Causes:

German rule:
- Germany used to have control over Rwanda
- At the Paris Peace Conference, the Treaty of Versailles stripped Germany of its African
colonies, with Ruanda-Urundi going under Belgian control.
- The german rule was seen as harsh and unfair in Rwanda but didn’t contribute too much

Belgian rule (1919 - 1962):

- Belgians, unlike the Germans, actively shaped the politics of the region, exacerbating
future conflicts.
- The Belgians introduced a social hierarchy based on ethnicity in Rwanda. The Tutsi
minority was made to be the ruling class while the Hutu majority was often mistreated,
damaging the previous established cooperative relationship between Hutu and Tutsi
- They did this to their benefit for control
- By introducing this hierarchy, intermarriage, culture and a shared sense of community
between the Hutu and the Tutsi ceased.
- A wealth disparity grew between the two groups
- Tutsi children were taught mathematics and other subjects, all in French, and this
education was mandatory
- Hutu children were educated in their native language and were only offered singing and
natural science classes, neither of which were mandatory
- This created a language divide
- Belgium also imposed an ID card system, which classified a person’s ethnicity – this set
the stage for the genocide as it was easy to tell who was of what race
- These factors later led to the Hutu leader Habyarimana trying to equalise the education
disparity between the Tutsi and the Hutu.

Rwandan revolution and independence (1959 - 62):

- Rwandese National Union was a monarchy formed by Tutsis who wanted to preserve
their elite status and get more distance from Belgium
- The PARMEHUTU was a Hutu based party that opposed the supremacy the Tutsi and
Belgians beheld.
- Following the Tutsi beating of a Hutu chief in 1959, Hutus revolted
- In 1960, the first communal elections took place, with the Hutus having overwhelming
support. This was a turning point in the influences of the region, as essentially all the
power had been transferred to the Hutus.
- Eventually in 1961, a Belgian backed PARMEHUTU provisional government was
officially put in place
- In 1962, Rwanda officially gained independence from Belgium

1
 - During this time period, many Tutsis were killed causing them to be displaced fleeing
into neighboring countries.
- From these exiled groups, rose Tutsi rebel movements, most notably the RPF.

The First Republic (1963 - 73):

- Kayibanda new president
- Kayibanda promoted the idea of the superiority status of being Hutu
- The Hutus held political power
- The Tutsi were discriminated against politically and in the workforce.
- The Tutsi leaders represented later by the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF) were living in
exile, many of them Uganda.
- In the 1960s, the new government was subjected to attacks from the refugees outside the
country, and in response many Hutu attacked Tutsi inside Rwanda
- 1963, massacre took place in Gikongoro against Tutsi
- Furthermore, there was widespread corruption, social divisions, and a one-party state

The Second Republic (1973-90)

- Juvenal Habyarimana was leader
- 1973: Purge of Tutsi from universities
- National Revolutionary Movement for Development (MRND), 1974
- Ruled like a dictator, but he had great reputation internationally
- Encouraged discrimination against the Tutsi
- Introduced ID cards like during Belgian rule allowing for further segregation of Tutsi and
Hutu and an easy way to withhold opportunities and services from one group
- During the genocide these ID cards were used to identify Tutsi aiding in the murder
- Society stayed discriminatory, just against the Tutsi
- Quotas created to help the Hutus have a priority in educational facilities
- Reinforced Rwandan divisions and one of the main factors that led to genocide

Economy and society:

- Rwanda was very poor and in the few years before the genocide it became even poorer
- Birth rate was growing rapidly
- Coffee made up about 75% of the countries exports, meaning unstable economy over
reliant on one thing
- Tutsis were denied jobs in the public service under an ethnic quota system which
allocated them only 9% of available jobs.
- Tensions were further inflamed by increasing pressures on the Rwandan economy,
resulting in rising levels of poverty and discontent.

Civil War (1990–94):

2
 - RPF (Tutsi) forces invaded Rwanda from their base in Uganda, sparking war
- Hutus were losing faith in Habyarimana, so the invasion was used to present the
government as a unifying force by promoting the idea of Hutu superiority
- Paul Kagame, commander of the RPF, used guerilla warfare tactics to help defeat
Habyarimana’s army.
- 1991, talks about a ceasefire were made, with both parties coming to an agreement in
1992
- The 1978 constitution made there no term limit for the President, and made the MRND
the sole legal party, meaning the Tutsi had no representation
- Goal of the war was for RPF to change this, which happened and Habyarimana and RPF
signed an agreement agreeing for a broad-based provisional government including the
RPF; Hutu extremists were angry

Kangura magazine:
- First published 1990 after first invasion from RPF
- Inspired by Josef Geobbels’ work (Nazi propaganda)
- In opposition to the Kanguka (newspaper) put out by the RPF
- Purpose was to promote ideas of Hutu power, and create hatred towards the Tutsi
- Habyarimana used this racial hatred to take down their enemy, and Kanguar was a vital
part of this
- It made it easier to spread the Hutu Power movement and their ideas

Hutu ten commandments:

- Hutu Ten Commandments published 1990
- Spread the idea of Hutu Power and making sure to keep Tutsi powerless
- Very similar to Nazi Germany’s ideas

RTLM radio:
- Habyarimana government created a radio station 1993
- “Most successful hate radio in history”
- 60% population was illiterate - therefore radio was a very effective way to communicate
harmful rhetoric
- As well, almost every Rwandan home had a radio, and it was the average person’s
primary news source
- RTLM worked closely with Kangura magazine
- RTLM recorded anti-tutsi propaganda, and spread misinformation and slander
- Called the tutsis “cockroaches” and encouraged people to “cut down the tall trees”,
referring to the Tutsi people
- On the day that Habyarimana was killed, the radio sounded the instruction “Tutsis need to
be killed.”

3
Hutu power movement:
- Hutu Power was an ideology based off of Hutu supremacy and suppression of the Tutsi
race
- Habyarimana shaped much of the movements ideology
- December 1991 the MRND created a youth faction known as the Interahamwe which
became the center of the Hutu power movement and were responsible for much of the
genocide
- The Hutu Power Movement infiltrated many areas of society and the government.
- They became known as Network Zero, the name derived from their goal to reduce Tutsi
population to zero

Talks in Arusha:
- While the President officially supported reform, he secretly promoted Hutu extremism.
- International pressure and RFP's military success led to talks in Arusha 1992.
- Inside Rwanda, criticism of Habyarimana grew, creating more radicalism
- RPF forced agreement with the Hutu regime due to military strength and determination
- However, stalled peace negotiations caused the RPF to advance toward Kigali.
- French troops played a crucial role in preventing the RPF from capturing Kigali
- OAU condemned French support for the Habyarimana government
- Relative success of RPF increased Hutu extremist influence, weakened the government,
and caused Arusha agreements to be viewed as a victory for the RPF
- Both sides agreed to terms: ceasefire, reduced presidential powers, rule of law,
transitional government, power-sharing, repatriation, RPF integration into the military, a
national assembly, elections, and UN oversight
- Some believed Habyarimana had no intention of abiding by this agreement
- UNAMIR was established to oversee things in Rwanda led by Romeo A Dallaire.

The genocide cable (Jan 1994):

- Dallaire was told about the plan of Interahamwe killing 1,000 Tutsi every 20 minutes by
a member of the presidential security guard, code name Jean Pierre.
- Dallaire wrote a message known as “genocide cable” to Secretary General
- Dallaire's attempts to protect the informant and confiscate the weapons were denied.
- Peacekeeping forces were withdrawn because they would been killed
- Less than four months later, the genocide began
- The “genocide cable” symbolized the failure of the international community to prevent
the mass killings in Rwanda.

Developments:
- Habyarimana failed to implement his promises in the Arusha Accords

4
 - Increasing frustration among the RPF
- Growing confidence among the Hutu extremists, who stockpiled weapons and kept
making hatred with RTLM and Kangura.
- Habyarimana broke his promise to keep the extremist members of CDR out of the
transition process
- Habyarimana lost much of his power and credibility with the Hutu, rumours of
assassination spread.

Effects of Somalia:
- In Somalia, 18 US soldiers were shot at and killed creating the “Somalia syndrome”, a
belief that the US public would not tolerate military interventions that endangered US
lives.
- Therefore, this caused a lack of American interest and political will leading to oversight
on what was happening in Rwanda right before the genocide
- UNAMIR was barely equipped and understaffed for their missions.

Assassination of presidents:
- Above Kigali airport presidential jet travelling back from Arusha talks including
Habyarimana was shot down
- This was the catalyst that preceded the genocide
- Theories to who did it:
- Disaffected soldiers, who wanted the peace talks to fail
- Leader of an extremist Hutu group Colonel Théoneste Bagosora who had the
resources to do this
- RPF rebels who hoped the presidents' deaths would provoke a Hutu government
response against the Tutsi, enabling them to seize power.
- Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana, with an attempted coup d’etat to seize
power.
- Responsibility for this act is still disputed and we have no definitive answer as to who did
it.
- A French judge blamed Paul Kagame, leader of the RPF for the attack, this spread
through the Hutu, leading them to blame the Tutsis for the attack.

Causes of genocide:
- Economic factors:
- The lack of resources, great poverty
- Competition for land, rising prices, and overpopulation was the perfect storm for
social violence
- High unemployment rates, foreign debt, and informal economies such as growing
black markets in Rwanda setting the stage for the genocide.

5
 - Before the Genocide over 85% of Rwanda’s population lived below the poverty
line due to the coffee price fall however mid 1980 this stat got worse
- Colonial roots:
- Belgian colonists set the stage for this dividing the two groups
- Frances's military support for the Habyarimana regime, the presence of French
troops in the country, and the financial, political, and diplomatic support for the
government from France all helped to create the conditions for the genocide to
happen.

Course:
Start of genocide:
- Killing began right after the death of Habyarimana
- Killing of the opposition and moderate Hutu members
- Prime Minister Agathe Uwilingiyimana gained power, but was murdered and sexually
assaulted
- Belgian soldiers were tortured and murdered by soldiers who were told that they were
responsible for the shooting down of Habyarimana’s aircraft
- Presidential guard started Tutsi, RPF came out of their camps to fight
- Hutu extremists gaining an upper hand in government, putting figurehead president
Theodore Sindikubwabo and prime minister Jean Kambanda in charge, who were Hutu
Power extremists
- RTLM played a huge role in the genocide, telling common Hutus about what was going
on,and telling extremists who they wanted dead

Actions of interim government:

- The genocide was started by the Presidential Guard and small bands of extremists, but
involved Interahamwe to coordinate attacks.
- Members of the genocide received massive amounts of support from military men and
political representatives of the country
- Since government officials made people seek refuge in sites like churches and public
buildings, it made it easier for killers to find people since they were all in the same place
- Example: Tutsis hid in the first Catholic Church of Rwanda, but were killed and mass
murdered, with the collaboration of the clergy who allowed it to happen.
- Many massacres happening
- Due to the international confusion on how to respond, the interim government only grew
bolder in their actions

Nature of the genocide:

- 200,000 Hutus around the country were either killing for pleasure or were unwilling and
so were forced to kill or killed.

6
 - Methods of killing were brutal; wooden spiked clubs, machetes, spears, and crude
instruments
- Used to incapacitate victims so that they were left disabled to slowly die because there
were so many Tutsi and couldn’t be killed fast enough
- Rape was a huge weapon, especially by perpetrators with HIV, which was used against
and to kill tens of thousands of women and girls
- Four of the 10 Hutu Commandments portrayed Tutsi women as sexual weapons used to
weaken and destroy Hutu men.
- Attackers mutilated women and then raped them, cutting off or puncturing their body
parts and them making them watch their husbands being killed
- Sexual violence like this erodes the fabric of a community, as women are seen as the
source of a community’s cultural values
- Organized propaganda contributed significantly to the violence against Tutsi women, and
were often publicized.

Role of RPF:
- Wouldn’t negotiate with government
- They began winning and lots of people left

Role of the media:

- Kangura magazine and RTLM radio (the radio was more effective)
- This broadcast was in a talk show format, with street language, DJS, and pop music
appealing to the young, unemployed, and delinquent
- It was the most immediate, accessible and informative source of information to support
the killers.
- UNAMIR commander Romeo Dallaire urged for it to be taken off the air but the UN did
not have the measures in order to do so.
- The RPF shelled the radio station during the first week, but it transferred to a mobile unit
where it was broadcast throughout the genocide
- Informal, spontaneous, lifelike style using ordinary people to deliver messages
- Huge role in continuation of the genocide by giving lists of names of people that needs to
be killed and by encouraging murder for discompliance.

Action and inaction to media:

- The international community did not attempt to stop the radio broadcasts because:
- Expensive
- Intervention after Somalia would have been politically unpopular
- Issues relating to international law prevented it (such as how it limits freedom of
speech)
- A lot of reporters said the US reacted this way because of the fact that they’re African.

7
 - The international media had failed Rwanda:
- The lack of media didn’t allow those in international community to take action
- Media more interested in Yugoslavia, the OJ Simpson case, and Nelson Mandela’s
election
- Media was important, demonstrated in UN tribunal where hate speech and words were
prosecuted as a war crime (first time since Nuremberg Trials)

UNAMIR:
- General Dallaire and the UNAMIR were helpless. Dallaire requested for help, and
warned the UNSC of the prospect of genocide asking for a increase in peacekeeping
forces.
- However, after the deaths of the Belgian peacekeepers, instead of bolstering the mission
as requested by Dallaire, the Belgian government turned and withdrew all its troops
- UNAMIR continued to save lives only because of the men that stayed behind, and
because of the will of General Dallaire.
- By the end of April, the RPF took control of eastern parts of the country as killing
increased.
- The UNAMIR always sought to intervene between the Hutu killers and the Tutsi
civilians, and mediate between the RPF and the Rwandan army.
- UNAMIR’s inability to play more of a role was also partially due to Jacques-Roger
Booh-Booh, appointed head of the mission. He consistently downplayed the significance
of the genocide
- The Security Council, at the request of the USA, voted to withdraw all but a remnant of
the UNAMIR mission
- UNAMIR was hampered from the beginning by the lack of support from countries
- Was understaffed, poorly equipped, underfunded
- Most people in Rwanda saw the violence as a genocide, however people in the outside
world chose not to see it as a genocide
- Dallaire blamed the UN, especially the US, France, and UK

Role of Belgium:
- When UNAMIR was formed in 1993, Belgians contributed the most troops, presenting
themselves as specialists in African affairs
- However the genocidaires were counting on the fact that the Western countries would
pull out of the mission when their peacekeepers were killed, knowing the Somalia
syndrome
- After the murder of the peacekeepers from Belgium, there was a mission to withdraw the
remaining Belgian and French citizens from Rwanda
- The success of this mission had shown that they had the capacity to do something if they
wished to do so.

8
 - Many Belgian peacekeepers forced to withdraw “threw down their blue berets” in disgust
- This was a death sentence for an untold number of Tutsi.
- Furthermore, the role of Belgium important in their past in Rwanda creating the ethnic
divide between Tutsi and Hutu
- Belgium, in conclusion, was the best informed and most eligible country to support and
help Rwanda, but its decision to withdraw was negatively critical to the genocide.

Role of France:
- Openly supported the regime of Habyarimana.
- Trained the Rwandan army, the Interahamwe militia, and undercover operatives trailed
the presidential guard.
- They sent 600 elite troops when the RPF invasion began, saving Kigali from an attack.
- Their policy was to avoid a military victory for the rebel RPF, and supported the
legitimate Hutu government
- Also against the RPF to prevent Rwanda from being the first domino to fall in the feared
anglophone invasion
- Historians argue that France enabled the genocide by supporting the Hutu regime before,
during and after the killing of 1994.
- The French government discriminated against the RPF
- France continued to send weapons to the genocidaires despite the arms embargo.

Operation Amaryllis:
- April 8th 1994, two days after Habyarimana was killed, France launched Operation
Amaryllis
- Dispatched 500 French soldiers to evacuate foreign residents
- Evacuated Habyarimana’s wife and gave her $40,000 from a sum set for Rwandan
refugees.
- This shows what could have been done immediately to enhance UNAMIR’s chances of
preventing violence

Operation Turquoise, June 1994:

- Hutu government was continuing genocide however losing the war to RPF
- France saw RPF winning, so led Operation turquoise
- This operation protected threatened populations on both sides of the conflict
- The RPF however condemned this initiative as a ploy aimed at saving the tottering Hutu
government.
- Dallaire too was suspicious of this sudden nature of the French intervention, and even
French newspapers questioned this
- UNAMIR’s role was severely restricted, however this French action was granted the
entire wider powers Dallaire had been asking for

9
 - Elite French troops landed and deployed soldiers, however they arrived with massive
equipment and firepower, horribly inconsistent with a humanitarian mission.
- The Interim Government welcomed the French and RTLM even told Hutu girls to make
the French feel welcome
- However, once in Rwanda French realized what was going on, and that the Hutu were not
the good guys or the victims.
- On July 4th, Paul Kagame’s rebel RPF took control of Kigali and announced the
formation of a new government, two weeks later a ceasefire was declared.
- This French operation saved many Tutsi lives as the RPF advanced. However, they were
also responsible for helping a number many people responsible for the genocide escape
the country.
- French flew genocidaires to unidentified destinations like Colonel Theoneste Bagosora,
who was the leader of the genocide
- Former members of the interim government were even given asylum in France.
- Operation Turquoise ended in August 1994, when the RPF had won
- During and after the genocide, France had remained considered itself to be blameless for
any aspect of the Rwandan tragedy.

Role of the USA:

- Blamed as bearing the most responsibility for the lack of action
- Despite knowing what was happening decided against doing anything
- The US didn’t intervene because they saw Rwanda through the prism of Somalia
- Also, the didn’t only not intervene, but dissuaded anyone else from intervening
- Single-handedly blocked international action in Rwanda
- Even though the USA was not only to blame, their role undermined the effectiveness of
the UN in Rwanda.

Avoidance of word genocide:

- Major powers knew of the mass killings but never recognized them as genocide.
- US Ambassador in Rwanda said that what was happening was part of simply the civil
war
- Word was used by NGOs within two weeks, but not by USA until 2 months after
- This was a deliberate policy, with legal advisors informing US state department to avoid
using the word
- Not using the word genocide downplayed the seriousness of the issue

Effects:
The refugee crisis:
- More than 200,000 Rwandans crossed into Tanzania marking the start to one of the
biggest refugee crises of the century

10
 - 5 million people left the country from 1993-1999
- Just in 1994 2-3 million people fled (mostly Hutu)
- Surrounding countries such as Zaire, Burundi, Tanzania and Uganda took in a massive
amounts of Rwandan refugees
- Conditions in these camps were not up to living standards
- Overcrowded, dirty, many people died from diseases, such as cholera epidemic of Goma
that claimed around 50000 lives
- Frequently faced resource issues, being short on clean drinking water and shelters
- Security was appalling, with many women and girls being traumatized and raped
- Interahamwe would frequently take control of these refugee camps and use them as
safehouses to attack the RPF from
- This made it harder for humanitarian aid to get in as it was a massive security breach

The Kibeho massacre, April 1995:

- Took place in a camp in Kibeho
- The RPF government ordered these camps to be closed, as they wanted to separate the
Genocidaires living among them from the rest of the people.
- When moving in to shut down one of the camps RPF troops killed over 4,000 civilians
(but number is disputed)
- Many of the dead were killed by machetes. The RPF didn’t carry machetes so this
suggests that Hutu génocidaires were "trying to terrorize the refugees into remaining in
the camp… so as to provide a human shield."

Great lakes region:

- Zairean Government was frustrated with refugees
- In 1995 they wanted to close refugee camps, prompting the return of refugees to Rwanda
- However, ex-Hutu leaders and militia controlled camps, making refugees basically
hostages to these groups.
- The militias sheltered behind the refugee numbers, using the camps as a base to plan
operations inside Rwanda.
- This situation was barely under control and likely to cause another war in the region.
- In 1996 the situation continued to deteriorate, slipping even further out of control.

Justice and reconciliation:

- Justice and Reconciliation was created to combat the difficulties faced in the country
from the Rwandan genocide
- Especially since there were fewer than 6 judges and 10 lawyers that survived
- Also, the scale of killings and number of responsible was thousands
- May 1994, The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) was created to
prosecute the guilty

11
 - However by 1998, the total prison population had risen to 130,000 whereas only 1,200
people had been brought before the courts, had to be faster
- Decided to adapt the traditional Gacaca community justice system to deal with the crimes
of the genocide
- The Gacaca court consisted of people from the local community to elect judges
- Defendants were given shorter sentences in exchange for confessing and asking for
forgiveness from their victim’s family
- Two million cases were tried in the Gaca courts during a 10 year period before they
officially closed in 2012

Social impact:
- Rwanda was having significant difficulty rebuilding its society
- “Rwanda is the only nation where hundreds of thousands of people who took part in mass
murder live intermingled at every level of society with the families of their victims.”
- Death toll at 800,000, significant impact on the society and culture
- Because most of the victims were men, women became more important to society
- Female literacy rose significantly over the next decades
- 30% of all seats in local and national government must be held by women
- As many girls as boys receive primary and secondary education
- Women now comprise the majority of Rwanda’s working population
- The genocide forced Rwandans to recognize the need to rebuild their social structure in a
more sustainable way

Political impact:
- New government called The Broad Based Government of National Unity
- Run by a Hutu who was part of the RPF
- The new government tried to stop any discrimination of ethnicity and race and stressed
unity and reconciliation.
- The new government also reopened schools and looked over the school curriculums to
make sure to teach the importance of Rwandan history.
- RPF has dominated politics after the Genocide and has retained power through the years.

Economic impact:
- The genocide and events leading up to it (including the crash in world coffee prices)
destroyed Rwanda’s already unstable economic base.
- In 1994, Rwanda had a 58% decrease in GDP.
- Rebuilding the economy was one of the major challenges for the new government.
- Rwanda made major progress in attracting foreign investments, stabilising and restoring
the economy.

12
 - Since 1995 Rwanda has had one of the fastest growing economies in Africa with a GDP
increasing about 8.2% every year from 1995 to 2001.
- Foreign donors helped a lot, and many believe this is a form of compensation for ignoring
the genocide
- Coffee and tea make up about 80% of Rwanda’s export revenues.
- Poverty remained a persistent problem with an estimated 45% of the population living in
poverty with an income of less than $1.50 a day.
- Rwanda has very few natural resources so a driving economic problem is diversifying
crops.

Continued warfare in Congo (DRC):

- The consequences of the failure in Rwanda in 1994 led to a humanitarian catastrophe in
eastern DRC in 1995
- Significant number of Hutu genocidaires near Rwanda's border, causing concerns for the
new RPF government.
- 1996, human rights report confirmed Mobutu and the Zairean (DRC) army in arming
Hutu soldiers
- The RPF government supported the Tutsi in Zaire as a response to the Mobutu
government's actions
- The ADFL, therefore had the support of Rwanda and more like Uganda, Burundi, and
Angola, who had grievances against Mobutu
- The movement against Mobutu was triggered by conditions in refugee camps and the
presence of Hutu opponents to the Kigali government.
- Conflict that started in 1996 is referred to as the First Congo War
- The war claimed the lives of hundreds of thousands, including innocent civilians.
- The Second Congo War followed, leading to the deaths of at least 5 million people
- The 1994 genocide in Rwanda had profound consequences, sparking conflicts in Congo
and the Great Lakes region.

Important people:
Phillipe Gaillard:
- Head of the Red Cross in Rwanda
- Stayed in Rwanda for the entirety of the genocide
- Red Cross was a safe haven for thousands of Rwandans in need of medical support
- Gaillard risked his life bring wounded Hutu and Tutsi survivors to the Red Cross for
treatment
- He worked with the support of the International Committee of Geneva to tell the
international media about the genocide
- He is believed to have helped the Red Cross save over 65,000 lives

13
Romeo Dallaire:
- Commander of the UNAMIR in Rwanda
- From 1993 until the end of the genocide in 1994
- Maintained safe areas for Rwandans threatened by Hutu killers and government soldiers
- He did all of this despite having little support from the UN and the international
community, and having less than 1000 troops

Carl Wilkens:
- Carl Wilkens was the head of the Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA)
- Wilkens was an American pastor
- He was the only American to remain in the capital Kigali throughout the entire genocide.
- He hid his Tutsi servants in their house where they stayed hidden for three weeks.
- He negotiated with known genocidaires to save the lives of people
- When the Hutu militia threatened to massacre everyone inside a orphanage, he petitioned
Kigali police to stop the attack, saving the lives of hundreds of children

Captain Mbaye Diagne:

- Captain Mbaye Diagne was a Senegalese military officer who served with the UN
mission in Rwanda.
- Unarmed and facing extreme danger, it is believed he personally saved the lives of
hundreds
- He ignored the UN’s orders not to intervene and saved the lives of potential victims by
persuasive means, bribing and charming his way through checkpoints of killers and
conducting unauthorised rescue missions.
- He died on May 31st, 1994, when a mortar shell hit his jeep as he drove back to the UN
headquarters in Kigali.

14