ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY

College of Natural & Computational Sciences

School of Information Science

Foundations of Information
Systems and Society
Individual Assignment

Title-Generations of
Computers
Name-Natan Mesfin
ID- UGR/6679/16
section- 2

PREPARED BY- NATAN MESFIN

SUBMITTED TO - INSTRUCTOR FASIL Y.

Submission Date- November 27/2024

GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS 11/27/2024

Table of Contents

What is generations of computer mean? ..................................................................................................... 4

What is the purpose of knowing the generations of computer?.................................................................. 4
.................................................................................... 6
Pascal's calculator ..................................................................................................................................... 6
Jacquard's loom ........................................................................................................................................ 6
Babbage's Difference Engine .................................................................................................................... 7
Hollerith's machine ................................................................................................................................... 7
electromagnetic relay ............................................................................................................................... 8
......................................................................................................................... 9
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 9
Notable First-Generation Computers ..................................................................................................... 10
Impact and Legacy: ................................................................................................................................. 10
Technology used ..................................................................................................................................... 10
 Vacuum tube ............................................................................................................................... 10
 Magnetic Drums .......................................................................................................................... 11
Punched Cards .................................................................................................................................... 12
Features of first generation of Computers ............................................................................................. 14
Some Important Computers .................................................................................................................. 14
ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) .................................................................. 14
UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer) ......................................................................................... 15
Limitations .............................................................................................................................................. 15
Impact on Future Generations ............................................................................................................... 16
Impact on Second-Generation Computers ......................................................................................... 16
Long-Term Contributions .................................................................................................................... 16
.................................................................................................................... 16
Introduction to the Second Generation (1956–1963) ........................................................................... 16
Key Characteristics ................................................................................................................................. 17

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Technology.......................................................................................................................................... 17
Memory .............................................................................................................................................. 17
Size and Efficiency .............................................................................................................................. 17
Input/Output Devices ........................................................................................................................ 17
Technological Advances ......................................................................................................................... 17
Transistors .......................................................................................................................................... 17
High-Level Programming Languages .................................................................................................. 18
Applications ............................................................................................................................................ 18
Advantages and Disadvantages ............................................................................................................. 19
Advantages ......................................................................................................................................... 19
Limitations .......................................................................................................................................... 19
Impact on Society ................................................................................................................................... 20
Notable Innovations ............................................................................................................................... 20
Legacy and Transition............................................................................................................................. 20
.................................................................................................................... 21
Introduction to the Third Generation of Computers(1964-1975) ........................................................ 21
Key Characteristics of Third-Generation Computers ............................................................................ 21
Technology: ........................................................................................................................................ 21
Technological Advances of the Third Generation ................................................................................. 23
Applications of Third-Generation Computers ....................................................................................... 24
Benefits and Limitations ........................................................................................................................ 24
........................................................................................... 25
Introduction to the Fourth Generation of Computers .......................................................................... 25
Key Characteristics of Fourth-Generation Computers .......................................................................... 26
Examples of Fourth-Generation Computers ......................................................................................... 28
Applications of Fourth-Generation Computers ..................................................................................... 29
Personal Computing ............................................................................................................................ 29
Business and Office Applications ........................................................................................................ 30
Entertainment ..................................................................................................................................... 30
Education ............................................................................................................................................ 30

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Benefits and Limitations of Fourth-Generation Computers ................................................................. 30

Legacy and Transition to Fifth Generation ............................................................................................ 31
.................................................................................................................... 31
Introduction to the Fifth Generation of Computers(present and beyond) .......................................... 31
Key Characteristics of Fifth-Generation Computers ............................................................................. 31
2. Parallel Processing .......................................................................................................................... 32
3. Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) ................................................................................................. 32
4. Knowledge-Based Systems ............................................................................................................. 33
5. Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)................................................................................................ 33
Technological Advances in Fifth Generation ......................................................................................... 33
Examples of Fifth-Generation Computer Systems ................................................................................ 34
Applications of Fifth-Generation Computers ........................................................................................ 35
1. Medicine and Healthcare ................................................................................................................ 35
2. Finance and Business ...................................................................................................................... 37
3. Military and Defense ....................................................................................................................... 38
4. Education and Research .................................................................................................................. 38
Future Trends and Legacy of Fifth-Generation Computers .................................................................. 40
.............................................................................................................................................. 41
.................................................................................................................................................. 44

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What is generations of computer mean?

The 'generations of computer' are used to describe discrete steps in the evolution of
technology applied to computer hardware and software. Each generation featured significant
improvements that have revolutionized capability, size, efficiency, and cost.

What is the purpose of knowing the generations of computer?

Essentially, the study of generations of computers is important for a number of reasons,
including, but not limited to, the following:
1. Grasping Technological Evolution
 Historical Perspective: It helps us understand how technology has advanced over time,
right from early vacuum tube computers to today's AI-driven systems.
 Technological Milestones: Recognizing key developments that have revolutionized
computing-for instance, the invention of the transistor or the microprocessor.
2. Learning from the Past
 Improvements and Innovations: By understanding history, one finds out what worked
and what did not to help further innovations in the future.
 Problem-Solving: Knowing historical problems and how they were solved gives
important points for problem-solving in current and future times.
3. Appreciation for Current Technology
 Complexity and Capability: It gives an appreciation of how complex and capable today's
computers are in comparison to their forefathers.
 User Experience: Understanding the evolution of user interfaces and software helps
immensely appreciate the user-friendliness in today's designs.
4. Preparing for the Future
 Outlook towards the Emerging Technologies: It helps us look forward to the future and
be ready for most of the emerging technologies, including quantum computing and
advanced AI.

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 Career Opportunities: Computer generations studies are important to any person

interested in a career in technology. Knowledge of this subject provides a firm
foundation for an understanding of modern systems and innovations.
5. Educational Value
 Wide Knowledge Base: Comprises wide computer science education ranging from
hardware to software development.
 Critical Thinking: Review of evolution in computer technology enhances the ability for
critical thinking and problem-solving.
There are 5 generations of computer. These are:

1st 2 nd 3rd
Generation Generation Generation

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4th 5th
Generation Generation

Pascal's calculator
German inventor Wilhelm Schickard (1592-1635) created the first functional calculator in 1623,
but a fire shortly after it was built destroyed the design's specifics. At the age of 19, French
scholar Blaise Pascal (1623-1635) created a mechanical calculator in 1642. His machine was
powered by hand and used mechanical gears. To add or subtract, one could use dials to enter
numbers up to eight digits long, and then spin a crank. The German mathematician Gottfried
Wilhelm von Leibniz (1646–1716) expanded on Pascal's work thirty years later to create a
mechanical calculator with multiplication and division capabilities. Throughout the 19th
century, a version of Leibniz's calculator, constructed in 1820 by Thomas de Colmar (1785-
1870), was in widespread use.
Jacquard's loom
While mechanical calculators developed in notoriety within the early 1800's, the primary programmable
machine built was not a calculator at all, but a linger. Around 1801, Frenchman Joseph-Marie Jacquard
(1752-1834) designed a programmable linger that utilized detachable punched cards to speak to
designs. Some time recently Jacquard's linger, creating embroidered works of art was complex and
repetitive work. In arrange to deliver a design, distinctive colored strings (called wefts) had to be woven
over and under the cross-threads (called twists) to create the required impact. Jacquard concocted a
way of encoding the designs of the strings utilizing metal cards with gaps punched in them. When a card

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was bolstered through the machine, hooks passed through the gaps to specifically raise twist strings,
and so create the required over-and-under design. The result was that complex brocades may be
encoded utilizing the cards, and after that duplicated precisely. Essentially by changing the cards, the
same linger can be utilized to consequently weave distinctive designs.

Babbage's Difference Engine

The idea of utilizing punched cards for putting away information was embraced within the mid
1800's by the English mathematician Charles Babbage (1791-1871). In 1821, he proposed the
plan of his Distinction Motor, a steam-powered mechanical calculator for finding the
arrangements to polynomial conditions. In spite of the fact that a completely utilitarian show
was never completed due to confinements in 19th century fabricating innovation, a model that
punched yield onto copper plates was built and utilized in computing information for maritime
route. Babbage's work with the Contrast Motor driven to his plan in 1833 of a more capable
machine that included numerous of the highlights of advanced computers. His Explanatory
Motor was to be a general-purpose, programmable computer that acknowledged input through
punched cards and printed its yield on paper. Comparable to the plan of cutting edge
computers, the Explanatory Motor was to be made of coordinates components, counting a
readable/writeable memory for putting away information and programs (which Babbage called
the store), and a control unit for getting and executing enlightening (which he called the
process). In spite of the fact that a working show of the Expository Motor was never completed,
its imaginative and visionary plan was popularized by the compositions and support of Augusta
Ada Byron, Lady of Lovelace (1815-1852).
Hollerith's machine
Punch cards reemerged within the late 1800's within the shape of Herman Hollerith's arranging
machine. Hollerith concocted a machine for sorting and arranging information for the 1890 U.S. Census.
His machine utilized punch cards to speak to census information, with particular gaps on the cards
speaking to particular data (such as male/female, age, domestic state, etc.) Review that in Jacquard's
linger, the gaps in punch cards permitted snares to selectively pass through and raise float strings.
Within the case of Hollerith's arranging machine, metal pegs passed through gaps within the cards,
making an electrical association with a plate underneath that may be detected by the machine. By
indicating the specified design of gaps, the machine may sort or tally all of the cards comparing to
individuals with given characteristics (such as all men, matured 30-40, from Maryland). Utilizing
Hollerith's organizing machine, the 1890 census was completed in six weeks (compared to the 7 a long
time required for the 1880 census). Hollerith established the Organizing Machine Company in 1896 to
advertise his machine. Inevitably, beneath the authority of Thomas J. Watson, Sr., Hollerith's company
would end up known as Universal Commerce Machines (IBM).

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Electromagnetic relay
It wasn't until the 1930's and the appearance of electromagnetic transfers that computer
innovation truly begun to create. An electromagnetic hand-off could be a mechanical switch
that can be opened and closed by an electrical current that magnetizes it. The German build
Konrad Zuse (1910-1995) is credited with building the primary computer utilizing transfers
within the late 1930's. In any case, his work was classified by the German government and
inevitably crushed amid World War II, and so did not impact other analysts. Within the late
1930's, John Atanasoff (1903-1995) at Iowa State and George Stibitz (1904-1995) at Chime Labs
autonomously outlined and built programmed calculators utilizing electromagnetic transfers.
Within the early 1940's, Howard Aiken (1900-1973) at Harvard rediscovered the work of
Babbage and started applying a few of Babbage's thoughts to cutting edge innovation. Aiken's
Stamp I, built in 1944, may be seen as an implementation of Babbage's Expository Motor
utilizing transfers.
In comparison with cutting edge computers, the speed and computational control of these
early computers could appear primitive. For case, the Stamp I computer may store as it were 72
numbers in memory, in spite of the fact that it might store an extra 60 constants through
manual switches. The machine might perform 10 increases per moment, but required up to 6
seconds to perform a duplication and 12 seconds to perform a division. Still, it was assessed
that complex calculations could be completed 100 times quicker utilizing the Check I as
contradicted to existing innovation at the time.

Zeroth generation of computers

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Introduction
What is the first generation of computer?
First-generation computers are from the 1940s to the 1950s; in fact, this is where the beginning
of electronic digital computing occurs. These early machines used vacuum tubes on their
circuitries, which were relatively big, generated so much heat, and were going into failure quite
often. However, vacuum tubes proved to be an important improvement from earlier
mechanical and electromechanical components because they provided faster computation
speeds.

Figure 1: 1st generation of computers

What is its historical background ?
This generation of computers falls squarely in the historical context of the years following
World War II, years of rapid technological development along with the emergent need for
computational capability. First-generation computers were therefore born during the 1940s
and 1950s, when scientific research, military applications, and business data processing were
continuing to grow in demand.
Key Factors Leading to the Development of First-Generation Computers:
1. World War II: The war gave a fillip to technological innovation-particularly in the arena of
electronics and communications. The need for faster calculations for ballistic trajectories, code-
breaking, and other military applications spurred the development of early computers.
2. Vacuum Tube Technology: The invention of the vacuum tube at the start of the 20th century
provided a means of amplifying electrical signals, necessary in the development of electronic

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computers. First-generation computers made use of vacuum tubes as the base element for
circuitry and logical operations.
3. Scientific Research: Scientific research, in general, but especially in physics and engineering,
underwent rapid development in the post-war period. Early computers were being applied to
carry out complicated calculations for scientific experiments, including weather forecasts and
calculations of atomic energy.
4. Military Applications: The military remained a significant force for the development of
computers, using early computers to perform such tasks as trajectory calculations and logistical
analysis.
5. Business Data Processing: With the growth of businesses, a need for effective data
processing arose. Payroll processing, inventory, and accounting are some of the areas in which
early computers were being utilized.

Notable First-Generation Computers

o ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
o UNIVAC I (Universal Automatic Computer I)

Impact and Legacy:

Therefore, the first generation laid the bedrock of modern computing by showing how
electronic machines could perform some of the most complicated arithmetical computations
and handled large volumes of data. Though big in size, early computers consumed a huge
amount of power with frequent failures; they did lead to further generations with more
sophisticated and efficient computing technology.

Technology used
The technologies that were used by first generation computers are:

 Vacuum tube: Vacuum tubes played an important role in first-generation

computers by allowing both computational and storage activities. The use of
vacuum tubes was as explained below:
▪ Logic Circuits: The vacuum tubes were used as switches or amplifiers for
carrying out logical operations-such as AND, OR, NOT-required for
computation.
- If current was flowing through the tube, it could represent a binary "1"; if it wasn't,
it represented a binary "0". This binary switching was at the heart of their operation.

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▪ Memory Storage:
-Flip-flops used vacuum tubes to store single bits of data in early computers.
- These tubes could store information in the forms of electrical charges, which
was crucial to the temporary storage during computations.
▪ Amplification of Signals:
- Vacuum tubes were amplifiers of electric signals, and it helped to sustain signal
integrity down the circuits.
▪ Processor Construction:
Processors in these computers were developed with several thousand vacuum tubes
wired together to create the CPU.
However, vacuum tubes had some serious limitations:
✓ They generated a great deal of heat.
✓ They consumed enormous amounts of electricity.
✓ They were large and prone to frequent failures.
 Magnetic Drums: Magnetic drums were one of the earliest forms of data storage
employed by the first generation of computers. They played a dual role, both as
memory and secondary storage.
Structure
 A magnetic drum was a cylindrical metal drum coated with a magnetic material.
 It was rotated at a very high speed, and the data was written or read from its
surface by read/write heads positioned along its length.
 Each head was used to get access to the data stored in one specific track on the
drum surface.
First-Generation Usage
1. Primary Memory
2. Secondary Storage
3. Execution of Programs
4. Examples of Usage

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- The IBM 650 and early machines like the UNIVAC used magnetic drums for memory and
storage.
Limitations

• Sequential Access: Contrary to today's random-access memory, the data on a magnetic

drum was accessed in sequence, hence delaying operations.
• Bulk and Cost: Magnetic drums were large, heavy, and expensive compared to later
storage technologies.
• Latency Issues: The continuous rotation meant delays in accessing the wanted data if it
wasn't under the read/write head.

Punched Cards
Punched cards were the primary method of data input and output for the first generation of
computers; they also functioned as data storage. They were hard pieces of paper with data
represented by patterns of punched holes.
Structure
❖ Each card would have rows and columns where holes might be punched.
❖ Whether there was a hole or not at any particular point would be binary information
("1" if there was a hole, "0" if not).
Usage:
1. Data Entry:
- Programs and data were first input into the computer via punched cards. The programs were
generally written in some type of coded form and copied onto cards.
- The computer then sorted the decks of cards entered by the users one by one.
2. Program Storage:
- The computer instructions were punched into these cards for reusable code and program
portability.
3. Data Storage:
- Punched cards also served for offline data storage.
4. Output:

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- The output of the calculation would then be printed out on punched cards for subsequent use
or analysis.

Figure 2: Vacuum tube Figure 3: Punched card

Figure 4: Magnetic drum

Limitations:
✓ Since the access was sequential, large data sets resulted in very slow processing.
✓ Cards were bulky, fragile, and prone to physical damage.
✓ Each card stored limited data, so large programs required thousands of cards.

Comparison between punched cards and magnetic drums:

Features Punched cards Magnetic Drums

Purpose Input/output and offline Memory and secondary

storage. storage.

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Data access Sequential, physical Sequential, rotational

reading. latency.
Storage type Offline, non-electronic. Magnetic,
electronic/mechanical.
Limitations Fragility, bulk, slow High latency, large size,
access. mechanical wear.
Features of first generation of Computers
Physical Size and Power Consumption

 Big sized and bulky computers: These were room-sized and required a large surface
area for operations. Parts such as vacuum tubes, magnetic drums, and gigantic wiring
systems increased the physical size.
 High power consumption: They used huge amounts of power, and it was often
required to build an entire building to provide electricity. The vacuum tubes created
tremendous heat. So, massive cooling systems needed to be used.
 Relatively Slow: Their clock cycles were in the milliseconds, orders of magnitude slower
than modern computers.
 Limited Processing Power: With no advanced memory or storage, these machines were
only capable of performing basic linear operations and nothing with much flexibility
associated.

Some Important Computers

ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)
Development and Purpose:
 It was developed during the 1940s by two individuals, John Mauchly and J. Presper
Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania.
 Developed to compute artillery firing tables for the United States Army during World
War II.
Key Features and Contributions:
 Those with nearly 18,000 vacuum tubes and 70,000 resistors; the 5 million soldered
joints.
 Capable of executing 5,000 additions or 357 multiplications per second.
 Laid the foundation for digital computing and demonstrated what electronic machines
could do.

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UNIVAC (Universal Automatic Computer)

Historical Significance:
 Designed in the early 1950's by the same team that built ENIAC.
 First commercially produced computer for business and administrative use.
Key Features and Contributions:
 Magnetic tape was used for data storage, which was much faster in terms of
input and output when compared to punched cards.
 Played a key role in the U.S. presidential election of 1952 by correctly predicting
the Eisenhower victory.

Applications and Uses

Scientific Calculations:

Commercial Applications:
Military Applications:

•Applied to •Ballistics and •Early uses

weather trajectory included census
forecasting and calculations, tabulation and
modeling atomic mainly during and financial
energy processes. after World War accounting.
•Performed II. •Facilitated
astronomical •Cryptography and smooth business
calculations and code-breaking data processing in
mathematical applications. industries such as
investigations. banking and
insurance.
•Limitations

Limitations
1. Size and Heat Generation:

 Machines were huge and needed a separate room to operate.

 Vacuum tubes emitted a lot of heat and thus tended to fail frequently.
2. Reliability Issues:

 Vacuum tubes burned out frequently, hence leading to breakdowns.

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 Maintenance was high and thus further contributed to operational hazards.

3. Cost:

 Development, installation, and maintenance were too costly, making it accessible only
to governments and big organizations.

Impact on Future Generations

Impact on Second-Generation Computers
 Moving to transistors: these limitations of vacuum tubes—size, heat, and reliability—get
the development of transistors underway in the 1950s, with machines that are smaller,
more efficient, and more reliable.
 Memory and Storage: The significant innovations of the second-generation included
magnetic cores and enhanced storage.
Long-Term Contributions
 Base for Modern Computing: Originally introduced the basic ideas of binary
programming, stored memory, and logic circuitry.
 Expansion of Application: Showed computers' wide applicability to many fields, which
provided direction in which computing would innovate.
 Cultural and Technological Turn: Initiated the era of digital information that dynamically
transformed industries, science, and society.

Introduction to the Second Generation (1956–1963)

The second generation was a crucial age in which the technology moved from vacuum tube
technology into transistors. Transistors were much more empowering to the computer era
since they were small, fast, and effective compared to vacuum tubes that often overheated and
burned out. The era marked the early beginning of computing as reliable and a sound economic
form of investment even for industrial applications outside the military and academic domains.

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Figure 5: 2nd generation of computers

Key Characteristics
Technology
-Transistors: a very important characteristics of 2nd generation computers was that the use of
transistors instead of vacuum tubes to perform any processing. These semiconductor devices
enabled the operation to be more reliable and generally allowed less power consumption.
Memory
- Magnetic Core Memory: Magnetic core memory utilized in the second-generation systems
considerably improved upon the unreliable delay line storage of first-generation machines.
Magnetic cores were faster and more stable, given the progress of large computation loads.
Size and Efficiency
These machines were smaller, used less power, and threw out less heat than those housed,
power-consuming, heat-generating huge first-generation computers.
- Reliability became paramount, and computers were able to run for extended durations
without failure.
Input/Output Devices
- Input via punched cards and paper tapes persisted as standard, but they were now
complemented with much faster and more efficient peripherals, in the form of early line
printers, for example, to produce data output.

Technological Advances
Transistors
 Transistors came and replaced vacuum tubes with a huge improvement in
computational speed and much better efficiency. Smaller size reduced the physical
size of computers; therefore, computers became more feasible for organizations with
limited space and resources.
 Heat dissipation: the Transistors were running cooler, meaning fewer failures and
longer life of computers.

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Figure 6: Transistors
Magnetic Storage
Development of magnetic tapes and disks allowed for faster, more reliable, and larger data
storage. This was a significant departure from the dependence on punched cards used
previously. Magnetic tapes allowed sequential access while disks supported random access in
catering to more complex applications.
High-Level Programming Languages
Programming became easier and more accessible when “FORTRAN” (1957) was introduced for
scientific calculations, and “COBOL” (1959) introduced business data processing. Both
languages re-abstracted the complex languages of the machines into readable commands,
allowing more people to use the computer.
Examples of Second-Generation Computers
A number of computers defined this era. They showcase the different uses second-generation
technology could be put to:
 IBM 1401: Economical yet versatile, hence widely used for business applications.
 UNIVAC II: A very powerful machine commercially for data processing.
 Honeywell 800: Application in industrial automation at an early stage.
 PDP-1 (Programmed Data Processor-1): Its unique application in interactive computing
made real-time applications possible.

Applications
The second generation expanded the scope of computing into areas other than government
and military research:

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 Scientific Research: Greater speed and higher storage capacity made these systems
appropriate for handling complex calculations associated with physics, engineering,
and biology.
 Business Operations: It was the beginnings of computer applications taking their
position in such industries as banking and insurance to replace manual processing of
tasks like payroll, inventory, and customer records.
 Military Application: The high speed and reliability allowed defense studies and
simulations.
 Space Exploration: The first space research was carried out with the computational
capacity of a second-generation computer.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages

Increased
• Transistors reduced failures due to heating.
Reliability:

Power
• Consumption of less power as compared to vacuum tubes.
Economy:

• The time taken for processing was also radically reduced,

Faster
Processing:
increasing productivity.

• Machines were smaller, fitting office and lab spaces, giving

Compact Size: computers more access to businesses and universities.

Limitations
1. Size and Cost: Machines were considerably smaller in size than the first generation but were
nevertheless bulky and expensive by today's standards.

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2.Memory Limitation: Magnetic core memory had relatively low capacity compared with later
generations.
3.Programming Complexity: Although high-order languages eased the task, to a large extent,
programming remained a specialized skill, few people had mastery over.

Impact on Society
Second-generation computers were to democratize computing, making it accessible to
medium-sized businesses, research institutions, and universities. This generation played an
important role in shaping the data-driven industries that we see today, affecting even the
operational styles of businesses and governments alike. This generation also laid the basis for
mass production and miniaturization that would characterize future generations.

Feature First Generation Second Generation

Technology Vacuum tube Transistors

Size Large, bulky Small, compact

Speed Slow Significantly faster

Reliability Limited (prone to failure) Improved reliability

programming Machine and Assembly High-level languages

languages (FORTRAN, COBOL)

Table 2: Comparison between first and second generations of computers

Notable Innovations
Batch Processing Systems - jobs could be run one after another without intervention by hand.
Assemblers and Compilers: Facilitated the development of software by allowing developers to
create intricate programs at a faster rate and with fewer mistakes.

Legacy and Transition

The second-generation innovations-transistors, magnetic storage, and high-level programming-
this technological bedrock was used to build upon for the third generation. The next step would

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integrate those components into "integrated circuits (ICs)" in order to achieve further
miniaturization and advances in performance.

Introduction to the Third Generation of Computers(1964-1975)

This generation of computers, spanning roughly from 1964 to 1975, is characterized in the
evolutionary history as a period of transition for computers. The key and most important
technological innovation applied during this generation was the use of integrated circuits or ICs
for short, instead of relying on individual transistors used in the second-generation computers.
These ICs combined several transistors on one chip, consequently resulting in drastic decreases
in the size, cost, and power requirements of computers. Hence, it is often described as an era
when computers became miniaturized enough to get smaller, faster, and yet more reliable and
less expensive for medium-sized businesses and educational institutions for the first time.
During this era, minicomputers appeared as a new class of computers that could perform most
of the functions of the larger, more expensive mainframes. IBM's System/360 is often regarded
as the quintessential third-generation computer because it epitomized the trend toward
modular hardware and standardized software to make computing versatile and applicable
across industries.

Figure 7: 3rd generation of

Computers

Key Characteristics of Third-Generation Computers

Technology:
Integrated Circuits (ICs)
The use of integrated circuits, or ICs, was the key technological feature of third-generation
computers. Computers were built using discrete transistors before that, and even though a
significant improvement over the vacuum tube was fair in space and power. With ICs, several
transistors, resistors, and capacitors were integrated into a single package. This dramatically

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reduced the size of computers and made smaller machines with improved performance and
reliability possible. It also led to the use of faster processors, as the compact size of the ICs
allowed faster delivery of signals across the circuitry.

Figure 8: Integrated Circuits

Speed and Efficiency

These computers were much faster and efficient compared to the earlier generations. The
change from transistors to ICs meant that the hardware could now be smaller in size, further
increasing the speed in processing. This is because ICs had shorter paths for electrical signals to
travel hence reducing the time taken by data to move between components. Handling complex
tasks within a very short period of time has effects that pave the way for applications that had
never been imagined previously.

Cost and Size

The application of ICs reduced the size of computers drastically. Systems that had once
occupied whole rooms could now fit on desks or in specialized rooms. With this reduction in
size came another — cost. Computers that had cost millions of dollars now were much cheaper,
within the economic reach of more and more businesses, educational institutions, and research
organizations. The third major social implication arising from this was the democratization of
computing.

Storage and Memory

Third-generation computers used magnetic core memory for main storage, superseding the
earlier methods of drum- and punch-card-based memories. Magnetic core memories enabled
easier access to data and much larger storage capacity. In addition, the second development in
magnetic disk storage was more efficient in secondary storage; it allowed needed data to be
brought to the user in a random manner. Thereby, the efficiency in computation increased
dramatically, mostly for applications requiring large storage of data.

I/O Devices
Third-generation devices featured improved input/output peripherals. The use of monitors,
keyboards, and line printers became standard for these devices, and punched cards and paper
tape became obsolete. The further development led to computers being more user-friendly

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than ever before, with the development of text-based user interfaces, among other things,
improving efficiency in data entry and retrieval. Hence, the ability to display output on the
screen and interactively communicate with computers in real time made it a huge leap toward
the goal of making computers more accessible and interactive.

Technological Advances of the Third Generation

Integrated Circuits and Miniaturization
•The shift to ICs marked the beginning of true miniaturization in computing. By combining
transistors and other components into a single unit, ICs allowed for a more compact design
without sacrificing performance. This also led to the scalability of systems; manufacturers could
increase or decrease the number of ICs used in a system, enabling computers to be customized
for various applications.

Time-Sharing Systems
•A major development of the third generation was the time-sharing systems, whereby more than one
user could operate an individual computer simultaneously. This is contrary to the second generation,
whereby the processing of a job was done one at a time. Time-sharing allowed interactive computing
whereby users were able to talk to the computers in real time, and their productivity became higher.
Operating systems like Multics and CTSS paved the way for the much more sophisticated ones to
follow in subsequent generations.

Software and High-Level Programming Languages

•The third generation also witnessed the introduction and wide usage of high-level
programming languages, for example, COBOL and FORTRAN. Those languages abstracted out
some difficulties of machine-level programming, which allowed programmers to solve
problems independent of hardware specifics. In addition, compilers became available for the
translation of high-level languages into machine code, which made developing software
much easier and faster. This led to ease in programming as the need for coding against
hardware configurations was minimized.

Examples of Third-Generation Computers

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IBM PDP-8 and

System/360
CDC 6600
PDP-11
Probably the most important third-
generation computer was the IBM
System/360, announced in 1964. For
many reasons, the System/360 was a Generally recognized as the first
revolutionary: commercially successful
The CDC 6600, from Control
minicomputer, the Digital
- It was the first family of computers to Data Corporation (CDC),
Equipment Corporation
use modular hardware, where different developed in the early years of
models of the System/360 could share released the PDP-8 in 1965. It
the 1960s, was the world's first
each other's peripherals and hardware. was smaller and cheaper than
supercomputer. The purpose of
In that way, businesses didn't need to the mainframe systems, which
its design was to run complex
replace systems but could upgrade made computing possible for
scientific calculations at very
instead. smaller companies and colleges.
high speeds and to do so by
- The System/360 featured a The PDP-11 was a more
utilizing parallel processing to
standardized software environment; important model from DEC in
perform multiple tasks
businesses could run the same software 1970. It had applications in
on different models of the system. simultaneously. The CDC 6600
scientific, industrial, and
found wide application for
- It could handle a wide range of business situations and was
research work in physics and
applications, from scientific based on a 16-bit architecture,
computations to business tasks, thereby engineering.
unlike the 8-bit architecture
making it an all-round machine for used by the PDP-8.
diverse industries.

Applications of Third-Generation Computers

The third generation ushered computing into mainstream commercial use:
Business: The computers were now applied in business to perform certain tasks, including
payroll processing, accounting, and inventory. The relatively cheaper minicomputers, like the
PDP-8, made computing technology within the reach of even small businesses. Scientific
Research The speed and capacity of third-generation computers greatly increased, finding
themselves invaluable tools for scientific research. This was the era that saw the beginning of
computational physics and engineering simulations.
- Education: Minicomputers also found their way into many universities and colleges as
teaching aids for programming and solving scientific problems.

Benefits and Limitations

Benefits:

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Cost-Effective: The utilization of ICs reduced the prices of computers and made them more
affordable for a wide range of users.
Improved Performance: With quicker processors and enhanced memory systems, computers
were able to perform more difficult tasks.
-Interactive Computing: Time-sharing systems opened the way to real-time communication
with end-users, a leap beyond previous generations.

Limitations:
- Complexity: Third generation machines were relatively small and powerful but were also
technologically quite difficult-to-use, difficult-to-maintain complex machines.

- Cost of Early Systems: Although cheaper than earlier systems, early third-generation
computers were expensive, especially for small business users. Legacy and Transition to the
Fourth Generation
The third generation set the pace for the fourth: Very Large-Scale Integration-VLSI and
microprocessors. Employing ICs in this third generation directly led to developing
microprocessors, which would define the personal computer revolution of the 1980s. The
development of time-sharing, high-level programming languages, and interactive computing
within the third generation allowed further advances in useability to be offered by the fourth
generation.
In summary, the third generation of computers represented a major leap in terms of speed,
efficiency, and accessibility. Due to the advent of integrated circuits, minicomputers and time-
sharing systems, computers gradually became both more powerful and common, a fact that has
borne down on businesses, teaching and research. The innovations of this period have
established the foundation for present day computing systems.

Introduction to the Fourth Generation of Computers

The fourth generation of computers, spanning from the year 1975 until 1989, saw rapid
developments within the realm of computing. In this age the microprocessor, the genesis of a
generation technological change, came on the scene. Microprocessors are integrated circuits
(ICs) that are designed to comprise the whole of the central processing unit (CPU) on a single
chip-a huge step up from previous generations that featured the CPU that was built from
discrete transistors and integrated circuits. The fourth generation is often viewed as when
computers became smaller, more powerful, and much cheaper; thus, giving rise to the personal

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computer revolution. At the end of this generation computers moved from being big,
professional, and corporative tools to a size that enabled the general public to use them in their
homes, schools and small businesses.

Key Characteristics of Fourth-Generation Computers

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• The key characteristic of the fourth generation was the microprocessor. In the earlier generations, the computer's
components such as CPU, memory, and input/output interfaces were constructed as separate units, which often occupied
abundant physical space and consumed large amounts of power. But with the microprocessor, all these units were
Microprocessors: combined into one chip; thus, the computers highly shortened in size and became cheaper to deliver.
Heart of the • The Intel 4004, released in 1971, was the first commercially available microprocessor. Operating at a clock speed of 108
Fourth kHz, it could run only a few thousand instructions per second. However, by the late 1970s, microprocessors evolved
significantly. Intel's 8080 (1974) and 8086 (1978) processors became the heart of many early computers, allowing for
Generation significant improvement in speed and processing power.
• The advent of the microprocessor made personal computers a possibility because now it could be housed within small,
reasonably priced systems and its production was easy to manufacture. Also, with microprocessors, computers could boast
of better energy efficiency and reliability compared to earlier systems.

• Along with microprocessor development, another significant feature of the fourth generation was the increased storage
capacity of computers. The more powerful the microprocessors became, the more and faster primary storage was needed
Increased Storage by computers. In the fourth generation, it became common to use semiconductor memory in the form of dynamic RAM
and (DRAM) and static RAM (SRAM). These types of memories are much faster and more reliable than the magnetic core
Semiconductor memory of the higher generations and thus grant a much bigger capacity for storing data and quicker retrieval of data.
Memory •Coupled with that, hard disk drives introduced a non-volatile storage device capable of holding much more data than
magnetic tapes and floppy disks. Early hard drives had immense storage capacities ranging from 5 MB to 10 MB, a
quantum leap from the earlier constraints of other prior storage technologies

• The fourth generation introduced personal computers (PCs), as it were. Before this era, computers were
•expensive, bulky, and the general application was directed to large corporations, government agencies, and research
institutions. However, once the microprocessor arrived, computers could be mass-produced that were small, inexpensive,
and easy to use; thus the PC revolution got underwa.
Personal • Personal computers in the fourth generation were designed to be used for word processing, accounting, gaming, and
Computers educational software by individuals and small businesses. The Apple II, which was introduced in 1977, was one of the first
highly successful personal computers. With its color graphics, built-in keyboard, and wide range of software applications,
(PCs) the Apple II revolutionized computing for home users and small businesses.
• Another milestone was the 1981 introduction of the IBM PC, which became the industry standard for personal
computers. Unique among computers at the time, the IBM PC had an open architecture; that is, it allowed other
companies to create compatible components and software. The result was an enormous ecosystem of third-party
hardware and software that made PCs more available and inexpensive than at any previous time.

Enhanced • The fourth generation also saw significant enhancements in the field of display technology. Early personal computers
made use of text-based displays, but by the 1980s the utilization of color graphics and graphical user interfaces (GUIs) had
Display entirely changed the way users interacted with their computers. The Apple Macintosh, started in 1984, featured a
Technology and revolutionary GUI that used icons, windows, and menus, which made computers much easier to use for non-technical
users.
Graphical User • General acceptance of GUI OS platforms, such as Microsoft Windows-which started with Windows 1.0 in 1985-made the
Interfaces use of the computer more intuitive and accessible. Users could now interact with their computers using a mouse and
(GUIs) graphical elements instead of through difficult command-line interfaces. This made a radical shift in user experience
possible and expanded computer use significantly to the home and office fronts.

• The fourth generation also saw the development of more powerful and user-friendly software. Earlier
•generations of computers required users to program in assembly languages or machine code that were considered difficult and
Software prone to errors. However, with the introduction of high-level programming languages such as C, BASIC, and Pascal, software
development became more manageable and streamlined.
Advances • Software tool development also helped build the functionality of computers. Such software as word processing packages,
such as WordStar and WordPerfect, spreadsheets, such as VisiCalc and Lotus 1-2- 3, and database management systems, such
as dBASE, allowed businesses and individuals to create documents, analyze data, and manage information more efficiently
and effectively.

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Examples of Fourth-Generation Computers

Apple II
Among the most important personal computers developed in the fourth generation of personal
computers is the Apple II, released in 1977. This was the first self-contained personal computer
(simply go in the box), having the ability to display color graphics which made it a very
appealing option to home users and even to educators. Within a short period, it became one of
the top-selling personal computers during that era and the first computer sold in significant
quantities to home users.

Figure 9: Apple II

IBM PC
The IBM Personal Computer (PC), introduced in 1981, is probably the most significant computer
of the fourth generation. It also got into an embedded Intel 8088 microprocessor-based
microcomputer, MS-DOS as a system of control, an idea of money to earn and availability onto
other computers. Its open architecture allowed other companies to design compatible
hardware and software and, in the end, the IGFPC.

Figure 10: IBM PC

Commodore 64

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The personal computer (Commodore 64) introduced in 1982, another popular personal
computer, is discussed here. It featured a 64KB RAM along with integrated graphics and sound
capabilities, thus finding wide applications in the field of gaming and educational software.
Even today, the C64 is argued to be the most successful home computer ever sold.

Figure 11: Commodore 64

Macintosh
The Apple Macintosh, released in 1984, brought the graphical user interface (GUI) to the
mainstream. And with its 9-inç black-and-white screen, integrated mouse, and unprecedented
usability in this field the Macintosh offered a totally different experience than the IBM PC. It
targeted the home user and graphic designer, but eventually also succeeded in the education or
business field.

Figure 12: Macintosh

Applications of Fourth-Generation Computers

Personal Computing
The greatest application of fourth-generation computers was in the way of the personal
computer. With a truly inexpensive yet powerful personal computer, computing became
accessible for the first time to individuals. Individuals could also use computers to perform
activities such as word processing, spreadsheet and home accounting.

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Business and Office Applications

Fourth-generation computers also triggered a revolutionized business application. Applications,
such as word processors and spreadsheets, altered the way businesses used their documents
and data. Similarly, the introduction of desktop publishing software allowed businesses to
create printed material like newsletters, brochures, and reports much more efficiently
compared with earlier methods.
Entertainment
Fourth-generation computing also extended to entertainment. As personal computers became
common, so did the rise of a great gaming industry. Home computers like Commodore 64 and
Apple II provided a platform for the runaway creative surge of video games that achieved mass
market success in the 1980s. It was also the time that the very first home consoles, The Atari
2600, and Nintendo Entertainment System came into the world.
Education
Educational software became increasingly popular during the fourth generation. Schools
integrated computers into classrooms for learning and administrative purposes, and programs
such as Logo, Math Blaster, and Reader Rabbit helped children learn basic math, reading, and
problem-solving skills.
Benefits and Limitations of Fourth-Generation Computers
Benefits
❖ Affordability: Fourth-generation computers were way cheaper than the previous
generations, and thus the majority could access it by a wide category of users.
❖ Power and Speed: The microprocessors made enormous power and speed increases for
computing machines enabling the machines to do more work faster.
❖ Miniaturization: With the use of microprocessors, computers could shrink to much
smaller sizes.
❖ User-Friendly Software: Development of operating systems and software that are
friendlier to the user made the computers accessible to untechnical users.
Limitations
❖ Storage: Hard drives had expanded in their capacity, but they were still limited to what
would be comparable to today's generations.
❖ Processing Power: Microprocessors increased significantly the processing power;
however, they still ran at relatively slow speeds compared with today's standards.
❖ Compatibility Issues: Incompatibility between early generation PCs and software,
differing systems and standards, was a problem inhibiting use in several quarters.

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Legacy and Transition to Fifth Generation

The fourth generation made a huge impact on computing. Computers became a part of daily
life of millions of people because of the arrival of personal computers and the pervasiveness of
microprocessors. The growth potential of the software market that provided by the embrace of
graphical user interfaces, personal productivity applications, and entertainment applications
further spurred the expansion of the computing market.
Through success in fourth generation, it became possible starting the fifth generation from the
late 1980s. Development of parallel processing, artificial intelligence, and next generation
networking technology shaped the next stage of computing and gave rise to the internet age
and current computing.

Introduction to the Fifth Generation of Computers(present and beyond)

The fifth generation of computers represents a new era in the evolution of computing
technology, focused basically on artificial intelligence (AI), parallel processing, and advanced
networking technologies. During this decade, from early 1980's to present day, efforts are
directed to exceed simply a big jump in computational power, but to invent machines that will
think, learn and reason like humans do. Whereas the preceding generations were preoccupied
with gains in speed and reduction in size, the fifth generation is concerned with intelligent
systems and integration of computers into complex networks that make possible developments
such as robotics, expert systems, and natural language processing.
Another major impetus for the fifth generation was the Japanese Fifth Generation Computer
Systems Project of the 1980s, whose goal was a computer that could understand and
manipulate natural languages, reason about problems, and execute tasks normally requiring
human-type intelligence. The vision of this future produced new computer architectures, new
programming languages, and special hardware and software systems that opened new
dimensions in capability.

Key Characteristics of Fifth-Generation Computers

The fifth generation of computers differs essentially from the earlier generations because it is
based on AI and parallel processing, allowing computers to perform huge volumes of data
simultaneously and also to conduct tasks that were earlier believed to be within the capacity of
human intelligence.
1. Artificial Intelligence (AI)

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Artificial intelligence is responsible for the hallmark of the fifth generation of computers. The
thought here is to devise systems that could mimic human intelligence. Some applications of AI
are machine learning, expert systems, natural language processing, and computer vision. Such
systems are created such that they will approach problems which previously have been outside
the reach of classical computer solutions.
Machine Learning and Neural Networks: Such algorithms allow computers to be trained
and responsive to data, to identify and elucidate patterns, and to serve as predictors.
Especially the neural networks, simulation the function of the human brain can bring up
more complex solve problems.
Natural Language Processing: A computer to be navigable by the human user in terms of
natural language, and in which the natural input to the human language is the human
user. Just like it is applied to chatterbot applications or translation software and speech
recognition applications.
Expert Systems: This is AI-based systems. In this model, the goal is to "create" human
experts in specific fields, e.g., medicine or finance. Expert systems consist upon a
knowledge substrate and rule sets that lead to the implication of a reasoning inference
solution to a problem.
2. Parallel Processing

The fifth generation of computers, and along with it, also made significant contributions to the
parallel process. This includes cross-threading of more than one computation, and computers
can therefore scale up very well from high-level operations or operations with hierarchical
steps in the way that multiple computations are run in parallel.
Multiprocessor Systems: Systems composed of a number of processors executing in a
sequential manner to complete a task, e.g. By decomposing the problem into
subproblems and performing them in parallel, parallel processing can make a significant
reduction in the time that is used to solve the problem.
Distributed Computing: Multiprocessor parallelism can also scale out of a single
computer all the way up to a single computer—in sequence across a network. This
results in grid computing and cloud computing that utilize large amounts of data
distributed by interconnected large systems.
3. Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI)

Micro-sizing of components has also been among the key characteristics of the fifth generation.
Inventions like VLSI technology, encapsulating millions of transistors onto a chip, enabled highly
complex processors and memory components to be incorporated into smaller, more powerful

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systems. Again and again with this enhanced parallelism hardware/software for parallel
processors and artificial intelligence (AI) systems, such as neural networks.
4. Knowledge-Based Systems

And as Knowledge continues to be more than just data, generation 5 computing will be capable
of continuing on with knowledge. Expert and decision support systems today are used in
knowledge-based programs that simulate the human expert-like decision-making behavior in
specialized fields. These systems can receive very complex inputs, solve tasks, and generate
output that can be used as input in a decision-making process for medical diagnosis, financial
prediction, and business decision making.

5. Human-Computer Interaction (HCI)

One of the important characteristics of the fifth-generation computers is the hierarchical

emphasis that it will place on the area of human-computer interaction, or HCI. Computer-like"
interaction with machines that use the more natural modalities (human spoken languages
(speech recognition) and robotic gestures (gesture-based control) results in more natural and
intuitive machine-to-machine interaction.

Technological Advances in Fifth Generation

A number of important technological advances define the fifth generation of computers:

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GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS 11/27/2024

1. Supercomputers
Supercomputers, made possible by parallel processing and VLSI, represented a leap into advanced
computational capability. Supercomputers are designed for the most complex simulations, whether in
weather forecasting, scientific research, or cryptography. Examples include supercomputer systems like the
Cray-2, the Blue Gene, and IBM's Summit. These machines can process millions of calculations per second,
enabling tasks that were previously unthinkable.

2. Robotics
•Because AI has a very ambitious objectives line, its development has been quite intense in robotics. Fifth-
generation computers support robots executing complex tasks within an environment and in settings like
manufacturing, healthcare, and space. Autonomous robots, operating without human intervention, are now
very real with an advancement in AI and parallel processing.
•- Industrial Robots: In factories, they help assemble products, perform welding, and even take care of
hazardous materials. They will use AI algorithms to make decisions, solve problems.
•- Service Robots: Applications involving robots in healthcare include surgery-assisting, while service
industries include automated customer service or delivery robots.

3. Natural Language Processing (NLP)

•With the fifth generation, natural language processing has come a long way, and now computers can
comprehend, interpret, and generate human language. The potential areas for NLP include powering
applications like chatbots, voice assistants-such as Siri and Alexa, among others-and translation software.
This provides a way for humans to interact with computers more comfortably, either through speaking or
writing.

4. Cloud Computing and Big Data

•Cloud computing and the processing and storage of big data are possible only because of parallel processing
and distributed computing systems. This is due to the fact that the fifth generation has allowed the creation
of powerful computing networks where there is continuous handling of data across various locations in real
time.
•-Cloud Storage and Services: Rather than storing on local systems, cloud services can store huge data
remotely that one can access from any place at any time.
•- Big Data Analytics: The processing of huge data sets enabled the fifth-generation computers to analyze vast
amounts of data for insights in fields like healthcare, marketing, and environmental science.

Examples of Fifth-Generation Computer Systems

The fifth generation of computers has witnessed the development of revolutionary systems
that highlight the potential of AI and parallel processing.
IBM Watson
Watson, named for the IBM founder, Thomas J. Watson, is an AI cloud that in 2011 established
a record for winning a board game, Jeopardy! against human expert. Watson uses natural
language processing and machine learning to understand complex questions and find relevant

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answers from large databases of information. Watson has found applications across industries:
health care for diagnosis and treatment recommendations, finance for investment analysis, and
customer service via automated chat.
Fujitsu Fifth Generation Systems
In the 1980s, Japan initiated the Fifth Generation Computer Systems project to make machines
able to process natural language and reason like human beings. While it did not fully meet the
original, ambitious goals, this program had significant consequences in advancing the
technologies for AI and parallel processing. Results of this work during that period included
Fujitsu's VP series of computers, among the first integrated with AI algorithms for solving real-
world problems.

Figure 13: 5th generation of computers

Applications of Fifth-Generation Computers

The fifth generation of computers has a variety of uses in medicine, finance, military, education,
and business, etc. Below are some of the key applications in detail:
1. Medicine and Healthcare

The applications of fifth-generation computing have dramatically redefined the health industry,
especially the role of the fusion of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML). These
technologies have been applied to improve diagnostic sensitivity, shorten treatment time and
also to provide personalized medicine.
AI in Diagnostics: Intelligent diagnostic systems using information processing from fifth-
generation computers analyze medical data within the framework of a patient's radiology

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images all the way to DNA sequences for the diagnosis of cancers, pathophysiology of
cardiovascular disease and neuropathology. Diagnostic systems such as artificial intelligence
(AI)-based systems (e.g., Google's DeepMind) have been shown to be able to diagnose ocular
diseases analyzing retinal photographs and exhibiting high accuracy (sensitivity), in some
instances even surpassing human ophthalmologists.
Personalized Medicine: Through the intelligence of AI to work on huge volume of data, AI can
construct patient in a more individualized therapy plan depending on the patient's genetic
profile, medical history and daily living condition. System as basate BIG data analytics and
machine learning are used, for instance, to predict the patientsʼ response to specific treatments
in such a way that doctors can choose the most appropriate treatment for each single patient.

Robot-Assisted Surgery: Robotic systems show potential for use in the OR, most notably during
microsurgical intervention. These robot-assisted systems-based da Vinci (invented by Intuitive
Surgical) enable surgeons to perform actions more accurately and with more freedom of
motion and greater control in the room for the ultimate goal of superior outcomes and faster
postoperative recovery of the patients.

AI in Drug Discovery: One of those processes is drug discovery which includes the
experimentation of thousands of compounds to achieve an efficacy against a specific one
disease. Describe fifth-generation computers designed to predict activity of multiple
compounds in the human body based on artificial intelligence and deep learning. At atom wise
AI predicts the interaction between two molecules, and the technology has already yielded
multiple exciting results in the discovery of potential Ebola and cancer therapies.

Figure 14: Application of

5th generation computer
in Medicine

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2. Finance and Business

The industry of finance and commerce is being increasingly driven by artificial intelligence and
machine learning. In these applications, the ability to use the computational advantage of fifth-
generation systems to process huge data sets in real-time, translate to actionable information is
contingent.

Algorithmic trading: Trading systems that are reactive to fast changes of market conditions use
very complex algorithms to determine the situation, and execute trades at speed that a human
could not have managed. Parallel processing and machine learning are used to predict future
market movements and improve trading strategies. An instance of this is the flash crash of
2010, which was at least partly responsible to algorithmic trading, where algorithms made
flash-in-the-pancake trading decisions and led to mass market mayhem.
Fraud Detection: AI-based systems have been used by banks, financial institutions and so on, in
the pursuit of fraud detection. Machine learning (ML) algorithms used in transaction pattern
analysis identify anomalies which define malicious activity (e.g., abnormal expenditure, foreign
expenditure) in users. These systems are continuously improving by always learning something
new and feeding that something to them.
Customer Service Automation: AI-powered chatbots and virtual assistants are in action, offering
round the clock customer support. Bank of America employs AI to respond to customer calls,
address account questions, and to support customers in navigating transactions. These bots
employ natural language processing in order to interpret customer requests and generate a
response immediately.
Predictive Analytics in Business: AI-powered predictive analytics is now a resource that enables
companies to predict trends and thus to take data-driven decisions. Using historical data, AI
could predict future demand for goods, customer behavior to buy, and even trend of the
market, which will be useful to improve inventory, marketing and pricing strategies,
respectively.

Figure 15: Application in

finance

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3. Military and Defense

Due to the application of fifth-generation computing advantages in autonomous systems,
intelligent surveillance and cybersecurity, etc., the military industry took advantage of it.

Autonomous Vehicles and Drones: Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (drones) are also increasingly for
surveillance and reconnaissance applications. With these capabilities, fifth-generation
computers have made it possible for these to fly autonomously, process in real time, and take
decisions based on the data received, without diminished human interaction. This has
enhanced military intelligence gathering.

Intelligent Surveillance Systems: Artificial intelligence(AI)-based surveillance systems are

employed by military for video, sensor and other data characterization and tracking large
populations. These may include detection of anomalies, tracking movements in real time, and
identification of suspicious activity. Facial recognition and motion detection often form parts of
such systems, for military security and border control applications.

Cybersecurity: To keep pace with the increasing sophistication of cyber threats, artificial
intelligence (AI) has been applied to find security vulnerabilities and protect military and
government infrastructures. Machine learning models are used to analyze network traffic and
identify behavioral patterns that reflect the constantly evolving, sometimes unpredictable and
invasive, nature of malicious activity (i.e., malware or phishing attacks).

Figures 16: Application in Military

4. Education and Research

The task of providing fifth-generation computers has changed the educational domain, by
allowing for more personalized learning, considerably enhanced research facilities, and by
inducing new models for delivering education.
Intelligent Tutoring Systems: ITS uses AI to mimic human tutors by delivering student specific
instruction. Adaptive to the learning style and speed of each student and delivers each student

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customized feedback and exercises. Illustrations of examples given include Carnegie Learning
(AI-enhanced K-12 mathematics tutoring).

The Virtual Classrooms: Cloud based learning systems are becoming increasingly relevant e.g.,
Google Classroom or Zoom in education. Yet, it has proved of little help in the COVID-19
pandemic. These systems allow online learning in an interactive way through video lessons, and
real-time teamwork and by using educational resources. AIs are usable to assess students'
progression and provide feedback that will enhance learning.

Research in Science: Processing of big data sets in science has been greatly boosted by fifth-
generation computers. For instance, supercomputers and artificial intelligence are needed to
discretize systems that involve a large number of variables or to analyze the vast numbers of
data produced by experiments and simulations as in genomics, astronomy, and climate science
etc. However, e.g., supercomputers are used to model molecular motion in pharmaceutical
discovery, weather predictions, or to process large data sets produced by particle accelerator,
etc.

Figure 17: Application in Education and Research

5. Entertainment and Media

AI, advanced computing technology, has also led, a dramatic change in the entertainment
business, of which gaming, and film making, are very vulnerable to, those change.

Game Development: AI is employed to allow more interactive, intelligent gaming characters.

Nowadays, in the modern video games, the NPCs use the AI to dynamically adapt and respond

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to the players actions. Games like The Last of Us Part II have applied deep learning algorithms
to create increasingly naturalistic dialogue between characters and simulated changes to the
environment. Special Effects and Animation: AI and fifth-generation computing have also
entered the realm of creating special effects and animation. Nowadays, CGI relies on AI-based
algorithms in order to produce realistic visuals, simulate natural phenomena like water or fire,
and automate complex rendering tasks. Even studios like Pixar and Weta Digital use AI systems
for everything from animation to real-time rendering.

Figure 18: Application in Entertainment

Future Trends and Legacy of Fifth-Generation Computers
The fifth generation of computers is the vanguard of the evolution toward simulation of both
quantum computing and neuromorphic computing-both hypotheses suggesting the evolution of
the human brain simulation for information processing at unprecedentedly high speeds. With
the progress of technology, growth cycle of AI will ultimately go deep, to the field of
autonomous system and smart city. The future heritage of the fifth generation lies in changing
computers from simple computational instruments into intelligent agents capable of learning,
reasonings, and aiding many aspects of human activities.

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To summarize the topic “Generations of Computers” we can use table to conclude

briefly:
Generati Key hardware Key software Key Some rep.
on technologies technologies characteristic systems
(Period) s

First ▪ Vacuum tubes ▪ Machine and ▪ Bulky in size ▪ ENIAC

(1942- ▪ Electromagnet assembly ▪ Highly ▪ EDVAC
1955) ic languages unreliable ▪ EDSAC
relay memory ▪ Stored program ▪ Limited ▪UNIVAC I
▪ Punched cards concept commercial ▪IBM 701
secondary ▪ Mostly scientific use and costly
storage applications ▪ Difficult
commercial
production
▪ Difficult to
use
Second ▪ Transistors ▪ Batch operating ▪ Faster, ▪ Honeywell
(1955- ▪ Magnetic system smaller, more 400
1964) cores ▪ High-level reliable and ▪ IBM 7030
memory programming easier to ▪ CDC 1604
▪ Magnetic languages program than ▪ UNIVAC
tapes ▪ Scientific and previous LARC
▪ Disks for commercial generation
secondary applications systems
storage ▪ Commercial
production
was still difficult
and
costly
Third ▪ ICs with SSI ▪ Timesharing ▪ Faster, ▪ IBM
(1964- and operating smaller, more 360/370
1975) MSI system reliable, easier ▪ PDP-8
technologies ▪ Standardizatio and ▪ PDP-11
n

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GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS 11/27/2024

▪ Larger of high-level cheaper to ▪ CDC

magnetic programming produce 6600
cores memory languages ▪ Commercial
▪ Larger ▪ Unbundling of ly, easier
capacity software from to use, and
disks and hardware easier to
magnetic tapes upgrade than
secondary previous
storage generation
▪ Minicompute systems
rs; ▪ Scientific,
upward commercial
compatible and
family interactive
of computers online
applications
Fourth ▪ ICs with VLSI ▪ Operating ▪ Small, ▪ IBM PC
(1975- technology systems for affordable, and
1989) ▪ Microprocesso PCs with GUI and reliable, and its clones
rs; multiple windows easy ▪ Apple II
semiconductor on a to use PCs ▪ TRS-80
memory single terminal ▪ More ▪ VAX 9000
▪ Larger screen powerful ▪ CRAY-1
capacity hard ▪ Multiprocessing and reliable ▪ CRAY-2
disks as in-built OS mainframe ▪ CRAY-
secondary with concurrent systems and X/MP
storage programming supercomputers
▪ Magnetic languages ▪ Totally
tapes and ▪ UNIX operating general
floppy disks as system purpose
portable with C machines
storage media programming ▪ Easier to
▪ Personal language produce
computers ▪ Object-oriented commercially
▪ Supercompute design ▪ Easier to
rs based and programming upgrade
on parallel vector ▪ PC, Network- ▪ Rapid
processing and based, software

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GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS 11/27/2024

symmetric and development

multiprocessing supercomputing possible
technologies applications
▪ Spread of
high-speed
computer
networks
Fifth ▪ ICs with ULSI ▪ Micro-kernel ▪ Portable ▪ IBM
(1989- technology based, computers notebooks
Present) ▪ Larger multithreading, ▪ Powerful, ▪ Pentium
capacity distributed OS cheaper, PCs
main memory, ▪ Parallel reliable, and ▪ SUN
hard disks with programming easier Workstations
RAID support libraries like MPI & to use desktop ▪ IBM SP/2
▪ Optical disks PVM machines ▪ SGI Origin
as ▪ JAVA ▪ Powerful 2000
portable read- ▪ World Wide supercomputers ▪ PARAM
only Web ▪ High uptime 10000
storage media ▪ Multimedia, due to
▪ Notebooks, Internet hot-pluggable
powerful desktop applications components
PCs and ▪ More complex ▪ Totally
workstations supercomputing general
▪ Powerful applications purpose
servers, machines
supercomputers ▪ Easier to
▪ Internet produce
▪ Cluster commercially,
computing easier to
upgrade
▪ Rapid
software
development
possible

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1. Bangia, R. Computer Generations.

2. Ceruzzi, P. E. (2003). A History of Modern
Computing (2nd ed.). MIT Press.
3. Fuchi, K., Furukawa, K., Nitta, K., & Miller,
R. K. Fifth Generation Computer Systems.
4. Sinha, P. K., & Sinha, P. (2023). Computer
Fundamentals. BPB Publications.
5. Sinha, P. K., & Sinha, P. (2023). Foundations
of Computing (5th ed.). BPB Publications.
6. Williams, M. R. History of Computers.
7. Reed, D. (2004). “A Balanced Introduction to
Computer Science and Programming”. Prentice
Hall.

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