FROTH FLOTATION

Flotation: Flotation is a physico-chemical separation process that utilizes the difference in surface
properties of the valuable minerals and the unwanted gangue minerals.

The theory of froth flotation is complex, involving three phases (solids, water, and froth) with many sub
processes and interactions, and is not completely understood. The process of material being recovered
by flotation from the pulp comprises three mechanisms:

1. Selective attachment to air bubbles (or “true flotation”).

2. Entrainment in the water which passes through the froth.

3. Physical entrapment between panicles in the froth attached to air bubbles (often referred to as

“aggregation”).

True flotation utilizes the differences in physico- chemical surface properties of particles of various
minerals. After treatment with reagents, such differences in surface properties between the minerals
within the flotation pulp become apparent and, for flotation to take place, an air bubble must be able to
attach itself to a particle, and lift it to the water surface. Figure 1 illustrates the principles of flotation in
a mechanical flotation cell. The agitator provides enough turbulence in the pulp phase to promote
collision of particles and bubbles which results in the attachment of valuable particles to bubbles and
their transport into the froth phase for recovery.

1.1. Hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity

The basis of froth flotation is the difference in wettabilities of different minerals. Particles range from
those that are easily wettable by water (hydrophilic) to those that are water-repellent (hydrophobic). If
a mixture of hydrophobic and hydrophilic particles are suspended in water, and air is bubbled through
the suspension, then the hydrophobic particles will tend to attach to the air bubbles and float to the
surface, as shown in Figure 3. The froth layer that forms on the surface will then be heavily loaded with
they hydrophobic mineral, and can be removed as a separated product. The hydrophilic particles will
have much less tendency to attach to air bubbles, and so it will remain in suspension and be flushed
away.

Particles can either be naturally hydrophobic, or the hydrophobicity can be induced by chemical
treatments. Naturally hydrophobic materials include hydrocarbons, and non-polar solids such as
elemental sulfur. Coal is a good example of a material that is typically naturally hydrophobic, because it
is mostly composed of hydrocarbons. Chemical treatments to render a surface hydrophobic are
essentially methods for selectively coating a particle surface with a monolayer of non-polar oil.
Figure 1: Selective attachment of air bubbles to hydrophobic particles. The buoyancy of the bubbles
then carries these particles to the surface, leaving the hydrophilic particles behind.

The attachment of the bubbles to the surface is determined by the interfacial energies between the
solid, liquid, and gas phases. This is determined by the Young/Dupre Equation,

γlvcosθ = (γsv – γsl)

where γlv is the surface energy of the liquid/vapor interface, γsv is the surface energy of the solid/vapor
interface, γsl is the surface energy of the solid/liquid interface, and θ is the “contact angle”, the angle
formed at the junction between vapor, solid, and liquid phases, as shown in Figure 2. If the contact angle
is very small, then the bubble does not attach to the surface, while a very large contact angle results in
very strong bubble attachment. A contact angle near 90° is sufficient for effective froth flotation in most
cases.

γl
Liqui
d Vapo
r(or air)
sv
γ sl

Solid

Figure 2: Contact angle between and air bubble and a solid surface immersed in liquid
1.2. Particle/Bubble Contact

Once the particles are rendered hydrophobic, they must be brought in contact with gas bubbles so that
the bubbles can attach to the surface. If the bubbles and surfaces never come in contact, then no
flotation can occur. Contact between particles and bubbles can be accomplished in a flotation cell such
as the one shown schematically in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Simplified schematic of a conventional flotation cell. The rotor draws slurry through the stator
and expels it to the sides, creating a suction that draws air down the shaft of the stator. The air is then
dispersed as bubbles through the slurry, and comes in contact with particles in the slurry that is drawn
through the stator

Particle/bubble collision is affected by the relative sizes of the particles. If the bubbles are large relative
to the particles, then fluid flowing around the bubbles can sweep the particles past without coming in
contact. It is therefore best if the bubble diameter is comparable to the particle diameter in order to
ensure good particle/bubble contact.

1.3. Collection in the Froth Layer

Once a particle and bubble have come in contact, the bubble must be large enough for its buoyancy to
lift the particle to the surface. This is obviously easier if the particles are low- density (as is the case for
coal) than if they are high-density (such as lead sulfide). The particle and bubble must remain attached
while they move up into the froth layer at the top of the cell. The froth layer must persist long enough to
either flow over the discharge lip of the cell by gravity, or to be removed by mechanical froth scrapers. If
the froth is insufficiently stable, the bubbles will break and drop the hydrophobic particles back into the
slurry prematurely.

However, the froth should not be so stable as to become persistent foam, as a foam is difficult to convey
and pump through the plant. The surface area of the bubbles in the froth is also important. Since
particles are carried into the froth by attachment to bubble surfaces, increasing amounts of bubble
surface area allows a more rapid flotation rate of particles. At the same time, increased surface area also
carries more water into the froth as the c film between the bubbles. Since fine particles those are not
attached to air bubbles will be unselectively carried into the froth along with the water (entrainment),
excessive amounts of water in the froth can result in significant contamination of the product with
gangue minerals.

1.4. Reagents

The properties of raw mineral mixtures suspended in plain water are rarely suitable for froth flotation.
Chemicals are needed both to control the relative hydrophobicities of the particles, and to maintain the
proper froth characteristics. There are therefore many different reagents involved in the froth flotation
process, with the selection of reagents depending on the specific mineral mixtures being treated.

1.4.1. Collectors

Collectors are reagents that are used to selectively adsorb onto the surfaces of particles. They form a
monolayer on the particle surface that essentially makes a thin film of non-polar hydrophobic
hydrocarbons. The collectors greatly increase the contact angle so that bubbles will adhere to the
surface. Selection of the correct collector is critical for an effective separation by froth flotation.
Collectors can be generally classed depending on their ionic charge: they can be nonionic, anionic, or
cationic, as shown in Figure 6. The nonionic collectors are simple hydrocarbon oils, while the anionic and
cationic collectors consist of a polar part that selectively attaches to the mineral surfaces, and a non-
polar part that projects out into the solution and makes the surface hydrophobic. Collectors can either
chemically bond to the mineral surface (chemisorption), or be held on the surface by physical forces
(physical adsorption).

1.4.1.1. Chemisorption

In chemisorption, ions or molecules from solution undergo a chemical reaction with the surface,
becoming irreversibly bonded. This permanently changes the nature of the surface. Chemisorption of
collectors is highly selective, as the chemical bonds are specific to particular atoms..

1.4.1.2. Physisorption

In physisorption, ions or molecules from solution become reversibly associated with the surface,
attaching due to electrostatic attraction or van der Waals bonding. The physisorbed substances can be
desorbed from the surface if conditions such as pH or composition of the solution changes.
Physisorption is much less selective than chemisorption, as collectors will adsorb on any surface that has
the correct electrical charge or degree of natural hydrophobicity.
Sodium Less-used than fatty acids. Less Less-used than fatty acids. Less collecting power,
oleate and collecting power, higher selectivity higher selectivity
fatty acids
with this
polar group
occur in
vegetable
oils. Collector
for hematite
and other
metal oxide
minerals.
Strong
collector, low
selectivity

Figure 4: Basic collector types, In the structures, “R” represents a hydrocarbon chain, different collectors
will use different hydrocarbons for “R”

1.4.1.3. Nonionic Collectors

Hydrocarbon oils, and similar compounds, have an affinity for surfaces that are already partially
hydrophobic. They selectively adsorb on these surfaces, and increase their hydrophobicity. The most
commonly-floated naturally-hydrophobic material is coal. Addition of collectors such as fuel oil and
kerosene significantly enhances the hydrophobicity of the coal particles without affecting the surfaces of
the associated ash-forming minerals. This improves the recovery of the coal, and increases the
selectivity between coal particles and mineral matter. Fuel oil and kerosene have the following
advantages over specialized collectors for froth flotation:

1) They have low enough viscosity to disperse in the slurry and spread over the coal particles easily

2) They are very low-cost compared to other compounds which can be used as coal collectors.

In addition to coal, it is also possible to float naturally-hydrophobic minerals such as molybdenite,

elemental sulfur, and talc with nonionic collectors. Nonionic collectors can also be used as “extenders”
for other collectors. If another, more-expensive collector makes a surface partially hydrophobic, adding
a nonpolar oil will often increase the hydrophobicity further at low cost.

1.4.1.5. Anionic Collectors

Anionic collectors are weak acids or acid salts that ionize in water, producing a collector that has a
negatively-charged end that will attach to the mineral surfaces, and a hydrocarbon chain that extends
out into the liquid, as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Adsorption of anionic collector onto a solid surface. The anionic portion is responsible for the
attachment of the collector molecule to the surface, while the hydrophobic part alters the surface
hydrophobicity.

1.4.1.5.1. Anionic Collectors for Sulfide Minerals

The most common collectors for sulfide minerals are the sulfhydryl collectors, such as the various
xanthates and dithiophosphates. Xanthates are highly selective collectors for sulfide minerals, as they
chemically react with the sulfide surfaces and do not have any affinity for the common non-sulfide
gangue minerals. Other highly-selective collectors for use with sulfide minerals, such as
dithiophosphates, have somewhat different adsorption behavior and so can be used for some
separations that are difficult using xanthates.
1.4.1.5.2. Anionic Collectors for Oxide Minerals

The collectors available for flotation of oxide minerals are not as selective as the collectors used for
sulfide mineral flotation, as they attach to the surface by electrostatic attraction rather than by
chemically bonding to the surface. As a result, there is some collector adsorption onto the minerals that
are not intended to float.

A typical anionic collector for oxide mineral flotation is sodium oleate, the sodium salt of oleic acid. The
anionic group responsible for attaching it to the mineral surface is the carboxyl group, which dissociates
in water to develop a negative charge. The negatively-charged group is then attracted to positively-
charged mineral surfaces.

Since particles that are immersed in water develop a net charge due to exchanging ions with the liquid,
it is often possible to manipulate the chemistry of the solution so that one mineral has a strong positive
charge while other minerals have a charge that is either only weakly positive, or negative. In these
conditions, the anionic collector will preferentially adsorb onto the surface with the strongest positive
charge and render them hydrophobic.

1.4.1.6. Cationic Collectors

Cationic collectors use a positively-charged amine group (shown in Figure 6) to attach to mineral
surfaces. Since the amine group has a positive charge, it can attach to negatively-charged mineral
surfaces. Cationic collectors therefore have essentially the opposite effect from anionic collectors, which
attach to positively-charged surfaces. Cationic collectors are mainly used for flotation of silicates and
certain rare-metal oxides, and for separation of potassium chloride (sylvite) from sodium chloride
(halite).

Figure 6: Primary, secondary, and tertiary amine groups that can be used for cationic collectors.

1.4.2. Frothers

Frothers are compounds that act to stabilize air bubbles so that they will remain well-dispersed in the
slurry, and will form a stable froth layer that can be removed before the bubbles burst. The most
commonly used frothers are alcohols, particularly MIBC (Methyl Isobutyl Carbinol, or 4- methyl-2-
pentanol, a branched-chain aliphatic alcohol) or any of a number of water-soluble polymers based on
propylene oxide (PO) such as polypropylene glycols. The polypropylene glycols in particular are very
versatile, and can be tailored to give a wide range of froth properties. Many other frothers are available,
such as cresols and pine oils, but most of these are considered obsolete and are not as widely used as
they once were. Some work has also been done using salt water (particularly seawater) as the frothing
agent.

1.4.2.1 Synthetic and Natural Frothers

The original frothers were natural products, such as pine oil and cresylic acid. These are rich in surface-
active agents that stabilize froth bubbles, and are effective frothers. As natural products, they are not
pure chemicals, but instead contain a broad range of chemicals other than those that are effective
frothers. Some of these compounds can act as collectors by attaching to mineral surfaces. As a result,
these frothers are also weak collectors. While this can have the advantage of reducing the amount of
collector that needs to be added separately, it introduces some problems with process control. If the
frother is also a collector, then it becomes impossible to alter the frothing characteristics and the
collecting characteristics of the flotation operation independently.

Synthetic frothers, such as the alcohol-type and polypropylene glycol-type frothers, have the advantage
that their effectiveness as collectors is negligible. It is therefore possible to increase the frother dosage
without also changing the quantity of collector in the system. This in turn makes the flotation process
much easier to control.

1.4.3. Modifiers

Modifiers are chemicals that influence the way that collectors attach to mineral surfaces. They may
either increase the adsorption of collector onto a given mineral (activators), or prevent collector from
adsorbing onto a mineral (depressants). It is important to note that just because a reagent is a
depressant for one mineral/collector combination, it does not necessarily follow that it is a depressant
for other combinations. For example, sodium sulfide is a powerful depressant for sulfide minerals being
floated with xanthate, but does not affect flotation when sulfide minerals are floated with the collector
hexadecyl trimethyl ammonium bromide.

1.4.3.1 pH Control

The simplest modifiers are pH control chemicals. The surface chemistry of most minerals is affected by
the pH. For example, in general minerals develop a positive surface charge under acidic conditions and a
negative charge under alkaline conditions. Since each mineral changes from negatively-charged to
positively-charged at some particular pH, it is possible to manipulate the attraction of collectors to their
surfaces by pH adjustment. There are also other, more complex effects due to pH that change the way
that particular collectors adsorb on mineral surfaces.

Sulfhydryl collectors such as xanthate ions compete with OH- ions to adsorb on mineral surfaces, and so
adsorption is a function of pH. This makes it possible for sulfhydryl collectors to be used to progressively
separate specific minerals. The pH where the xanthate ion wins the competition with OH- ions depends
both on the concentration of xanthate in solution, and on the specific sulfide mineral present.

1.4.3.1.1. Acids

The acids used are generally those that that give the greatest pH change at the lowest cost, with sulfuric
acid being most popular. A key point to keep in mind is that the anion of the acid can potentially have
effects of its own, separate from the lowering of the pH. There are therefore some cases where acids
other than sulfuric acid are useful.

1.4.3.1.2. Alkalis

Like acids, the most popular alkalis are those that are cheapest, with the lowest-cost alkali generally
being lime (CaO or Ca(OH)2). However, the calcium ion often interacts with mineral surfaces to change
their flotation behavior. In some cases the calcium ions have beneficial effects, while in other cases they
change the flotation in undesirable ways. It may therefore be necessary to use sodium-based alkalis
such as NaOH or Na2CO3, because the sodium cation generally does not have any significant effect on
the particle surface chemistries.

1.4.3.1.3. Activators

Activators are specific compounds that make it possible for collectors to adsorb onto surfaces that they
could not normally attach to. A classic example of an activator is copper sulfate as an activator for
sphalerite (ZnS) flotation with xanthate collectors (Fuerstenau et al., 1985). When untreated, xanthate
cannot attach to the sphalerite surface because it forms a zinc-xanthate compound that quickly
dissolves:

ZnS(s) + Xanthate- € S(s) + ZnXanthate (aq)

The surface of the sphalerite can be activated by reacting it with a metal ion that does not form a
soluble xanthate, such as soluble copper from dissolved copper sulfate:

ZnS(s) + CuSO4(aq) € CuS(s) + ZnSO4(aq)

This forms a thin film of copper sulfide on the sphalerite surface, which allows for stable attachment of
the xanthate, rendering the sphalerite particle hydrophobic and floatable. Other metals such as silver
and lead can also be used to activate zinc, but copper is cheaper than silver and less toxic than lead.

It is also possible to adsorb specific ions onto the surface that can promote attachment of the collector.
For example, silica (SiO2) normally has a strongly-negative surface charge at approximately neutral pH,
and therefore has little affinity for anionic collectors such as oleic acid. However, calcium ions
specifically adsorb onto silica surfaces, and the negative charge of the calcium ions can actually reverse
the surface charge, making it positive. It is then possible for the anionic collectors to electrostatically
attach to the calcium-activated silica surface.
1.4.4. Depressants

Depressants have the opposite effect of activators, by preventing collectors from adsorbing onto
particular mineral surfaces. Their typical use is to increase selectivity by preventing one mineral from
floating, while allowing another mineral to float unimpeded.

1.4.4.1. Cyanide

Cyanide (CN-) is a particularly useful depressant in sufide mineral flotation. Its activity is believed to be
due to its ability to complex with, and in some cases dissolve, a number of metal ions, preventing them
from attaching to the xanthate molecules. In particular, it is a strong depressant for pyrite (FeS2), and
can be used to “deactivate” sphalerite that has been activated by copper ions in solution.

1.4.4.2. Lime

Lime is added as either CaO or Ca(OH)2, and when it dissolves it contributes calcium ions that can
adsorb onto mineral surfaces. In combination with its strong alkaline nature, this makes it particularly
useful in manipulating sulfide flotation. It is less useful in oxide mineral flotation, because it can activate
the flotation of silica by anionic collectors, causing it to float along with the other oxide minerals

1.4.4.3. Organic Depressants

A large number of organic compounds are useful as flotation depressants. These tend to be soluble
polymers (such as starch) that selectively coat mineral surfaces and prevent collector from attaching. An
example of this is in the “reverse flotation” of silica from iron ore, where the silica tailings are floated
using a cationic collector at a pH of 8.5 - 11, leaving behind the iron oxide minerals. Starch acts as a
depressant for iron oxide in this process, preventing it from being floated by the cationic collector.

1.5. Equipment

In addition to controlling the chemistry, flotation requires a machine for mixing and dispersing air
throughout the mineral slurry while removing the froth product. These individual machines are then
connected to form a flotation circuit in order to fully clean the product. Flotation cells are mainly of two
types

1. Pneumatic Flotation cells

2. Mechanical Flotation cells

1.5.1. Pneumatic Flotation cells

Pneumatic machines either use air entrained by turbulent pulp addition (cascade cells), or more
commonly air either blown in or induced, in which case the air must be dispersed either by baffles or by
some form of permeable base within the cell. Generally pneumatic machines give a low-grade
concentrate and little operating trouble. Since air is used not only to produce the froth and create
aeration but also to maintain the suspension and to circulate it, an excessive amount is usually
introduced and for this and other reasons they have been little used.

The important pneumatic flotation cells are discussed here.

1.5.1.1. DACRA CELL:

The cell consists of a tank segmented by a vertical baffle. Air and feed slurry are injected into the tank
through a cyclone-type dispersion nozzle, the energy of the jet of pulp being dissipated against the
vertical baffle. Dispersion of air and collection of particles by bubbles allegedly occurs in the highly
agitated region of tank confined by the baffle. The pulp flows over the baffle into a quiescent region
designed for bubble-pulp disengagement.

Applications:

The cell can be used for roughing or cleaning applications on a variety of minerals.

Advantages:

1. Lower operating costs

2. Reduced floor area

3. Improved metallurgical performance.

1.5.1.2. FLOTATION COLUMN

A typical configuration of a column is shown in below Figure. It consists of two distinct sections. In the
section below the feed point (the recovery section), particles suspended in the descending water phase
contact a rising swarm of air bubbles produced by a sparger in the column base. Floatable particles
collide with and adhere to the bubbles and are transported to the washing section above the feed point.
Non-floatable material is removed from the base of the column as tailing. Gangue particles that are
loosely attached to bubbles or are entrained in bubble slipstreams are washed back into the recovery
section, hence reducing contamination of the concentrate. The wash water also serves to suppress the
flow of feed slurry up the column towards the concentrate outlet. There is a downward liquid flow in all
parts of the column

Flotation columns are usually about 12 m high, with diameters of up to about 3.5m (round or square,
the former being more popular). Several attempts have been made to develop column-type devices with
much smaller height/diameter ratios. Contact between the feed and the air stream is made in a mixing
device at the top of a vertical down comer. The air-liquid mixture flows downwards to discharge into a
shallow pool of pulp in the bottom of a short cylindrical column. The bubbles disengage and rise to the
top of the column to overflow into a concentrate launder, while the tails are discharged from the
bottom of the vessel.

The main advantages of columns are:

1. Improved separation performance, particularly on fine materials

2. Low capital and operational cost

3. Less plant space demand

4. Adaptability to automatic control.

1.5.1.3. JAMESON CELL

The cell was first installed for cleaning duties in base metal operations but it has also found uses in other
duties including roughing and pre-concentrating. It also has a novel application in solvent extraction-
electro-winning, where it is being used to recover entrained organic from copper-rich electrolyte in
many of the copper-leaching operations. The Jameson cell has also become widely used in the coal
industry. Typical cell layout is shown in the below Figure, which shows the fine coal slurry feeding a
central distributor, splitting the stream and being treated.
Applications:

1. It is used in solvent extraction of Cu concentration

2. Concentration of coal

Advantages:

1. It is able to produce clean concentrate in one stage of operation

1.5.1.4. FROTH SEPARATORS

The principle of the froth separator is that conditioned feed is discharged onto the top of a froth bed,
the hydrophobic particles being retained while the hydrophilic species pass through and are thereby
separated. This method is particularly suited to the separation of coarse particles. The slurry is
introduced at the top of the machine and descends over sloping baffles before entering an aeration
trough, where it is strongly aerated before floating horizontally onto the top of the froth bed. Water and
solids which penetrate the froth bed pass between aerator pipes into the pyramidal tank. The aerators
are rubber pipes with 40-60 fine holes per cubic centimeter, into which air is blown at 115 kPa. The
machine, which has two froth discharge lips, each 1.6 m long, is capable of treating 50tph of solids at
slurry densities of between 50 and 70% solids. They have great potential for treating coarse feeds at up
to ten times the rate of mechanical machines. The upper size limit for flotation is increased to about 3
mm, but they are not suited to fines treatment, a typical feed size range being about 75 pm to 2 mm.
The role of flotation time is reversed, increasing flotation times reducing the recovery but increasing the
concentrate grade
1.5.2. Mechanical Flotation cells

Mechanical flotation machines are the most widely used, being characterized by a
mechanically driven impeller which agitates the slurry and disperses the incoming air into small bubbles.
The machines may be self-aerating, the depression created by the impeller inducing the air, or
"supercharged" where air is introduced via an external blower. In a typical flotation bank, there are a
number of such machines in series, "cell-to-cell" machines being separated by weirs between each
impeller, whereas "open-flow" or "free-flow" machines allow virtually unrestricted flow of the slurry
down the bank.

1.5.2.1. DENVER SUB-AERATION CELL

The flotation mechanism is suspended in an individual square cell separated from the adjoining cell by
an adjustable weir. A feed pipe conducts the flow of pulp from the weir of the preceding cell to the
mechanism of the next cell, the flow being aided by the suction action of the impeller. The positive
suction created by the impeller draws air down the hollow stand-pipe surrounding the shaft. This air
stream is sheared into fine bubbles by the impeller action and is intimately mixed with the pulp which is
drawn into the cell onto the rotating impeller. Directly above the impeller is a stationary hood, which
prevented "sanding-up" of the impeller if the machine is shut down. Attached to this hood are four
baffle vanes, which extend almost to the comers of the cell. These prevented agitation and swirling of
the pulp above the impeller, thus producing a quiescent zone where bubbles can ascend with their
mineral load without being subjected to scouting which may cause them to drop it. The mineral laden
bubbles separate from the gangue in this zone and pass upward to form froth. As the bubbles move to
the pulp level, they are carried forward to the overflow lip by the crowding action of succeeding
bubbles, and quick removal of froth is accomplished by froth paddles which aid the overflow.

Pulp from the cell flowed over the adjustable tailings weir, and was drawn on to the impeller of the next
cell where it was again subjected to intense agitation and aeration. Particles which are too heavy to flow
over the tailings weir are by-passed through sand relief ports, which prevented the build-up of coarse
material in the cell.
1.5.2.2. WEMCO-FAGERGREN CELL

A widely used flotation machine is the Wemco-Fagergren manufactured in sizes up to 85m3. The modem
1 + 1 design consists of a rotor-disperser assembly, rather than an impeller, and the unit usually
comprises a long rectangular trough, divided into sections, each containing a rotor-disperser assembly.
The feed enters below the first partition, and tails go over partitions from one section to the next, the
pulp level being adjusted at the end tailings weir. Pulp passing through each cell, or compartment, is
drawn upwards into the rotor by the suction created by the rotation. The rotor also draws air down the
standpipe, no external blower being needed. The air is thoroughly mixed with the pulp before being
broken into small, firm bubbles by the disperser, a stationary, fibbed, perforated band encompassing
the rotor, by abruptly diverting the whirling motion of the pulp.

1.5.2.3. AGITAIR MACHINE

This system, again, offers a straight line flow of pulp through a suitably proportioned row of cells, flow
being produced by a gravity head. The Agitair machine is often used in large-capacity plants. In each
compartment, which may be up to 42.5 m3 in volume, is a separate impeller rotating in a stationary
baffle system. Air is blown into the pulp through the hollow standpipe surrounding the impeller shaft,
and is sheared into fine bubbles, the volume of air being controlled separately for each compartment.
Pulp depth is controlled by means of weir bars or dart valves at the discharge end of the bank, while the
depth of froth in each cell can be controlled by varying the number and size of froth weir bars provided
for each cell. Agitair machines produce copious froths and have found favour in mills handling ores of
poor floatability, which require large froth columns to help weakly aerophilic particles to overflow.
1.6. Flotation of Copper-lead-zinc ores

The mineralogy of many of Cu-Pb-Zn ores is a complex assembly of finely disseminated

and intimately associated chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite in a gangue consisting predominantly of
pyrite or pyrrhotite (often 80-90%), quartz and carbonates. Such massive sulphide ores of volcano
sedimentary origin are also a valuable source of silver and gold. The complex Cu-Pb-Zn ores represent
15% of total world production and 7.5% of the world copper reserves, these percentages being higher
for zinc. Grades of ore mined 0.3-3% Cu, 0.3-3% Pb, 0.2-10% Zn, 3-100gt Ag and 0-10gt Au on average.
The major processing problems encountered are related specifically to the mineralogy of the
assemblies. Due to the extremely fine dissemination and interlocking of the minerals, extensive fine
grinding is often needed, usually to well below 75 µm. Such extensive fine grinding is extremely energy
intensive (in the order of 50kWh/t) and the large surface area produced leads to high reagent
consumptions, the release of metal ions into solution, which reduces flotation selectivity, and a greater
tendency for surface oxidation. Oxidation is particularly serious with galena, which is often over ground
in closed circuit grinding, being the heaviest mineral in the complex ores.

The general flowsheet for sequential flotation involves conditioning the slurry with SO2
at low pH (5-7) and using a selective collector such as ethyl xanthate, Di-Thiophosphate or
Thionocarbamate, which allows a copper concentrate which is relatively low in lead to be floated. The
copper tailings are conditioned with lime or soda ash, xanthate, sodium cyanide and/or zinc sulphate.
After which a lead concentrate is produced, the tailings being treated with copper sulphate prior to zinc
flotation. Sequential separation is required where there is a marked difference in floatability between
the copper and lead minerals, which makes bulk rougher flotation and subsequent separation of the
minerals in the bulk concentrate difficult. The feed, containing roughly 1.3% Cu, 5.5% Pb, and 13% Zn,
was conditioned with SO2, starch, sodium metabisulphite and a dithiophosphate collector, after which a
copper concentrate was produced, which was cleaned twice. The copper tailings were conditioned with
lime, NaCN, starch, and sodium secondary butyl xanthate, prior to flotation of a lead concentrate which
contained the less floatable copper minerals. This concentrate was reverse cleaned by steam heating to
85⁰C prior to flotation of the copper minerals with no further reagent addition. The floated copper
minerals were pumped to the initial copper cleaning circuit. Lead rougher tailings fed the zinc roughing
circuit.