involves several key steps: preprocessing of
presents the costs of DSTACOM, DVR, and UPQC. raw data to extract relevant features, training deep learning
models on labeled datasets to recognize specific PQ events,
VII. APPLICATIONS OF AI FOR PQ and deploying these models for real-time monitoring and
AI techniques are extensively employed to mitigate power prediction. This approach enables accurate identification of
harmonics and improve PQ in electrical power systems. The PQ issues, improving reliability and efficiency in power dis-
key advantages and disadvantages of various AI techniques tribution systems. Moreover, DL enables adaptive filtering
are summarized in Table 13. These AI techniques can be techniques that continuously optimize filter parameters based
classified into the following categories: on real-time power signal measurements, thereby enhancing

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the suppression of harmonics and overall PQ. In addition

to real-time control, DRL models trained on historical data
can predict equipment failures or performance degradation
caused by harmonic disturbances. This predictive capability
supports proactive maintenance strategies, minimizing down-
time and enhancing system reliability [183].

C. EXPERT SYSTEMS
Expert systems represent a significant advancement in miti-
gating power harmonics and improving PQ within electrical
power systems. These systems leverage knowledge-based
rules and inference engines to effectively diagnose, analyze,
and recommend solutions for harmonic-related issues. They
interpret data from power sensors and meters to identify
specific harmonic distortions by analyzing waveform charac-
teristics and comparing them against predefined rules. Based
on diagnostic outputs, expert systems suggest appropriate
actions such as adjusting power factor correction devices,
recommending harmonic filters, or scheduling maintenance
to prevent equipment degradation due to harmonics [102],
[119]. Moreover, expert systems seamlessly integrate with
control strategies, optimizing the operation of capacitors
or filters based on real-time and historical data inputs.
By utilizing historical data and expert knowledge, these sys-
tems predict potential harmonic issues before they manifest,
enabling proactive measures to prevent PQ degradation and
equipment failures. Continuously monitoring PQ parameters
and adapting recommendations based on changing conditions
further enhances their effectiveness. Additionally, expert sys-
FIGURE 22. (a) Challenges, and (b) future trends.
tems evolve through knowledge base expansions and updates,
incorporating new rules and real-world data to continually
improve their accuracy and enhance harmonic mitigation
strategies in power systems [148]. grid dynamics and varying load demands, continuously
monitoring PQ parameters to optimize mitigation strate-
D. SWARM INTELLIGENCE TECHNIQUES (SITs) gies effectively. SITs facilitate the seamless integration of
SITs are increasingly recognized for their efficacy in miti- renewable energy sources such as solar and wind into the
gating power harmonics and improving PQ within electrical grid. By managing fluctuations in generation and optimizing
power systems. Inspired by collective behavior observed in power flow, these algorithms mitigate harmonics stemming
natural swarms, these algorithms optimize various facets from variable renewable outputs, thereby contributing to the
of power system operation. They excel in determining the overall stability and sustainability of the electrical power
optimal placement of harmonic filters throughout the grid, system.
strategically deploying them to minimize harmonic distor-
tions and enhance overall PQ [67], [72]. SITs also play a E. HYBRID TECHNIQUES
pivotal role in optimizing the parameters of power factor Hybrid AI techniques harness the strengths of different AI
correction devices like capacitor banks, dynamically adjust- paradigms to tackle the complexities of mitigating power
ing reactive power compensation in response to real-time harmonics and improving PQ in electrical power systems.
measurements and system conditions [70], [74]. By itera- By combining machine learning, expert systems, reinforce-
tively refining control strategies for active filters and other ment learning, fuzzy logic, neural networks, swarm intelli-
mitigation devices, swarm intelligence techniques ensure gence, and multi-agent systems, these approaches offer robust
minimal harmonic disturbances while adhering to opera- solutions for optimizing harmonic mitigation strategies and
tional constraints and grid conditions, thereby bolstering enhancing overall system performance and reliability [223].
system stability and reliability..() [100]. Moreover, SITs are
adept at handling multi-objective optimization challenges, VIII. CHALLENGES AND FUTURE TRENDS
simultaneously optimizing harmonic levels and other critical A. CHALLENGES
metrics such as power factor and voltage regulation [70]. The electric utility industry has become increasingly con-
They facilitate adaptive, real-time responses to changing cerned about PQ issues due to the growing prevalence of

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nonlinear loads and the expanding need for DC-AC and harmonics and inter-harmonics, which require in-depth anal-
AC-DC-AC interfacing, predominantly with renewable ysis and effective monitoring strategies. This includes study-
energy sources such as solar photovoltaic, wind, wave/tidal, ing the interactions between microgrids and utility grids,
small hydroelectric, and fuel cell-battery storage systems. which can introduce additional PQ problems such as losses
These factors continue to pose significant challenges to power and instability. Research should also explore the proper
networks, as illustrated in Fig. 22(a). design of spinning reserve levels in power systems to manage
The deployment of filters and custom devices aimed at unexpected events like sudden load changes and the intermit-
voltage stabilization, inrush current limitation, and efficient tency of renewable sources, which can significantly impact
energy utilization has introduced new challenges related to PQ. Furthermore, the development of sophisticated simu-
dynamic and quasi-dynamic PQ issues and the deterioration lation models that can capture rapid transient behaviors in
of supply quality. This complexity is exacerbated by the emer- various microgrid configurations is imperative. These models
gence of inter-harmonics, sub-harmonics, supra-harmonics, would enhance the understanding of voltage and frequency
and fractional order harmonics, which result from inter- stability issues. Finally, creating adaptive control algorithms
modulation, system-control interactions, solid-state switch- capable of managing PQ in real-time, particularly in islanded
ing, and the use of cascaded multi-stage medium-voltage and or semi-islanded modes, would be a significant advancement.
high-voltage converter topologies for connecting renewable These research directions aim to address the complex chal-
energy systems to distribution, sub-transmission, and trans- lenges of ensuring reliable and high-quality power in modern,
mission networks. Therefore, future requirements should renewable energy-based distributed generation systems.
include the establishment of new measurement procedures, To conclude PQ challenges should include the increasing
tools, and synchronized measurements utilizing signal filter- prevalence of nonlinear loads, the expanding need for power
ing. Enhanced models of nonlinear loads, renewable energy conversion interfaces, and the emergence of various harmonic
interfaces, and FACTS devices are essential for precise har- distortions. New measurement and modeling requirements
monic flow studies. The development trends of APFs indicate involve establishing robust procedures and enhanced models
a shift towards multifunctionality and improved integration for accurate harmonic flow studies. Trends in power filters
within power systems. Traditionally focused on harmonic show a shift towards multifunctionality, expanded features,
suppression, APFs are now evolving to include features such focus on supra-harmonics, and development of specialized
as background harmonic isolation, reactive power compensa- control systems. Future research directions cover new PQ
tion, voltage regulation, power flow control, and fault current conditioner strategies, comprehensive studies of distributed
limiting. This expansion of functionality is driven by the generation, advanced monitoring and mitigation techniques,
increasing complexity of power systems and the need for microgrid interactions, and adaptive control algorithms.
higher efficiency and performance. One significant trend
is the focus on supra-harmonics, particularly in the range
of 2-150 kHz, which have become more prevalent due to IX. CONCLUSION
the widespread use of power electronic devices like photo- This review thoroughly and insightfully examines the liter-
voltaic inverters and switching power supplies. The ability ature on PQ from 2015 to early 2024. It offers a nuanced
to suppress these higher-frequency harmonics is becoming understanding of emerging trends, identifies critical research
a crucial aspect of APF development. Moreover, there is a gaps, and evaluates the efficacy of existing solutions. By syn-
growing interest in the development of specialized digital sig- thesizing a diverse array of studies, this work not only
nal processors tailored to specific control schemes of APFs. enhances the collective knowledge of PQ challenges but also
These DSPs aim to optimize the use of internal resources, establishes a robust foundation for future research in this vital
enhance performance, and reduce costs. This specialization field.
is expected to improve the overall performance and applica- One of the key contributions of this review is its detailed
bility of APFs in various power system environments. exploration of the impact of PQ issues, particularly power
harmonics, on various power system components. This anal-
B. FUTURE TRENDS ysis underscores these issues’ profound challenges and the
As presented in Fig. 22(b), future research in PQ issues for pressing need for effective mitigation strategies to main-
distributed generation systems, especially the comprehensive tain system reliability and performance. Additionally, the
study of PQ in systems that integrate hydropower, is essential. review highlights the significance of adhering to established
This research should delve into the specific PQ challenges PQ indices and standards, emphasizing their crucial role in
posed by the variable nature of renewable energy resources, guiding the development and implementation of mitigation
including their interaction with grid-side disturbances. Addi- techniques to ensure optimal power system operation.
tionally, advanced techniques for monitoring and mitigating Moreover, the review provides a comprehensive analysis
voltage spikes are crucial. These techniques must include of a wide range of PQ devices, including passive and active
the development of accurate detection schemes and real-time power filters, advanced technologies like D-STATCOM, uni-
monitoring devices for rapid voltage variations. Another fied PQ conditioners, and dynamic voltage restorers. This
key focus is the detection and mitigation of higher-order evaluation illustrates the essential role these technologies

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ZIAD M. ALI (Member, IEEE) received the B.Sc. FRANCISCO JURADO (Senior Member, IEEE)
degree in electrical engineering from the Faculty was born in Linares, Jaén, Spain. He received the
of Engineering, Assiut University, Assuit, Egypt, M.Sc. and Dr.Ing. degrees from the National Uni-
in 1998, the M.Sc. degree from the Faculty of versity of Distance Education, Madrid, Spain, in
Electrical Engineering, Assiut University, in 2003, 1995 and 1999, respectively. Since 1985, he has
and the Ph.D. degree from Kazan State Techni- been a Professor with the Department of Electri-
cal University, Tatarstan, Russia, in 2010. He was cal Engineering, University of Jaén, Jaén. He is
a Demonstrator with Aswan Faculty of Engi- the author of more than 380 articles in journals
neering, South Valley University, Aswan, Egypt. included in the Journal Citation Report (JCR),
He was an Assistant Lecturer with Aswan Faculty about 190 papers in the proceedings of interna-
of Engineering. He is currently an Associate Professor with the Electrical tional conferences and six books. He has been involved in research projects
Department, College of Engineering at Wadi Addawasir, Prince Sattam Bin funded by Spanish Ministries and European Commission. His current
Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia. He is a Researcher among the most research interests include power systems, modeling, and renewable energy.
influential in the world according to the classification made by Stanford His research activities have been devoted to several topics, including power
University (USA). systems and renewable energy. He is a Researcher among the most influential
in the world according to the classification made by Stanford University
(USA).

SHADY H. E. ABDEL ALEEM (Senior Mem-

ber, IEEE) received the B.Sc. degree in electrical
power and machines from the Faculty of Engi-
neering, Helwan University, Egypt, in 2002, and
the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in electrical power
and machines from the Faculty of Engineering,
Cairo University, Egypt, in 2010 and 2013, respec-
tively. He is currently an Associate Professor with
the Department of Electrical Engineering, Institute
MARTIN ĆALASAN (Member, IEEE) was born of Aviation Engineering and Technology, Giza,
in Plužine, Montenegro, in 1986. He received Egypt. He is a Consultant of power quality studies with ETA Electric
the B.Sc., M.Sc., and Ph.D. degrees in electrical Company, Egypt. He is the author or co-author of many refereed journals
engineering from the University of Montenegro, and conference papers. He has published 200 plus journal articles and
Podgorica, in 2009, 2010, and 2017, respectively. conference papers, 20 plus book chapters, and 11 edited books with the
He is currently an Associate Professor with the Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET), Elsevier, Springer, CRC
Department of Power System and Automatics, Press, and InTech. His research interests include harmonic problems in power
University of Montenegro. His research interests systems, power quality, renewable energy, smart grids, energy efficiency,
include induction machine, switched reluctance optimization, green energy, and economics. He is also a member of the
generator, electrical braking, and excitation sys- Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET). He was awarded the
tems of synchronous generator and solar energy. He is a member of several State Encouragement Award in Engineering Sciences from Egypt, in 2017.
international and national organizations and associations, such as the Conseil He was also awarded the Medal of Distinction from the First Class of
International des Grands Réseaux Electriques (CIGRE) and CIGRE CG the Egyptian State Award from Egypt, in 2020. He is an Editor/Guest
KO. He is the Chairperson of the Study Committee A1–Rotating Electrical Editor/Associate Editor of the International Journal of Renewable Energy
Machines of the Montenegrin Committee of the International Council on Technology, Vehicle Dynamics, The Journal of Engineering (IET), Energies,
Large Electric Systems CIGRE CG KO. He also serves as the Secretary and Sustainability, Technology and Economics of Smart Grids and Sustainable
a Representative for Montenegro in the IEEE Chapter Power and Energy Energy, and others. He is a Researcher among the most influential in the
(PE-31). He is a Researcher among the most influential in the world accord- world according to the classification made by Stanford University (USA).
ing to the classification made by Stanford University (USA).

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