Technology

Temesgen Mekuriaw / Yohannis Kifle / Yonas

Assefa

Water Supply Distribution System Design

In Holeta Town Wolmera West Shewa Zone of Oromia
region, Ethiopia

Bachelor Thesis
Bibliographic information published by the German National Library:

The German National Library lists this publication in the National Bibliography;
detailed bibliographic data are available on the Internet at http://dnb.dnb.de .

This book is copyright material and must not be copied, reproduced, transferred,
distributed, leased, licensed or publicly performed or used in any way except as
specifically permitted in writing by the publishers, as allowed under the terms and
conditions under which it was purchased or as strictly permitted by applicable
copyright law. Any unauthorized distribution or use of this text may be a direct
infringement of the author s and publisher s rights and those responsible may be
liable in law accordingly.

Imprint:
Copyright © 2016 GRIN Verlag
ISBN: 9783668632004

This book at GRIN:

https://www.grin.com/document/388832
Temesgen Mekuriaw, Yohannis Kifle, Yonas Assefa

Water Supply Distribution System Design

In Holeta Town Wolmera West Shewa Zone of Oromia region, Ethiopia

GRIN Verlag
GRIN - Your knowledge has value

Since its foundation in 1998, GRIN has specialized in publishing academic texts by
students, college teachers and other academics as e-book and printed book. The
website www.grin.com is an ideal platform for presenting term papers, final papers,
scientific essays, dissertations and specialist books.

Visit us on the internet:

http://www.grin.com/

http://www.facebook.com/grincom

http://www.twitter.com/grin_com
 ARBAMİNCH UNİVERSITY

Water Supply Distribution System

Design: )n (oleta Town Wolmera West
Shewa Zone of Oromia region, Ethiopia

By TEMESGEN MEKURIAW,
YOHANNIS KIFLE
YONAS ASSEFA
Advisor: ZELALEM ABERA (MS.C)

‘‘The Safe Drinking Water Act, the safety provisions of the

Clean Water Acts, the Clean Air Act, the Superfund Law - the gas
industry is exempt from all these basic environmental and worker
protections. They don't have to disclose the chemicals they use. They
don't have to play by the same rules as anybody else.”

Josh Fox

I
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We want to provide our great full thanks to our advisors, Mr. Zelalem Abera (MSc), Mr.
Sabkeebar Ararsa (BSc) next to God; for all his sincere, faithful and immense devotion to
help us in providing all the necessary materials which are paramount for our final year
project.

II
ABSTRACT

The provision of clean Water Supply is one of the major factors that greatly contribute to the
socioeconomic transformation of a country by improving the health thereby increasing life
standard and economic productivity of the society. However, most of the developing country
like Ethiopia has still low potable water supply and sanitation coverage that result the
citizens to be suffered from water Shortage, water born and water related diseases. A good
water supply distribution infrastructure plays a key role for any kind development for a town.
This project examined the theoretical framework for the design of an improved water
distribution network for Holeta town. The aim of this water supply project is to provide
potable water for present and future demand for targeted Holeta town which improve the
existing water supply system of the town. The present and future population of the study area
was determined and the water demand per day established. The hydrologic, hydro geologic
and topographic data formed the basis of the design while laying emphasis on models and
theories of pipe networking and performance. The pipe network layout was analyzed with the
use of Epanet2.0 software which is based on Hazen William's equation.

Key Words: EPA-NET software, population projection (forecast), pressure head, velocity
head, water demand assessment and water distribution network system.

III
TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ........................................................................................................ II
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................. III
TABLE OF CONTENTS.........................................................................................................IV
LIST OF TABLE .....................................................................................................................IX
LIST OF FIGURE....................................................................................................................XI
ABBRIVATIONS .................................................................................................................. XII
NOMENCLATURE ............................................................................................................. XIV
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 General ............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of the problem ................................................................................................. 2
1.3 Objective of the project .................................................................................................... 3
1.3.1 Main objective ........................................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Specific objective ...................................................................................................... 4
1.4 Expected output ................................................................................................................ 4
1.5 The research questions ................................................................................................... 4
1.6 Significance of the study ................................................................................................ 4
1.7 The scope of the study ................................................................................................... 5
1.8 Limitation of the Study .................................................................................................. 5
1.9 Research Design and Data Collection............................................................................ 5
1.9.1 Research Design..................................................................................................... 5
1.9.2 Data collection ....................................................................................................... 6
2 RELATED LITERATURE REVIEW ................................................................................ 7
2.1 Overview ........................................................................................................................ 7
2.2 Water and Civilization ................................................................................................... 7
2.3 The Water Supply and Demand Situation of the world ................................................. 8
2.4 The Rationales of Urban Water Supply in Africa ........................................................ 11
2.5 The state of urban water supply in Ethiopia ................................................................ 13
2.6 The challenges for urban water supply in Ethiopia ..................................................... 17
2.7 Policy Framework and Potable Water Supply ............................................................. 20
2.8 Institutional framework and organizational capacity ................................................... 21
3 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA ....................................................................... 24
3.1 Background .................................................................................................................. 24

IV
 3.2 Location and Topography ............................................................................................ 24
3.3 Climate ......................................................................................................................... 25
3.4 Demographic Conditions ............................................................................................. 26
3.4.1 Population ............................................................................................................ 26
3.4.2 Economic Situation .............................................................................................. 26
3.4.3 Future Development of the Town ........................................................................ 27
3.5 Basic Social Services ................................................................................................... 27
3.5.1 Education ............................................................................................................. 27
3.5.2 Health ................................................................................................................... 27
3.6 Existing Water Supply and sanitary Service ................................................................ 27
3.6.1 Water Supply Service .......................................................................................... 27
3.6.2 Sanitary Service ................................................................................................... 28
4. POPULATION FORECASTING & DESIGN PERIOD.................................................... 29
4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 29
4.2 Design Period ................................................................................................................. 29
4.3 Population Forecasting Approach .................................................................................. 30
4.3.1 Methods of forecasting population .......................................................................... 31
4.4 Population Data .............................................................................................................. 32
5. WATER DEMAND ASSESSMENT ................................................................................. 36
5.1 General ........................................................................................................................... 36
5.2 Water demand ................................................................................................................ 36
5.3 Domestic Water Demand ............................................................................................... 37
5.3.1 Population Distribution by Mode of Service ........................................................... 37
5.3.2 Per capita Water Demand ........................................................................................ 38
5.3.3 Domestic Water Demand Projection ....................................................................... 39
5.4 Non domestic water demand .......................................................................................... 41
5.4.1 Commercial water demand ...................................................................................... 41
5.4.2 Industrial water demand .......................................................................................... 41
5.4.3 Institutional Water Demand..................................................................................... 42
5.4.4 Fire Fighting Demand.............................................................................................. 42
5.4.5 Non-revenue water .................................................................................................. 43
5.5 Water demand variation ................................................................................................. 43
5.5.1 Average Water Demand .......................................................................................... 43

V
 5.5.2 Maximum Day Water Demand................................................................................ 44
5.5.3 Peak Hour Water Demand ....................................................................................... 44
6. WATER SOURCE AND WELL HYDRAULICS ............................................................. 47
6.1 General ........................................................................................................................... 47
6.2 Source of water............................................................................................................... 48
6.3 Existing source in Holeta ............................................................................................... 49
6.3.1 Surface source of water ........................................................................................... 49
6.3.2 Ground source of water ........................................................................................... 49
6.4 Ground Water Recharge ................................................................................................. 50
6.5 Well Hydraulics.............................................................................................................. 52
6.5.1 General..................................................................................................................... 52
6.5.2 Factors Affecting the Quantity of Well Water ........................................................ 53
6.5.3 Well Development ................................................................................................... 53
6.6 Well Design .................................................................................................................... 54
6.7 Well Depth ..................................................................................................................... 55
6.7.1 Design of Length and Size of Screen ...................................................................... 55
6.7.2 Design of Well Screen ............................................................................................. 56
6.7.3 Diameter of the well pipe ........................................................................................ 57
6.7.4 Diameter of Bore Hole ............................................................................................ 58
7. SERVICE RESERVOIR...................................................................................................... 60
7.1 General ........................................................................................................................... 60
7.2 Function of service reservoir .......................................................................................... 60
7.3 Accessories of Service Reservoir ................................................................................... 60
7.4 Sites of Distribution Reservoirs (proposed) ................................................................... 61
7.5 Depth of Reservoir ......................................................................................................... 61
7.6 Determination of Storage Capacity ................................................................................ 62
7.7 Structural Design of service reservoir ............................................................................ 67
7.7.1 Water Tank (reservoir) Design Consideration......................................................... 67
7.7.2 Design of circular Reservoir with fixed base and Free at the top............................ 68
8 COLLECTION CHAMBER AND PUMPS ......................................................................... 90
8.1 Collection Chamber........................................................................................................ 90
8.1.1 Determination of collection chamber capacity ........................................................ 90
8.1.2 Position of Collection system .................................................................................. 91

VI
 8.2 Pumps ............................................................................................................................. 91
8.2.1 Purpose of Pump ...................................................................................................... 91
8.2.2 Selection of a Pump ................................................................................................. 91
8.2.3 Centrifugal Pumps ................................................................................................... 92
8.2.4 Determination of Pipe Size ...................................................................................... 93
8.2.5 Determination of Total Dynamic Head ............................................................... 94
9 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM ................................................................................................ 102
9.1 Classification of distribution system ............................................................................ 102
9.2 Layout of distribution system ....................................................................................... 103
9.2.1 Selection of pipe material ...................................................................................... 103
9.2.2 Pipe Appurtenance................................................................................................. 104
9.2.3 Laying of Pipes ...................................................................................................... 104
9.2.4 Flow Metering ....................................................................................................... 104
9.3 Analysis of water distribution network ........................................................................ 105
10 WATER QUALITY AND WATER TREATMENT ....................................................... 106
10.1 Ground water quality and treatment ........................................................................... 106
10.2 Treatment processes ................................................................................................... 108
10.2.1 Disinfection ......................................................................................................... 108
10.2.2 Methods of Disinfection ...................................................................................... 108
11 COST ESTIMATION AND ANALYSIS ........................................................................ 113
11.1 Cost estimation for 1150 m3service reservoir ............................................................ 113
11.2 Cost estimation for 550 m3 service reservoir ......................................................... 116
12 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESMENT (EIA) ..................................................... 121
12.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 121
12.2 Description of the potential impacts........................................................................... 121
12.2.1 Positive impact of the project .............................................................................. 121
12.2.2 Negative Impacts of the project ........................................................................... 121
12.2.3 Mitigation measures ............................................................................................ 122
13 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION................................................................ 124
13.1 Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 124
13.2 Recommendation ........................................................................................................ 125
REFERENCES ...................................................................................................................... 126
ANNEXES ............................................................................................................................. 127

VII
Annex A. Epanet Analysis Report ......................................................................................... 127
Annex B. Summary of Cost Estimation ................................................................................. 135

VIII
LIST OF TABLE
Table 1: Coverage for Water Supply in Ethiopia.......................................................................... 15
Table 2 Water Supply Status in Urban Areas, 1994 ..................................................................... 17
Table 3: Commercial businesses in Holeta town .......................................................................... 26
Table 4: Distributions of Schools, Students, and Teachers .......................................................... 27
Table 5: Design periods for various units of water supply ........................................................... 30
Table 6: Given population ............................................................................................................ 32
Table 7: Population growth rate .................................................................................................... 32
Table 8: Population increase ......................................................................................................... 33
Table 9: Calculation of the projected population by arithmetic method ...................................... 33
Table 10:Calculation of projected population by geometric method............................................ 33
Table 11:Calculation of projected population by incremental increase method........................... 34
Table 12: Population growth rate of urban population ................................................................. 34
Table 13:Calculation of projected population by Ethiopian census statistics (CSA) method ...... 34
Table 14:Summary of projected total population by the four methods ........................................ 35
Table 15: Percentage error calculation.......................................................................................... 35
Table 16:Summary of population projection for Holeta Water supply project ............................ 35
Table 17: Population percentage distributions by mode of service. ............................................. 38
Table 18: Projected per capita demand by mode of service (l/cap/day) (2015-2041) .................. 39
Table 19: Adjustment factors for climate ..................................................................................... 39
Table 20: Adjustment factor for socio-economic conditions ........................................................ 40
Table 21: Projected domestic water demand ................................................................................ 40
Table 22 Projected water demand for industrial ........................................................................... 42
Table 23: Summary for non-domestic water demand ................................................................... 42
Table 24: Percentage lost .............................................................................................................. 43
Table 25: Maximum daily factor .................................................................................................. 44
Table 26: Recommended maximum daily demand ...................................................................... 44
Table 27: Recommended peak hour Factors ................................................................................. 45
Table 28: Summary of water demand assessment ........................................................................ 45
Table 29: Values of k and x according to rainfall amount ............................................................ 50
Table 30: Existing borehole yield ................................................................................................. 51
Table 31: Recommended value of screen diameter ...................................................................... 56
Table 32:Recommended well diameter with varies yields ........................................................... 59

IX
Table 33: Depth of reservoir ......................................................................................................... 61
Table 34: Analytical calculation of storage capacity for phase I .................................................. 63
Table 35: Analytical calculation of storage capacity for phase II ................................................ 65
Table 36: Coefficients for Hoop tension (Fixed at base and free at top). ..................................... 70
Table 37: Coefficient for vertical moment (For fixed at base and free at top) ............................. 70
Table 38: Coefficients for Hoop tension (Fixed at base and free at top) ...................................... 81
Table 39: Coefficient for vertical moment (For fixed at base and free at top) ............................. 82
Table 40: Selected water analysis results.................................................................................... 107
Table 41: Dosing rate and chlorination schedule ........................................................................ 112
Table 42:Concrete mix ratio for C-30 ......................................................................................... 120
Table 43: Analysis of reinforcement bar consumption ............................................................... 120

X
LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1 World Improved water source (% of population with access) in 2015 .......................... 10
Figure 2 World without Improved water source (% of population without access) in 2015 ........ 11
Figure 3: urban Improved Water Coverage in sub-Saharan African and East Africa .................. 13
Figure 4: Location of Holeta ......................................................................................................... 25
Figure 5: Summary of water demand assessment ......................................................................... 46
Figure 6: Mass curve graph for phase I ........................................................................................ 64
Figure 7: Mass curve graph for phase II ....................................................................................... 66
Figure 8: Pressure distribution on reservoir wall .......................................................................... 69
Figure 9: Roof slab reinforcement arrangement ........................................................................... 77
Figure 10: Base slab reinforcement arrangement ......................................................................... 80
Figure 11: Sectional view of reservoir .......................................................................................... 80
Figure 12: Epanetdistribution layout analysis............................................................................. 105

XI
ABBRIVATIONS

Asl……………………............................Above sea level

ADD…………………………………….Average Day Demand
BH……………………………..............Borehole
BOQ………………………….…….…..Bill Of Quantities
c/c………………….……………..….….Center to Center
CSA…………………………….............Central Statistical Agency
DCI……………………………………...Ductile Cast Iron
DL …………………………………..…. Dead load
DN……………………………................Nominal Diameter
EIA…………………………………..….Environmental Impact Assessment
ETB……………………………………...Ethiopian Birr
GS……………………………………......Galvanised Steel
L/C/D……………………………............Liter per capita per day
HC………………………………………. House Connection
HCU…………………………………..... House Connection Users
Hr.………………………………………..Hour
HTP……………………………………....House tap connection
HTU………………………………….….House Tap Users
MDD…………………………………….Maximum Daily Demand
MDF……………………………………..Maximum Daily Factor
MoWR……………………………………Ministry of Water Resources
NDD……………………………………..Non-domestic Demand
PHD……………………………………..Peak Hour Demand
PHF……………………………………... Peak Hour factor
PN………………………………………..Nominal pressure category, in bar
PTU……………………………………...Public Tap users
PVC……………………………………...Poly Vinyl Chloride
Qty……………………………………….Quantity
RC……………………………………….Reinforced Concrete
RM………………………………………Raising Main
TDD……………………………………..Total Domestic Demand
TDH……………………………………..Total dynamic head

XII
TWSS……………………………………Town Water & Sanitation Services
TWSSE ………………………………….Town Water Supply and Enterprise
UFW…………………………………….Unaccounted For Water
UWD……………………………………. Unaccounted Water demand
UPVC……………………………………Unplasticised Poly-Vinyl Chloride
WWDSE………………………………...Water Works Design and Supervision Enterprise
WHO……………………………………World Health Organization
YCS……………………………………..Yard Tap Shared
YTC……………………………………..Yard Tap Connection
YTS……………………………………...Yard Tap Shared
YTU……………………………………..Yard Tap Users

XIII
NOMENCLATURE

Unit Description
°C…………............................................................Degrees centigrade
cm…………...........................................................Centimetre
dreq …………...........................................................Required diameter
kg…………........................................................... Kilogram
km …………............................................................Kilometre
km2…………...........................................................Square kilometres
l,lit……..……...........................................................Litres
l/c/d…………...........................................................Litres per capita per day
l/s…………...............................................................Litres per second
lpm…………............................................................Litres per minute
m…………................................................................ Meter
m2………….............................................................. Square meter
m3………….............................................................. Cubic meter
mg/l …………....................................................... Milligram per litre
m/sec…………...........................................................Meter per second
m3/day ………….........................................................Cubic meters per day
m3/hr…………............................................................Cubic meters per hour
mm…………...............................................................Millimetre
m3/hr …………...........................................................Meter cube per hour
N/mm2………….........................................................Newton per square millimetre
Ø …………................................................................Diameter
@ …………................................................................At
% …………................................................................Percent

XIV
 1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

Water is one of the necessities for human being and for all living things. Water means
nothing but just life as it constitutes the major part of the core of the cell, the protoplasm
which is about 70% in content of the cell , even though water is a critical necessity for life , it
has on adverse effect to life unless and other wise properly handled.
In the world clean water that can be used for domestic purpose is not more than 2% of the
natural water resources of the earth. (Source; WHO, 2009).This is very small in amount of
wholesome water comparing with the saline water body. As the result of this the world is
faced to the shortage of sufficient access of safe drinking water. The developing countries of
the world are specially affected by the problem of safe access of drinking water supply. This
is because of the lack of technologies and financial supports to utilize their water resources.
Ethiopia is very well known for its enormous potential all of which is generated in its own
tertiary and it is still known the water towers in Africa. Access of water supply in Ethiopia is
amongst the lowest in sub-Saharan Africa and the entire world, while access has increased
substantially with funding from external aid much fill remind to be done to achieve the
millennium development goal of halving the share of people without access to water and
sanitation. To achieve this goal the Ethiopian government is working to address the problem
of safe access of drinking water in different towns of the country
The accessibility to safe water in Ethiopia is about 23 %. That is a very low level when
compared with the 54 % average for the Sub-Sahara area (UNDP). In the modern society, it is
imperative to Plan and build sustainable water supply scheme which can provide potable
water in accordance with their demands and requirements for Human and livestock.The use
of water for mankind, plant and animal is universal. Without water, there is no existence of
life. The access to a safe and affordable water supply for drinking universally recognized as a
basic human need.
Water distribution systems carry drinking water from a centralized treatment plant or well
supplies to consumers’ taps. These systems consist of pipes, pumps, valves, storage tanks,
reservoirs, meters, fittings, and other hydraulic appurtenances (Drinking Water Distribution
Systems assessing and Reducing Risks, page 2). Distribution system infrastructure is
generally the major asset of a water utility. The American Water Works Association (AWWA,
1974) defines the water distribution system as “including all water utility components for the
distribution of finished or potable water by means of gravity storage feed or pumps though

1
distribution pumping networks to customers or other users, including distribution equalizing
storage.”
Therefore; Water distribution networks design and analysis play an important role in modern
societies being its proper operation directly related to the population’s well-being. In Holeta
where as a town which is at fast growing stage, is very imperative in modern society to insure
the availability of potable water and to plan and design for a sustainable economic suitable
pipe network system or water supply schemes.

1.2 Statement of the problem

In Sub-Saharan Africa in general and particularly in Ethiopia beyond the impact of climate
change on water availability, other major factors such as: population growth and poor water
governance are exacerbating the water supply situation of the countries (Ndaruzaniye, 2011).
Based on the 2010 statistical abstract published by CSA there are 970 towns in Ethiopia, 45%
of the urban population live in 907 towns with less than 30,000 population. 55 % the urban
population live in 63 towns with greater than 30,000 population. They all need piped water
supply systems, and local utilities to oversee and operate them. The strategic action is to
construct facilities that are well managed and can be expanded to meet the needs of a growing
population.
The water supply in Ethiopia, where large portion of the population are challenged due to
poor institutional, infrastructural and socio-demographic factors. Moreover, poor
accountability and lacks of community participation in water projects were identified as
constraints of sustainability (Yacob, et al, 2010). Similarly the study of Aschalew (2009)
revealed the absence of community participation and technical constraints are responsible for
frequent water interruption and sustainability challenges of urban water supply projects. As a
result in spite of the vigorous efforts made to improve the coverage and the system of water
supply in country, the functionality rate of water supply source in Ethiopia in 2007 was about
33 % percent (Tamene, et al., 2011). According to the World Health Organization, between
1990 and 2015 the access to improved drinking water sources increased from 13.2 per cent to
57.3 per cent.
In Ethiopia, after the intervention of the Multiple Use Service approach by the non-
government projects, the productive role of water to the urban population has got great
momentum by the Ministry of Water (Butterworth, et al 2011). But except a mere recognition
of the productive role of water, the nature and the factors of productive water use at
household level has no yet studied. Even attempts are shown to give much emphasis to link

2
water and urban farming while the domestic home based productive use of water by the urban
households are overlooked (James, 2003). Moreover most of the studies conducted in
Ethiopia concerning water supply and sanitation have been found to focus on either the
supply or demand part of water research which overlooked the equilibrium between urban
water supply and multiple needs of water (Kebede, 2003; Zelalem, 2005; and Gossaye,
2007). Similarly studies that are aimed at identifying the factors that affect the demand of
water by the households found to pay little or no attention to include the productive demand
of water, as a result aggregate demand are used to investigate the determinants of water
consumption level. For instance the study of Bihon, (2006), Sileshi, (2008) and Dessalegn,
(2012) assessed the main factors for water consumption level, demand for improved water
and aggregate water demand respectively without consideration of the productive use of
water by the households.
Though the water supply challenges remained intact in various parts of the country, adequate
water supply to the urban as well as rural people remained one of the most crucial resources
for survival, health and prosperity (WHO, 2006). Particularly to the rural poor water plays a
significant contribution as a direct input into agricultural production and as the basis for
health and welfare (Narcisse, 2010).
According to the data from the feasibility study, the majority of Holeta town population is
partially supplied by town’s water supply system. It is reported that the demand of water
couldn’t fulfilled the required demand of water supply. This occurs due to rapidly growth of
Population, expansion of the town and development of economy of the town. It is reported
that 90% of householders collect part of their total water needs from the town’s water supply
system fed directly through private connections or public taps. However, there is insufficient
water to meet all demands and the deficit is made up from other sources including wells and
water vendors. Though the existing infrastructure is old and in poor condition, interruptions
of water supply were occurred from time to time.

1.3 Objective of the project

1.3.1 Main objective

The project aimed to improve the water supply and sanitation system both in quality and
quantity at a reasonable cost without affecting the environmental circumstance of the project
area.

3
1.3.2 Specific objective

The specific objective of this project is to:-

 To provide adequate and sufficient water to the town of Holeta.
 To solve the problem of water born disease by providing potable water.
 To develop new water sources, increase the number of pipes lines and construct
additional reservoir, and
 To extend the distribution system to those areas of the town.

1.4 Expected output

At the end of design we expected that the water supply and sanitation system of the Holeta
town will be improved.
 Potable and sufficient water should be provided
 Problem of water borne disease should be reduced or eliminated.

1.5 The research questions

The general and specific objectives of the study would be achieved by way of seeking
answers to the following questions.

1. What are the types of existing water sources and supply in Holeta town?
2. What is the state of existing water supply?
3. Why demand for water exceeds the supply of water?
4. Do the urban communities have willingness to pay higher price for improved
water service than the existing water supply service?
5. What are the comments of beneficiaries on the proposed strategy of water supply
by the government?
6. What are the major challenges of water supply in the town?
7. What are the factors affecting water supply and consumption of Holeta town?

1.6 Significance of the study

Studying the extent and coverage and dynamics of urban water supply service in holeta helps
to identify the pressing problems in service delivery. This study is expected to increase the
knowledge and up to date information on the city water supply size and its undesirable
impacts on the urban community due to shortage of water supply. It will also serve as a
working document to policy makers in the water sector of oromia Regional state (OGRS),
especially policy making bodies, and the Holeta town water supply and sanitation authority

4
and the Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) which have interest in assisting Holeta
town with financial and technical support in the area of urban water supply. Moreover, the
finding will further serve as reference data and it opens avenue for any further investigation
in the area, and as a useful material for academic purposes.

1.7 The scope of the study

The objective of this research is to present the fundamental concept of hydraulics applied to
holeta town water supply network, in order for municipal officials of the town to a better
evaluation and decision making of water distribution and delivery systems. Therefore, the
research work was limited the design of water distribution network (from clear water well to
distribution end point) of holeta town water supply system in West Shewa Zone of Oromia
region of Ethiopia and it mainly focus on the determination of the population served, water
demand assessment, distribution system design, selection of source which fulfill the demand
of the town with borehole design and environmental impact assessment.

1.8 Limitation of the Study

Due to some major challenges associated with the collection of the data, the study was
exposed for some limitations. The first limitation of the study was associated with availability
of sufficient information regarding to the study area water supply distribution system network
condition which has been designed for town. Secondly the study suffers from lack of
sufficient secondary data related with urban water supply design due the inadequacy of works
regarding the study area and the poor documentation of the water supply and sanitation
authority offices.

1.9 Research Design and Data Collection

1.9.1 Research Design

Generally this study can be seen as a descriptive cross-sectional study with a central task of
design of urban water supply system in Holeta town, Wolmera Woreda. The study used a
mixed approach with a central premise of; the use of quantitative and qualitative approaches
in combination provides a better understanding of research problems than either approach
alone. Hence, the mixed approach that is used in this research employs strategies of inquiry
that involve collection of qualitative and quantitative data simultaneously to best understand
the research problem under investigation. The study was guided by the principles of multiple

5
sources and subsequent crosschecking of information as well as by applying various data
collection instrument and analysis techniques- both quantitative and qualitative.
1.9.2 Data collection
A combination of both quantitative and qualitative data from both primary and secondary
sources was generated. The primary data was collected from residents of the sample Holeta
town, officials of the water supply and sanitation authority and Wolmera woreda water
bureau and from field visit. In an effort to supplement the primary data and make this
research work more valid and worthy, relevant secondary sources pertinent to the study were
consulted. Accordingly, official statistics and reports available in water projects
implementing agencies' offices were the major sources of secondary data for this study.
Moreover, different written documents both published and unpublished- books, CSA,
government, non government documents, journals and research works in relation to the issue
under consideration; government policy and strategy were reviewed to supplement the study
as well as to review the overall water supply situation in the study area .

6
2 RELATED LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Overview
A well planned water distribution network is very essential in the development of an area.
The network is built to satisfy various consumer demands while meeting minimum pressure
requirements at certain nodes. In the design stage it is of interest to arrive at the least-cost
solutions that satisfy a set of constraints including demand and pressure requirements. Often
it is also of interest to arrive at less expensive solutions that, however, violate slightly the
constraints. Accordingly, research interests have been concentrating on the design of water
distribution network by using EPANET to search for the optimal combination of decision
variables (e.g. head loss and velocity) from a large number of solutions.
This chapter deals with the theoretical overview of potable water supply and distribution. It
assesses the sources of water supply, urban water supply accessibility, major challenges of
drinking water supply and distribution, potable water supply problems in developing
countries in general and in Ethiopia in particular, benefits of access to safe, reliable, adequate
and affordable potable water supply and impacts of inaccessibility of water supply and
distribution facilities. In addition to these it assesses the Ethiopian government’s water supply
and sanitation policy, institutional arrangement and responsibilities at different levels.

2.2 Water and Civilization

Water has been an important factor to the development and survival of civilization. The first
great civilization arose in the valleys of great rivers, the River Nile, valley of Egypt, the
Tigris Euphrates valley of Mesopotamia, the Indus valley of India and Pakistan and Huang
He valley of China. Through the ages people have been compelled to settle in region where
water is not deficient in quantity, inferior in quality. Only when supplies failed or made
useless by unbearable salt or pollution before them were centers of habitation abandoned. So,
man's endeavors to achieve a more desirable relationship with the water of the earth have
helped them mould his character and his outlook towards the world around him. People have
preferred to meet their water troubles head on rather than to quit their places of abode and
industry. So people have applied their creative imagination and utilized their skills and
released heroic energy. The ancient well aqueducts and reservoirs of the old world, some still
serviceable after thousands of years, at least to the capacity for constructive thinking and
corporative ventures which had a part in human advancement. These aqueducts, canals, and

7
reservoirs built by the ancient Romans turned regions along the coast of Northern Africa to
be civilized. After Romans left, their water projects were abandoned (World Book, 1984).

2.3 The Water Supply and Demand Situation of the world

Our planet today is at the eve of accepting 7.355 Billion peoples which brings historically
unprecedented pressure to the natural resource of the globe (UNPD.WPP, Eurostat:
Demographic Statistics,UNSD. Population and Vital Statistics Report (various years), .S.
Census Bureau: International Database and Secretariat of the Pacific Community: SDP). In
this case Water, which is among the basic natural resource to the livelihood of the rural poor,
is exposed to deterioration from time to time. As a result today bringing immediate remedy to
the global water crisis became an agenda to achieve the target of the millennium development
goals of halving the proportion of people without access to improved water.
Recently thought the global use of improved water sources showed progress from time to
time but still 605 million people don't have access to safe drinking water which clearly shows
the pressure of the population growth (WHO, 2012). Besides the population pressure of the
globe, the water supply and demand gap are exacerbated by various factors of inequitable
distribution of water rights, economic resources and uneven resource availabilities (White
ford, 2005, cites in Wutich, and Ragsdale, 2008). Even thought the problem of water supply
is the fact for both urban and rural areas, the world is still predominated by the world rural
population which lack access to improved water as compared to that of urban population. As
shown in the Figure 2.2. It is only 3.55 % of the world urban populations are considered to
be without access to improved water. Unfortunately this number is much higher for the rural
population of the world for whom the population without accessibility to improved water
source reached 15.423% which is five time higher than the urban population.
The world's water security situation is basically influenced by two grand driving forces:
pressure on the supply of water and pressure on the demand for water. Pressures on water
supply include; impact of climate change, multinational use of water basins and aquifers,
poor water supply infrastructure and intermittency are just only listing some of the major
once. On the other hand pressured on the demand side includes; population growth and
distribution, agriculture (which currently accounts 70% of all water use), changes in diet and
industry (20% of global water use) are the prime challenges for the spontaneous increment of
water demand of the world today (REA, 2010). Hence identifying these two grand drivers of
water supply and demand situation, the options for tackling these challenges will revolve
around them. Therefore, integrating supply orientated and demand orientated measure

8
through policy, governance and regulation, cultural change and institutional reform, as well
as through better approaches to management and application of new technologies and
techniques are promising measures if the two drivers are required to be tackled and the world
water situation needed to be improved (ibid).
According to the World Health Organization and UNICEF, in 2010, 89% of the world’s
population used drinking water from improved sources (54% from a piped connection in their
dwelling, plot or yard, and 35% from other improved drinking water sources), leaving 780
million people lacking access to an improved source of water (WHO/UNICEF, 2012).
The world met the United Nations’ Millennium Development Goal (MDG) drinking water
target to halve the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water by
2015 in 2010, 5 years ahead of schedule (WHO/UNICEF, 2012). More than 2 billion people
gained access to improved water sources from 1990 to 2010. However if current trends
continue, 605 million people will be without an improved drinking water source in 2015
(WHO/UNICEF, 2012).
Access to safe drinking water is measured by the percentage of the population having access
to and using improved drinking water sources.
Improved drinking water sources should, but do not always, provide safe drinking water,
and include:
 Piped household water connection
 Public standpipe
 Borehole
 Protected dug well
 Protected spring
 Rainwater collection
Unimproved drinking water sources include:
 Unprotected dug well
 Unprotected spring
 Surface water (river, dam, lake, pond, stream, canal, irrigation channel)
 Vendor-provided water (cart with small tank/drum, tanker truck)
 Bottled water*
 Tanker truck water
* Bottled water is not considered improved due to limitations in the potential quantity, not
quality, of the water.

9
 1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014
yaer

Improved water source (% of population with access)

Improved water source, urban (% of urban population with access)
Improved water source, rural (% of rural population with access)

Figure 1 World Improved water source (% of population with access) in 2015

Source: computed from WHO/UNICEF (JMP) for Water Supply and Sanitation
(wssinfo.org )

10
 40,00

35,00

30,00

25,00

20,00

15,00

10,00

5,00

0,00
1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014
yaer

Improved water source (% of population without access)

without Improved water source, urban (% of urban population without access)
without Improved water source, rural (% of rural population without access)

Figure 2 World without Improved water source (% of population without access) in 2015

Source: Source: Computed from WHO/UNICEF, 2015. (wssinfo.org )

2.4 The Rationales of Urban Water Supply in Africa

In the year 2000 all most all African countries were adopted the millennium development
goals and seeks to "halve by 2015 the proportion of people without access to safe drinking
water and sanitation" (Todaro and Smith, 2011). However in Sub-Saharan Africa it is
anticipated to rich the target to the year 2040, after 25 year from the expected target (Sutton,
2008).That is why still, around 276.5 million of the people living in sub Saharan Africa are
left without access to safe water with a majority of them being women and children living in
rural households (WHO/UNICEF (JMP) for WSS , 2015). SSA has the lowest drinking water
coverage and the lowest sanitation coverage in the world (WHO, 2012).
With only 56 percent of the population enjoying access to safe water, Sub-Saharan Africa
lags behind other regions in terms of access to improved water sources. Based on present
trends, it appears that the region is unlikely to meet the target of 75 percent access to
improved water by 2015, as specified in the Millennium Development Goals (MDG). The
welfare implications of safe water cannot be overstated. The estimated health and time-saving

11
benefits of meeting the MDG goal are about 11 times as high as the associated costs.
Monitoring the progress of infrastructure sectors such as water supply has been a significant
by-product of the MDG, and serious attention and funding have been devoted in recent years
to developing systems for monitoring and evaluating in developing countries. Piped water
reaches more urban Africans than any other form of water supply-but not as large a share as it
did in the early 1990s. The most recent available data for 32 countries suggests that some 39
percent of the urban population of Sub-Saharan Africa is connected to a piped network,
compared with 50 percent in the early 1990s. Analysis suggests that the majority of those
who lack access to utility water live too far away from the distribution network, although
some fail to connect even when they live close by. Water-sector institutions follow no
consistent pattern in Sub-Saharan Africa. Where service is centralized, a significant minority
has chosen to combine power and water services into a single national multi-utility urban
water sector reforms were carried out in the 1990s, with the aim of creating commercially
oriented utilities and bringing the sector under formal regulation. One goal of the reforms was
to attract private participation in the sector.
In Africa despite there are recently positive trends regarding the water supply and coverage,
still the problem is pervasive in the region and remains unsolved permanently. Even in the
region for many of those who supposedly already enjoy an improved service, the reality is
one of poor continuity, poor quality and premature failure. As a result Tens of millions of
people face continuing problems with systems that fail prematurely, leading to wasted
resources and false expectations (Lockwood, and Smits, 2011). According to the report of
(WHO/UNICEF, 2011),
84% of people without access to improved drinking water sources live in rural areas of the
region. In Africa the sustainability of water projects still remains the major challenge for
continued provision of water to the rural population. The Water Supply Network indicates an
average rate of non-functionality for hand-pumps in sub-Saharan Africa is 36% which is
shameful wastage in the sector. Due to this fact huge amount money which estimated to be
hundreds of millions of dollars over the last 20 years are wasted. Having recognizing such
trends community managed projects has been envisaged but still the problem remains intact
due to lack real participation of the community (RWSN, 2009, cited in Lockwood, and Smits,
2011).
Looking in to the trends of urban improved water coverage, in East Africa for instance the
progress is still remained undone. As shown in the Figure 2.3 below only Djibouti reaches
around 97.3% of urban improved water coverage, this percentage is even very high as
12
compared to the urban provision of the other east African as well as sub Saharan African
countries. Unfortunately among the East African countries, Ethiopia has the lowest improved
water coverage estimation as compared to Uganda and Djibouti. Even though the prospects of
urban water supply have shown some progress, still the trend fails to converge with the urban
water supply.
100,00

ethiopia

90,00
Uganda

Djibouti
80,00
Sudan

Sub-Saharan
70,00 Africa
Kenya

60,00
1990 1994 1998 2002 2006 2010 2014

Figure 3: urban Improved Water Coverage in sub-Saharan African and East Africa

Source: Computed from WHO/UNICEF, 2015.

2.5 The state of urban water supply in Ethiopia

The water supply and sanitation sector in Ethiopia is one of the least developed and is mostly
characterized by service deficiency of physical infrastructure as well as by inadequate
management capacity to handle policy and regulatory issue and to plan, operate, and maintain
the service.
Regarding this, World Bank Group (2005:2) stated that though Ethiopia is often referred to as
the “water tower” of Africa, only a quarter of the country’s population have improved access
to water sources. Rushing streams from the Ethiopian highlands form tributaries of famous
Blue Nile, Tekeze, Awash, Omo, Wabeshebele and Baro-Akobo-rivers which flow across
borders to neighboring countries. Six billion cubic meters of water run out of Ethiopia as the
Blue Nile River to the Sudan and Egypt. But as recurrent drought drives more and more rural

13
people from their traditional farmlands to urban centers, Ethiopia faces growing urban water
crises.
Ethiopia has one of the highest urbanization growth rates in the developing World. According
to data obtained from the Central Statistical Authority, the country’s urban population was
growing at 4.8 per cent per annum between the 1995 to 2000. The urban population in
Ethiopia in 1984, the first census period, was 4.3 million forming 11 per cent of the total
population. In 1994, the second census period, the urban population was 7.4 million. Total
urban population had increased by 12 per cent from that of 1984. In terms of urban centers, in
1984, Ethiopia had 312 urban centers with population of over 2000. In 1994, the second
census period, the urban centers in the country grew to 534 registering an increase of 71 per
cent over that of 1984 though the definitions of the two censuses are not the same (Tegegne,
2000:2).The growth has been much higher for some intermediate towns. In 2000 17.6% of
Ethiopia’s population or about 11 million people live in about 927 cities and towns of
different sizes and categories. Currently, in 2005 about 20.1% of urban populations live in
cities and towns of different sizes and categories.
The rapid growth of urban population has placed tremendous pressure on the management
capacity of municipalities for service delivery and local economic development. This
phenomenal growth has also burdened many municipalities with the problems of inadequate
housing, poverty and unemployment, inadequate water and electricity supply, and poor
sanitation systems. Available data also indicate that in the next 25 years (1994-2020), nearly
30 per cent of Ethiopia’s population will live in cities. This kind of rapid urban population
growth will inevitably call for huge investments in housing, urban infrastructure, water and
electricity supply, sanitation systems and environmental protection programs and programs to
alleviate poverty and unemployment in the cities. This implies that the challenge will require
well trained municipal management and resource capacity, responsive urban governance and
well trained and motivated personnel and sustaining services such as water, electricity supply,
local revenue collection and administration to meet the ever growing demand for better and
more quality services and infrastructures.
Because of this population pressure and other factors as per official statistics, coverage of
water and sanitation service in Ethiopia is very poor, among the lowest in the world,
especially for rural areas. Among the key indicators for International Development Goals,
Ethiopia’s performance on “sustained” access to safe water sources and sanitation services is
one of the worst in the region.

14
According to the figures given by Tegegne (2000:16), the amount demanded is much higher
than the supply. That is, in 1998 the amount supplied by Addis Ababa Authority was only 62
per cent of the amount demanded. With regard to the distribution of water, the Welfare
Monitoring Survey of 1996 estimated that 36 per cent of the households use own tap while 61
per cent use public tap or “public fountain”.
Berhanu and Said in Genenew (1999:8) also figured out that only 27 per cent of the
populations of Ethiopia have access to safe water and 10 per cent have access to sanitation
while these figures stand 71 per cent and 30 per cent for safe water and sanitation
respectively for low income countries.
There is also regional variation both in rural and urban areas such as Addis Ababa, Dire
Dawa and Harari in particular showing more per centage of population with access to safe
source of water and sanitation. Afar, Benishangul-Gumuz and Gambella regions show the
low per centage of population with access to safe water. For instance, in towns such as
Mekele, Nazareth, Bahirdar and Harrar only 33.6, 38.6, 42.9 and 57.8 per cent of the housing
units, respectively, had a private or shared water meter in 1994. The water supply in small
towns is extremely low.
Regarding this, the World Bank group (2005:2) mentioned that towns in the 2,000 to 50,000
population range face special challenge in the provision of their WSS services. The demand
for differentiated technologies-piped water supply in the core, alternative technologies in the
fringe areas- and the often rapid unpredictable water demand and spatial growth require
planning, design, and management skills that exceed community based management
approaches. But unlike larger towns or cities, these smaller towns often lack the financial and
human resources to independently plan, finance, manage and operate their WSS systems.
This implies that a key challenge for Town WSS is to allocate limited government resources
amongst a large number of dispersed towns. The following table 2.1shows the coverage for
water supply and sanitation in Ethiopia.

Table 1Coverage for Water Supply in Ethiopia

Region Per centage of population with

access to a ‘safe’ source of water

1994 1998
Rural Urban Rural Urban
Addis Ababa 35.6 98.4 54.6 98.8
Affar 5.2 73.1 16.2 83.0

15
Amhara 15.2 80.2 13.0 85.0
Benishangul 14.8 55.0 14.1 61.00
Dire Dawa 23.6 98.1 84.6 99.6
Gambella 21.3 72.4 21.1 62.4
Harrari 11.2 98.2 37.7 97.3
Oromia 15.8 76.2 20.0 85.8
Semali 9.0 47.9 34.9 98.8
SNNPRS 15.5 71.1 21.4 73.8
Tigray 10.6 73.9 19.2 96.4
Total 14.8 81.0 18.3 86.0

There are also variations across urban areas. Based on the official statistics, conditions with
access to safe water in urban areas is higher in terms of coverage, with about 84 per cent
having access to safe water sources, though there are some variations across different town
size classes. This, however, needs to be treated with caution as most households rely on
shared services, consumption levels are very low, seasonal variability is very high and
unscheduled disruptions to services are very common. Small towns with less than 2,000
populations have access levels of only 40 per cent and those with less than 10,000
populations have a level of around 60 per cent. Interestingly, except for the very small
‘towns’ with less than 2,000 population, most other towns have some form of piped systems,
and access to piped systems is over 75 per cent in towns with more than 10,000 population.
MWR (2002:4) distinguished three categories of towns outside Addis Ababa. Rural towns:
towns with less than 2,000 population where 60 per cent of towns have piped system, but
coverage levels in terms of population with access to piped system is low at about 20 per
cent. Small towns: towns with 2 to 10,000 population that mostly have piped systems but the
access to piped system is only about 50 per cent and medium and large towns all have piped
systems but do require some improvement in access. Even among these towns “access” is
largely confined to yard taps or shared connections, with the resultant implications for cost
recovery and financial viability. The following table 2.2 shows water supply status in urban
areas.

16
Table 2 Water Supply Status in Urban Areas, 1994

Population size Total pop. % of towns with % of housing units with

of towns (in’000) piped system Individual Piped supply Safe water
connection
Lessan 2000 349 282 58 2 22 43
2-5,000 1093 338 90 3 43 61
5-10,000 1077 153 98 5 55 69
10-20,000 1192 85 100 10 73 82
20-30,000 754 30 100 13 74 83
30-80,000 1176 26 100 16 76 84
80-250,000 1334 10 100 19 89 94
Addis Ababa 2495 1 100 27 98 98
Total Urban 9470 925 83 15 76 84
Source: WSP, 2002:5

2.6 The challenges for urban water supply in Ethiopia

Ethiopia has plenty of water resources but the available water is not distributed evenly across
the country and the amount varies with seasons and years. The challenge in any situation is to
maintain a year-round supply that is adequate to meet people’s needs. To ensure that supply
meets demand the source of the water must be carefully chosen, taking into account present
and future demand for water, and the costs. The cost of water supplies is heavily influenced
by the distance of reliable water sources from towns. The challenge for many towns is finding
nearby water sources.
Planning for present and future demand has to consider population growth. The demand for
water is increasing in cities and towns due to an ever-growing population and the migration
of people from rural areas to towns in search of jobs and a better life. There are also
increasing demands from industrial and commercial development. The quantity of water
required for domestic use depends not only on the number of people but also on their habits
and culture, and on how accessible the water is. On average, Ethiopians in urban areas use
only about 15 litres of water a day for their needs (MoH, 2001; Ali and Terfa, 2012).
There is a difference between the WHO estimate and the daily water consumption per person
in Ethiopian towns. The shortfall is perhaps due to the shortage of private water taps, which
means that people have to collect water from public taps. If people have a piped water supply
in their home they are likely to wash and bathe more frequently, and some may have water-
using appliances like washing machines. As water supply systems improve and access
increases, the consumption of water will increase also. It is therefore important for water
supply planners to consider the expected changes in society and in living standards. Planning

17
of water supply projects should also consider the water requirements of schools, hospitals and
other health facilities, churches and mosques, hotels, public washrooms, and other
community facilities.
The government of Ethiopia has set targets of 100% coverage of safe water supply in urban
areas and 98% coverage in rural areas. These targets originated from the Universal Access
Plan of 2005 and the Growth and Transformation Plan of 2010, and have been adopted by the
One WASH National Programme (OWNP), which is being implemented with major funding
from government and international donors (FDRE, 2013). The planning criteria for water
supply coverage in the OWNP are:
 rural water supply: 15 litres/person/day, within 1.5 km radius
 urban water supply: 20 litres/person/day, within 0.5 km radius (FDRE, 2013).
As you can see, these figures are still below the WHO recommendation and are more than
current usage, indicating the scale of the challenge ahead. The targets for Ethiopia are that 4.4
million urban inhabitants and 26.6 million rural inhabitants, nearly 30,000 schools, and more
than 7500 health posts/centres will gain access to safe drinking water (FDRE, 2013).
Another key issue in urban areas is the reliability of the water supply. Consultations with the
poor also highlighted this aspect vividly. Limited available information suggests that
reliability of supply is likely to be quite poor, both in terms of quantity and frequency.
Regarding access for the poor on the whole, relative level of access to water and sanitation in
urban areas is estimated to be high in Ethiopia. However, in some larger urban centers the
poor may lack access. The aforementioned information indicates that as a result of low level
of development a significant proportion of the total urban population of Ethiopia in particular
and total population of Ethiopia in general have no access to safe and adequate potable water
supply. They still restrict themselves to use what nature has provided them with in the form
of springs, rivers, lakes, ponds, traditional hand dug wells and rain water which are often
unsafe, cause health hazards and are at considerable distance from households. Among the
main reasons given for the slow pace of progress in water supply services in Ethiopia, the
following are net worthy: lack of comprehensive legislation; inadequate investment
resources; lack of a national water tariff policy and the absence of beneficiary participation
and community management (Dessalegn, 1999:12). In relation to this, MWR (2002:13) stated
that issues of poor sector capacity and low level of expenditures for WSS are interlinked and
lead to a vicious circle – as low level of investments create low demand for technical and
manpower inputs in WSS sector, the capacity remains underdeveloped. The resulting low
sector capacity, means low allocations and expenditures are curtailed. The sustainability of
18
water supply facilities mainly depends on a timely and regular maintenance and operation of
the system. However, in most developing countries, including Ethiopia, it has been found out
that operation and maintenance (O&M) of water supply facilities is in a poor state of
condition and the sustainability of the scheme is at stake. Regarding this, MWR (2002:13)
identified the following underlying problems:
 Inappropriate tariff setting without emphasis on full cost recovery;
 Lack of clear guidelines for urban tariff setting including issues related to fairness,
and financial sustainability;
 Inappropriate or lack of institutional incentives for urban WSPs to achieve financial
viability and improved operational performance;
 Poor technical and financial capacity among the urban service providers that leads to
high levels of unaccounted for Water (UFW); and
 Poor or nonexistent consumer services and grievance handling system that leads to a
lack of willingness to pay user charges.
According to the feedback gathered from the participants of the workshop conducted in
Bahardar in April 1999, the following were pointed out to be the main causes or challenges
for the O & M problems in Ethiopia in order of importance:
 Poor organizational setup in the sector coupled with the absence of trained manpower;
 Low community awareness regarding the importance of clean water;
 Absence of adequate repair parts, spare parts, and hand tools;
 Financial shortage to support O & M , and the limited funds that are available are
used for new installations;
 Low participation of the beneficiaries in the decision making process;
 Substandard designs, poor construction quality, and inappropriate technology;
 Absence of coordinated supervision and monitoring mechanisms;
 Unwillingness to pay for services;
 Low attention paid to local skills and minimal support to Artisans and private sector
(Abay Engineering PLC, 2000).
There are still many challenges ahead but the following changes will all contribute to future
success:
 an increase in funds for the expansion of water supply services to satisfy the demand

of growing populations, particularly in small towns

 a reduction in bureaucracy to facilitate the spending of funds that are committed

(currently only around 60% of budgeted finances are actually spent)

19
  a reduction in the turnover of personnel, and an increase in human resource capacity

and expertise at different levels

 better coordination between the different stakeholders (for instance, there is lack of

coordination between the water sector, telecommunication department and the road
authority; because of this, water pipes are frequently damaged during activities such as
laying down telephone and internet lines, and during road construction)
 the presence of more experts to monitor sector performance at all levels

 Better information management systems, giving early warning of requirements.

2.7 Policy Framework and Potable Water Supply

Before 1999, water resources development, in general, and the provision of potable water
supply, in particular have been carried out without any policy framework and were not well
coordinated in the country. However, since 1999, it seems due attention has been given by the
Ethiopian government to alleviate the problem of access to safe water supply and achieve
rapid socioeconomic development through better health care and productivity of its people by
formulating the country’s water resources management policy in 1999.
The water supply and sanitation policy is an integral part of the country’s water management
policy. According to the policy document (1999), the policy is believed to provide and
impetus for the development of water supply for human and animal consumption. It focuses
on increasing the coverage, quantity, reliability and acceptable quality, taking the existing
and future realities of the country into consideration. Upon implementation, the policy is
expected to achieve the objective of the Ethiopian people to attain adequate, reliable and
clean water service that meets the water user’s demand.
The policy of supplying free water to any group except for emergency, leads in practice to an
unfair situation. Since there are no enough funds to provide such free services, the rural and
urban poor are the first to suffer. A better and much more equitable way would be to collect
water charges from consumers and then improve and expand the system. Accordingly, the
policy envisages supplying improved potable water service for urban areas with tariff
structures that are set based on “full cost recovery and self reliance”.
Apropos this issue, Alebel (2004) stated that a full cost recovery program has the advantage
of providing incentive for proper use; reduces waste and excessive consumption of water
resources. Besides, it helps to release funds for other investment programs. The policy
considers water as a social and economic good, and it is an integrated one. Full cost recovery
requires charging consumers so as to cover the full cost of project construction as well as the

20
operation and maintenance of providing the service. Water development investments by their
nature require huge amounts of money.
This implies that charging consumers for water should be done carefully. If prices are set too
low, revenues may not be sufficient to cover the full costs of supplying water. If, on the other
hand, they are set too high, households may not be able to afford consuming the new 27
improved water, and again revenues will not be sufficient to cover the full cost. In relation to
this, Alebel (2004) suggested that setting the required tariff, information on the ability and
willingness of the consumers to pay for such services are essential. In other words, to cover
the full costs and sustain the service, revenue should be collected from the sale of the water
based on the tariff that considers the full recovery of the cost, on the one hand, and the
fairness and willingness of the consumers that are supposed to be served, on the other.
Therefore, the policy for increasing the coverage as the proper use and sustainability of the
service requires implementation of a cost recovery system, which can be either full or partial
cost recovery. That is, in order to implement the existing policy for the provision of water
supply in urban areas of the country fairness of the tariff, willingness to pay for the service
and efficient management of the resources of the utility office need to be examined.

2.8 Institutional framework and organizational capacity

Although urban water supply services began during the Imperial regime, it was not until 1971
that a body responsible for all aspects of water use and development in the country, the Water
Resources Commission, was established. The Awash Valley Authority was setup in 1962, but
its duties were to plan and promote investment activities within the valley. The commission
was given a wide mandate and entrusted with the responsibility of planning and utilizing the
country’s water resources including household consumption. In the early 1980, the
government pledged to implement the UN initiated International Drinking Water Supply and
Sanitation Decade, which in Ethiopia ran from 1984 to 1994, coinciding with the
governments ten year plan, which set an ambitious target for the provision of safe water
supply to the rural areas. At the beginning of the 1980, less than 6 per cent of the rural
population and 19 per cent of the population in the twenty major towns had access to clean
drinking water. At the end of the plan period, the coverage for rural areas was to reach 35 per
cent and for the urban areas 85 per cent. While the record of achievement was not as high as
planners had hoped for, considerable progress was made in 1980, (Dessalegn, 1999:11 cetid
as; Assefa Dallecho).

21
The Water Supply and Sanitation Authority (WSSA), a division within the Water Resources
Commission, was established in 1981. Between then and 1992, WSSA was the principal
agency responsible for water development in the rural areas and all urban areas except Addis
Ababa. By 1990, a total of 210 urban water systems serving about 3 million people came
under WSSA’s responsibility. Likewise, the authority was responsible for providing support
and maintenance to cover 6000 rural water schemes serving over 4 million people throughout
the country (Dessalegn, 1999:12).
With the establishment of regional administration under the Transitional Government of
Ethiopia in 1992, Water development programmes became decentralized. At present, the
Regional administrations are responsible for the development, operation and maintenance of
rural and urban water supply systems in their regions. WSSA has also been absorbed into the
ministry of water resources and become the Department of Water Supply and Sanitation
(DWSS). However, the relationship between DWSS (or MWR) and the regions appear to be
unclear and the way decentralization of water development will be carried out in practice
needs to be spelt out in more detail. Within the emerging framework of demand responsive
approaches, the role of government is changing from service provision to facilitating and
providing an enabling environment.
Within the decentralization framework in Ethiopia, different responsibilities are emerging for
different levels of government: policy and strategy development, project implementation and
monitoring and evaluation. At the federal level the responsibility for the water sector is with
the Ministry of Water Resources (MWR). Responsibility for ensuring the provision of these
services is with the regions and will eventually be with woredas (MWR 2002:6).
At the regional level, Regional Water Bureaus (RWBs) along with their other responsibilities
for water resources are also responsible for water and sanitation. In some of larger regions,
woreda water offices with small staff of two persons or so have been established. This trend
for the woreda level is intended to be strengthened in the coming years. Within the Ethiopian
context, NGOs have been important players in the WSS sector. For rural water supply
schemes (RWS) Ethiopia Social Rehabilitation and Development Fund (ESRDF) has also
played a major role in recent years (WSP; 2002:7).
As MWR (2002:7) documented, in Ethiopia, a number of different forms of service providers
exist with considerable inter and even intraregional variations, including: Addis Ababa water
and sewerage Authority (AAWSA), Urban /Town Service Unit (TWSU), Some Scheme
Water Boards (SWB) and at the very local level Water Board (WB) and Village Water and
Sanitation Committee (VWSC). There has been limited involvement of the private sector to
22
date, though there is an emerging interest. With regard to the financing issue, though the
National Water Policy envisages financing from domestic financial institutions. So far sector
financing has been largely through: budgetary allocations, external debt or grants from
bilateral donors and international NGOs, sometimes provided either directly to communities
or local levels of government and more recently other off-budget mechanisms such as
ESRDF. MWR also proposes to establish a Water Resource Development Fund (WRDF). It
is envisaged that the WRDF will pool the government and donor resources and channel in
line with the overall sector policy. In the long-run it is visualized that WRDF will also
mobilize additional resources (MWR, 2002:9).
With decentralization, a large share of federal resources is transferred to regional
governments and regional and woreda governments allocate funds for the WSS sector from
their own budgets. However, an effective decentralization process is constrained by: the lack
of medium term federal subsidy estimates and donor practices that inhibit multi-year
planning. WSS allocations within this emerging decentralization framework depend on the
planning process at these levels and the issue of relative preparedness of the WSS sector at
this level will be an important determinant (ibid).
Based on available information, preliminary and indicative estimates suggest that the current
level of funding allocation to the sector is about 34 million USD per annum. Clearly, to
achieve improvements in poverty reduction and other development goals 30 water supply and
sanitation deserves an equal attention as other sectors such as education, health and roads.
However, WSS allocations leave a great deal to be desired as compare to these sectors. This
more likely reflects a lack of sector readiness to absorb resources rather than a low priority
for water supply and sanitation. The priority actions and programs with in the sector will have
to focus on strengthening overall sector capacity along with the specific investment strategies
linked to coverage targets. (MWR; 2002:10). From this review of related literature we would
understand the pertinence of and the different approaches to urban water supply.

23
3 DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

3.1 Background
The Oromia regional state water resources development bureau is one of the governmental
organizations which established to improve the water supply and sanitation situation of the
region and the project area suited in one of the lack of potable drinking water of the region
due to deprived and insufficient amount of clean water.Holeta water supply project is one of
the projects aimed to achieve the millennium development goal of Holeta town, in the
Oromia region of Ethiopia. The project aims to improve the living conditions of the town by
rehabilitating existing systems and extending the water supply infrastructure as well as
providing adequate training for Town Water & Sanitation Services (TWSS). The project will
develop new water sources (deep and shallow wells and springs), increase the capacity of
pipelines and reservoirs, extend the distribution system to those areas of towns not currently
serviced, and provide technical assistance to the TWSS.

3.2 Location and Topography

Holeta is located in West Shewa Zone of Oromia National Regional State about 34km from
Addis Ababa. The town is situated along the main Addis Ababa to Nekemete road.
Geographically it is located at latitude 10002’92’’ north and longitude 44060’22’’ east.
Presently, Holeta is the capital of Wolmera Administrative district. The total area of the town
is estimated to be 5550 ha and is divided into four urban and five rural Kebeles. The town
lies between elevations of 2320 and 2460 m.a.s.l.

24
 Town Covered in this Report

Other Towns Forming 15

Towns Project

Map not to scale

Figure 4: Location of Holeta

Source : Holeta Town Feasibility Study

3.3 Climate

Holeta town is characterised by high mean annual rain fall of 1367 mm. The highest rainfall
occurs in June, July, August and September with March and April being the driest months.
The mean monthly temperature of Holeta ranges from 12.30C- 15.90C. The minimum and
maximum temperature varies with in 1.60C-8.90C and 19.60C-24.70C, respectively. The
lowest temperature recorded during the months of December, January and February. The
highest temperature recorded during the spring season (February, March, April and May).
The variation of the temperatures is minimal, which is typical for the climatic region.
According to the climatologically classification, Holeta town is climatically classified as"
Dega Rainy” climate.

25
3.4 Demographic Conditions

3.4.1 Population

The 2007 national census reported a total population for Holeta of 25,593, of whom 12,605
were men and 12,988 were women. The majority of the inhabitants said they practiced
Ethiopian Orthodox Christianity, with 73% of the population reporting they observed this
belief, while 20.44% of the populations were Protestant, and 5.43% were Muslim.
According to the 1994 national census, this town has a population of 16,800. The 1994
census reported this town had a total population of 16,785 of whom 8,040 were males and
8,745 were females. Using this as a base, the 2008 population is estimated at 33,099.It is the
largest of three towns in Wolmera Woreda.

3.4.2 Economic Situation

Holeta is the capital of Wolmera Woreda and, therefore, is an important administrative and
communication centre with a population of more than 33,000 inhabitants. Holeta is a major
transit centre and it is located on the main road from Addis Ababa to Nekemete. The town
also serves as a major marketing centre with thousands of rural people flocking into the town.
The major economic activities according to the town’s administration office are trading, hotel
services and small-scale industries.
Table 3: Commercial businesses in Holeta town
Type of Enterprise Number

Hotels and bars 13

Metal and wood work 14
Garages 9
Retail &Wholesale trade 254
Grain Mills 19
Fuel Stations 1
Source: Holeta Town Municipality, 2007
According to the development plan of Holeta, social and personal services are the dominant
employment sectors followed by trade and tourism. The status of Holeta as the capital of the
district means that administrative and law enforcement institutions are centred in the town.
Manufacturing is the other dominant sector providing employment. It is mostly based on
grain milling activities but the potential for diversification and growth is high. Construction is
a relatively young sector linked to the growing demand for modern buildings.

26
3.4.3 Future Development of the Town

A Master Plan for the town was prepared in 2008. According to information from the town’s
administration office the economy of the town will improve significantly. It is expected that
flower farming and small scale industries will grow substantially followed by the building
sector and hotel industry. Trading and transport sectors are also predicted to grow
significantly.

3.5 Basic Social Services

3.5.1 Education

Educational services in Holeta comprise kindergartens, first cycle schools, second cycle
schools, high school, preparatory school, technical college and one private college.
Table 4: Distributions of Schools, Students, and Teachers
Level no of Students no. of Teachers Student/ teacher ratio
Kindergarten 422 12 35
Elementary school(1-8) 9074 222 756
9-10 5173 66 431
11-12 1212 51 101
Total 15881 351 1323
Source: Holeta Town Education office, 2007

3.5.2 Health

One health centre and eight private clinics are found in Holeta town. The health centre has 14
beds.

3.6 Existing Water Supply and sanitary Service

3.6.1 Water Supply Service

The primary source of water is from three boreholes drilled in 1997, 2000 and 2007 with a
cumulative output of 12.3l/s at the moment. Water is pumped from the boreholes to a 300 m3
and 50m3 reinforced concrete reservoirs from where it gravitates into the distribution system.
The water is distributed to the consumers through a total of 2,529 private connections and 24
public fountains.
Water shortage is the major problem with the existing system. Accordingly domestic supplies
are supplemented from secondary sources from the river, small springs and hand dug wells.

27
According to data from the Water Supply Service Office, the majority of households in
Holeta are partially supplied with water from the town’s water supply system. It is reported
that 90% of householders collect part of their total water needs from the town’s water supply
system fed directly through private connections or public taps. However, there is insufficient
water to meet all demands and the deficit is made up from other sources including wells and
water vendors.

3.6.2 Sanitary Service

The overall sanitation of the town is poor and sanitation associated diseases are prevalent.
There is no system for collecting, transporting, and dumping waste in the town.
 Solid Waste Management
The majority of households have no containers for storing garbage. There are few garbage
collection facilities located in the community, therefore, residents of the town dispose of
domestic waste in any open spaces especially on the road verge and in drainage ditches.
There is a temporary sanitary land fill along main highway to Nekemte.
 Liquid Waste Disposal
There is no liquid waste disposal system in the town. Waste resulting from bathing and other
domestic washing activities is almost entirely thrown out into the streets. There is no specific
site for liquid waste disposal.
 Toilet Facilities
Most of the excreta disposal facilities in Holeta Town comprise pit latrines which are
frequently poorly constructed, offensive and over filled. According to the town’s
municipality the majority of households use toilets in their own compound and the prevalence
of open defecation is also significant and demands improvement.
 Sludge Disposal Method
The municipality does not own a vacuum truck for sludge disposal. However, according to
the town’s administration the municipality brings a vacuum truck from Addis Ababa and
provides sludge disposal service for households by charging 310 Birr for a single service.
According to the information from the municipality during the field visit by the Consultant,
most households are unable to afford this facility and few households employ the service.
Many households dig a new pit when the old one is filled. Currently there is no proper sludge
disposal site and sludge is disposed in the farm land outside the town.

28
4. POPULATION FORECASTING & DESIGN PERIOD

4.1 Introduction

The economic design period of the components of a water supply depends on their life, initial
cost, rate of interest on loan, the ease with which they can be expanded of the likelihood that
they will be rendered absolute by technological advances. In order to design the parts of
water system, the flow at the end of design period must be estimated.
The current development plan for Holeta Town was prepared in 2008 by Oromia Regional
state Urban Planning Institute. The development plan shows that there are areas allocated for
residential, commercial, industrial and service-giving institutions. With the growth of the
private sector in the economic activity of the town, there will be a high demand for basic
services among which water is the prime necessity.
The proposed town development plan supplemented with on-site observation, topographic
maps and consultation with the local community, governmental and non-governmental
organizations are among the basis for water demand computation and design of future water
supply system.
It is necessary to fix the design period and forecast the population of the area in the design of
any water supply scheme. Water supply projects are usually designed for a certain period
after the completion of construction works in order to satisfy the population demand.

4.2 Design Period

Design period is the number of years for which the design of water works has been done.
Before designing & construction of water supply scheme, it is necessary to assure that the
water works have sufficient capacity to meet the future water demand of the town for the
fixed design period. Therefore the number of years for which the design of the water works
has been done is called design period. The design period, however, should neither too long or
too short. Mostly water supply schemes have design period of 22-30years.
The different elements of the treatment & distribution systems may approximately be
designed for different flow criteria as shown in the table below.

29
Table 5: Design periods for various units of water supply
system s.no Name of units Design period
1 Pump house 30
2 Pump 12
3 Generator 25
4 Water treatment unit 25
5 Distribution pipe 30
6 Service reservoir 50
7 Weir 50

Source (Dr.B.Cpunmia, water supply Engineering)

The design period of a water supply scheme can be limited by the following factors
1. Funds available for the completion of the project
2. Life of the pipe and other structural materials used in the water supply scheme.
3. Rate of interest on the loans taken to complete the project.
4. Anticipated expansion rate of the town.
Since Holeta is the capital of WolmeraWoreda it is expected to grow in the future and its
water supply system should have a small design period and we adopted 25 years depending
up on the life span of the material and anticipated expansion of the town.

4.3 Population Forecasting Approach

After the design period has been fixed, the population of the town in various periods has to be
determined. As population of the area increases in the future, the correct present and past
population data have to be taken form census office to determine design population of the
area. The future development of the town mostly depends on trade expansion, development
of industries and surrounding country, discoveries of mines, construction of rail way station
etc. These elements may produce sharp rises, slow growth, and stationery conditions or even
decrease the populations. The populations are increased by births, decreased by deaths,
increased or decreased by migration and increased by annexation. These all four factors affect
the change in population. The correct present and past population can be obtained from
census office. Knowing the present population from the recent census is possible to design or
forecast future population of the town.

30
4.3.1 Methods of forecasting population

By considering growth rate of the town we use the following different methods of population
forecasting to asses and estimate the future population of the town:
A. Arithmetic increase method
B. Geometric increase method
C. Incremental increase method
D. Method used by Ethiopian static authority
A. Arithmetic increase method
This method is based on the assumption that the population is increasing at constant rate, that
is the rate of change of population with a time is constant. Generally, the method is applicable
to large and old cities.
dp
=K
dt

 dp = K  dt  Pn = Po + Kn
pn n

po 0

Pn=Po + Kn
Where; Pn=population at n decade
n =decade or year
k =arithmetic increase
B. Geometric increase method
The method is based on the assumption that the percentage increase in population remains
constant. It also known as uniform increase method. The increase is compounded over the
existing population. This method is mostly applicable for growing towns and cities having
vast scope of expansion.
P1=P0+K*P0=P (1+K)
Pn=P0 (1+K) n
Where P0=initial population.
Pn=Population at n decades or year.
n=decade or year
K=percentage or geometric increase.
C. Incremental increase method
In this method the population in each successive future decade is first worked out by the
arithmetical increase method and to these values the incremental average per decade is added.

31
Since the method combines both arithmetic as well as geometric increase method, it improves
the few results that are obtained by arithmetic increase method. Hence it gives satisfactory
results.
P n = Po+ n * (K+ r)
Where Po= initial population
Pn=population at nth decade or year
n= number of decades
k=Arithmetic increase
r=incremental increase
D. Method used by Ethiopian statistics authority
The Ethiopian statistic authority uses the formula pn=poekn for most water supply project in
the country to project population at the end of required decade/year.
Pn=poekn
Where Pn=population at n decades or year
Po=initial population (from census)
K=growth rate
n =decade or year
Due to given population data Arithmetic increase, Geometric increase, Incremental increase
and Ethiopian statistical authority methods are used for population projection of Holeta town.

4.4 Population Data

The number of population of the town which is obtained from the census office is tabulated
below.
Table 6: Given population
Year 1994 2008 2010 2015
Population 16785 33,099 36,288 45217
Source: from feasibility study, 2007
Table 7: Population growth rate
Year Growth Rate (%)
2010 – 2015 4.4
2015 - 2020 4.2
2020 – 2025 4.0
2025 – 2030 3.8

32
 2030 – 2035 3.6
2035 – 2040 3.4
2040 – 2045 3.2
Note: population Growth rate from 2030-2045 is found by extrapolation.
Table 8: Population increase
Increase in Incremental Geometric
Year
Population population increase increase
1994 16,785
2008 33,099 1,165 0.0694
2010 36,288 1,595 429.2 0.0481
2015 45,217 1,786 191.3 0.0492
Total 4,546 620.5 0.166
Avg 1,515 310.25 0.0556
A. Arithmetic Increase Method
Sample calculation
K= (P2008-P1994) / (2008-1994)
= (33099-16785)/14= 1165.28
Table 9: Calculation of the projected population by arithmetic method

Year 2015 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041

Population 45217 46732 54308 61884 69460 77036 84612
Sample calculation
Pn=Po + kn
P2016=P2015+kn
=45217+1515*1 =46732
B. Geometric Increase Method
The percentage growth rate (k) for this method is calculated as follows.
Pn=P0 (1+k) n
k=5.56% - urban annual average growth rate
Table 10:Calculation of projected population by geometric method

Year 2015 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041

Population 45217 47731 62561 81999 107476 140869 184637

Sample calculation

33
 P2016=p2015 (1+k) n
=45217(1+5.56/100) (2016-2015)
=47731
C. Incremental increase method
P n = Po+ n * (k+ r)
k= Arithmetic increase
r= Geometric increase
n= No of year
Table 11:Calculation of projected population by incremental increase method

Year 2015 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041

Population 45217 47042 56169 65295 74421 83547 92674

Sample calculation
P2016=p2015+ n* (k+r)
= 45217+1*(1515+310.26)
=47042
D. Ethiopian statistic authority method
From population growth rates found from CSA, the growth rates of Holeta town is tabulated
below.
Table 12: Population growth rate of urban population
Description 2015 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041
Annual growth
rate(urban) % 4.4 4.36 4.16 3.96 3.76 3.56 3.36
(Source: CSA, 1994 Population and housing census report)
Table 13:Calculation of projected population by Ethiopian census statistics (CSA) method

Year 2015 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041

Population 45217 47232 58037 69901 82523 95495 105538

Sample calculation
Pn=poekn
P2016=p2015ekn
=45217*e (4.36/100)*(2016-2015)
= 47232

34
Table 14:Summary of projected total population by the four methods
Population
Year Arithmetic Geometric Incremental CSA
2015 45217 45217 45217 45217
2016 47731 46732 47042 47232
2021 62561 54308 56169 58037
2026 81999 61884 65295 69901
2031 107476 69460 74421 82523
2036 140869 77036 83547 95495
2041 184637 84612 92674 105538
Percentage error calculation
Those the above four formulas Arithmetic increase method, Geometric increase method, Incre
mental increase method and ESA method percentage error calculated blow in order to select t
he
best fit formula to forecast the future Holeta town population and the town water demand.
Table 15: Percentage error calculation
Arithmetic Geometric Incremental
Year increase increase increase CSA
Actual population 2015 45217 45217 45217 45217
Projected population 2015 18834 37340 46122 45218
N 0.5 0.5 0.5 5
% Error (rural) 58.35 17.42 -2.00 -0.001
Sample calculation
%error2015= (actual population2015-projected population2015)/(actual population2015)*100
= (45217-45218)/(45217)*100=-0.001%=0.00%
In general, we can simply observe that Holeta town is the city with vast opportunity of
growth as stipulated in the preliminary/feasibility report and documents for the city
municipality. In this regard one can select the geometric increase method. On the other, the
above percentage error method shows the CSA is more reliable with less error. So we can
finally take the CSA method for Holeta future population forecasting.
Table 16:Summary of population projection for Holeta Water supply project
Year 2015 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041
Total population 45217 47232 58037 69901 82523 95495 105538

35
5. WATER DEMAND ASSESSMENT

5.1 General

Design of water systems require estimation of expected water demands applicable to size the
pumping equipment, transmission and distribution pipe lines and storage facilities. Estimating
water demands for a particular town depends on the size of the population to be served, their
standard of living and activities, the cost of water supplied, the availability of wastewater
service and the purpose of demand. It varies according to the requirement of the domestic
population, institutional, industrial and social establishments, etc. In addition to these,
demand allowances need to be included for leakage, wastage, and operational requirements
such as flushing of mains.

5.2 Water demand

Some of the factors that affect water demand are:-

Climatic condition size of the town, culture of people industries cost of wale, fault of water
pressure in the distribution system, system of supply etc.
1. Climatic condition: - Water consumption during summer is more than winter. During
summer everybody taxes both twice and thrice, clothes also become dirties, more water is
used for drinking and more water s consumed, in running coolest. This is why we say water
consumption is much more in summer than in winter.
2. Size of the town: - Generally, the demand of water per head will be more on big city than
that in small city. In big cities lot of water is required for maintaining clean and health
environments while in small towns more or less small.
3. Culture of people: - High class community uses more water due to their better standard of
living and high economic status. Middle class people uses water at average rate and for poor
people a single water tap may be sufficient for several families.
4. Industries: - more water is used in highly industrial city
5. Cost of water: - If cost of water is high, the water demand will be less .Hence the rate at
which water is supplied to consumer may affect the rate of demand.
6. Quality of water: - A water work system having good facility and portable water supply
will be more popular with consumers.
7. Pressure in the distribution system: - There would be of great importance in the case of
localities having number of two or three storied buildings. Adequate pressure would mean an
uninterrupted and constant supply of water.

36
8. System of supply: - The system of water may be continuous or intermittent. In continuous
system water is supplied all 24 hours .while in the case of intermittent system water is
supplied for hours of the day only results in some reduction in the consumption. This may be
due to decrease in loss and other waste of full use.
9. Method of charging: - In a town where meters are used less quantity of water will be used
than in towns without meters in their system. A metered supply ensures minimum of waste as
the consumer then know that he was to pay.
Accordingly, the water demand of town is calculated with due consideration of actual
conditions of the town and pertinent to available data. Where gaps are observed in acquiring
of data, estimates are made from general experiences of the country utilised for similar towns.
The demand of water is divided under the following categories or types of water demand.
 Domestic water demand
 Non domestic demand
 Unaccounted for water

5.3 Domestic Water Demand

The water demand for actual household activity is known as domestic water demand. It
includes water for drinking, cooking, bathing, washing flushing, toilet, etc. The demand will
depend on many factors, the most important of which are economic, social and climatic.
Based on the available data obtained from the Holeta Water Supply Service has four major
modes of service were identified for domestic water consumers. These are:
 House connections (HTC or HTU)
 Yard connections - private (YTO or YTU)
 Yard connections -shared (YTS), and
 Public taps (PT or PTU)

5.3.1 Population Distribution by Mode of Service

The percentage of population to be served by each mode of service for Holeta town is shown
in the table below. Due to data limitation we adopt the calculation of extrapolation to know
population percentage distribution of the remaining years. The percentage of population to be
served by each mode of service will vary with time. The variation is caused by changes in
living standards, improvement of the service level, changes in building standards and
capacity of the water supply service to expand.

37
Therefore, the present and projected percentage of population served by each demand
category is estimated by taking the above stated conditions and by assuming that the
percentage for the house and yard tap users will increase gradually during the project service
period while the percentage of tap users will dramatically reduce as more and more people
will have private connections as the living standard of people and the socio-economic
development stage come up.
This projection envisaged provision of the traditional source users with public taps, and yard
connections (own & shared). Further decreases in public tap users are expected on the
assumption that more and more people will have private yard connections. Due to this an
increase in percentage of yard connections and house connections is anticipated by the end of
the design period.
In determining the future trends of the modes of service, factors that influence the growth
rates were taken into account, these included:
 Willingness to pay and level of affordability of the community in relation to
existing and planned water tariff levels;
 Ability to provide sufficient quantity and quality of water;

Table 17: Population percentage distributions by mode of service.

Year 2015 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041
House 5.7% 5.84% 6.58% 7.48% 8.38% 9.28% 10.18%
Yard 24.6% 25.26% 28.64% 32.44% 36.64% 40.84% 45.04%
Yard Shared 28.7% 29.44% 33.26% 37.68% 42.58% 47.48% 52.38%
Connection type

Public Tap 39.0% 37.54% 30.0% 21.40% 11.40% 1.40% 0.00%

Non Domestic 30.0% 30.0% 30.0% 30.00% 30.00% 30.00% 30.00%
Unaccounted For 30.7% 30.40% 28.9% 27.38% 26.78% 26.18% 25.58%
Source: ministry of water and energy water supply module for urban, 2003

5.3.2 Per capita Water Demand

The per capita water demand for various demand categories varies depending on the size of
the town, the level of development , the type of water supply schemes, the socio- economic
conditions of the town, cost of water, system of sanitation and climatic condition of the area.
The per capita water demand for adequate supply level has to be determined based on basic
human water requirements for various activities of demand category. In Holeta water supply
project we used projected per capita demand as follow.

38
Table 18: Projected per capita demand by mode of service (l/cap/day) (2015-2041)
Year 2015 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041
HTC 123 124.4 131.6 138 138 138 138
Connection YTU 34 34.4 36.4 38 38 38 38
type YTS 25 25.2 26.4 28 28 28 28
PT 18 18.2 19.4 21 21 21 21
Source: ministry of water and energy water supply module for urban, 2003

5.3.3 Domestic Water Demand Projection

In projecting the domestic water demand of Holeta the following procedures were followed:
 Determining population percentage distribution by mode of service and its future
projection
 Establishment of per capita water demand by purpose for each mode of service;
• Projected consumption by mode of service;
• Adjustment for climate;
• Adjustment due to socio-economic conditions
 Adjustment for climate
Climate condition is the main factor that affects water demand of the population under
consideration. Therefore, the water demand should be adjust for climatic condition.
Table 19: Adjustment factors for climate
Group Mean annual PPT(mm) Factor
A 900 or less 1.1
B 900-1200 1.0
C 1200 or more 0.9
Source: ministry of water and energy water supply module for urban, 2003
Holeta with a mean annual precipitation of 1367 mm belongs to Group C as per the design
criteria. Thus, an adjustment factor of 0.9 was taken
 Socio-economic adjustment factors
The socio economic adjustment factor is determined based on the degree of the development
of the particular town under study as the socio economic conditions play great role on the
amount of water consumption. The determination of the degree of the existing devolvement
and future potential of the towns depend on personal judgment due to difficult condition in
quantifying many aspects of the development.

39
Table 20: Adjustment factor for socio-economic conditions
Group Description Factor
Towns enjoying high using standards added with high potential
A development 1.1
Towns having a very high potential for development but lower living
B standard at present 1.05
C Town under normal condition 1.0
D Advanced rural towns 0.9
Source: ministry of water and energy water supply module for urban, 2003
Holeta is classified as a town of “Towns under normal Ethiopian conditions” and, therefore,
categorized as a Group C town and was given an adjustment factor of 1.0.
After considering changes in population and changes in the mode of service, per-capita
demand and applying the adjustment factors, the domestic demands were calculated and are
presented in table below.
Table 21: Projected domestic water demand
YEAR 2015 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041
Total Population 45217 47232 58037 69901 82523 95495 105538
% population 5.7% 5.84% 6.58% 7.48% 8.38% 9.28% 10.18%
Population 2577 2758 3819 5229 6915 8862 10744
House
PCD 123 124.4 131.6 138 138 138 138
Connected
TPCD(l/day) 317016 343139 502555 721541 954325 1222946 1482643
TPCD(m3/day) 317.0 343.1 502.6 721.5 954.3 1222.9 1482.6
% population 24.6% 25.26% 28.64% 32.47% 36.64% 40.84% 45.04%
population 11123 11931 16622 22697 30236 39000 47534
Yard
PCD 34 34.4 36.4 38 38 38 38
Connected
TPCD(l/day) 378195 410420 605029 862475 1148980 1482005 1806307
TPCD(m3/day) 378.19 410.42 605.03 862.47 1148.98 1482.00 1806.31
% population 28.7% 29.44% 33.26% 37.68% 42.58% 43.56% 44.54%
Yard Population 12977 13905 19303 26339 35138 41598 47007
Shared PCD 25 25.2 26.4 28 28 28 28
Connected TPCD(l/day) 324432 350409 509598 737478 983868 1164733 1316188
TPCD(m3/day) 324.4 350.4 509.6 737.5 983.9 1164.7 1316.2
Public % population 39.0% 37.54% 30.0% 21.40% 11.40% 1.40% 0.00%

40
 Tap Population 17635 17731 17434 14959 9408 1337 0
Connected PCD 18 18.2 19.4 21 21 21 21
TPCD(l/day) 317423 322703 338223 314133 197559 28076 0.0
TPCD(m3/day) 317.4 322.7 338.2 314.1 197.6 28.1 0.0
Total domestic demand 1337.07 1426.67 1955.40 2635.63 3284.73 3897.76 4605.14
Socio-economic 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Climatic Factor 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9 0.9
Total domestic demand 1203.4 1284.0 1759.9 2372.1 2956.3 3508.0 4144.6

5.4 Non domestic water demand

Non-domestic water demand was also determined systematically. It can be broadly classified
into the following major categories:
 Institutional water demand
 Industrial water demand.
 Commercial water demand

5.4.1 Commercial water demand

Commercial water demand are the water furnished to commercial establishments such as,
hotels, bars, butchery, miscellaneous shops, metal works, video house, vegetable sells shops,
grinding mills, beer and soft drinking distributers, cloth toilers, tea shops and restaurants etc.
This quantity will vary considerably with the nature of the city and with the number and type
of commercial establishments in it.

5.4.2 Industrial water demand

The demand for industrial water supply is generally assessed separately. In case of Holeta
town some categories of industries will be included in domestic demand. Currently four small
industries related to construction and flower culturing is utilizing about 30m3/day from
town’s water supply service. The industrial water demand for Holeta town is 5% of the total
domestic demand of the future year. But water demand for large industries is expected to
have their own water supply system. Hence future industrial water demand is not considered
at this stage.

41
Table 22 Projected water demand for industrial
Year 2015 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041
TDD(m3/d) 1203.36 1284.00 1759.86 2372.06 2956.26 3507.98 4144.62
% of TDD 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5% 5%
Industrial water
demand(m3/d) 60.17 64.20 87.99 118.60 147.81 175.40 207.23

5.4.3 Institutional Water Demand

The water required for schools, hospitals, health centre offices, government offices and
services, religious institutions and other public facilities is classified as institutional water
demand.
Summary of Total Non-Domestic Demand
Total non-domestic water demand of Holeta is calculated as institutional and commercial
water demand is summarized in the below table.
Table 23: Summary for non-domestic water demand
Year 2015 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041
TDD 1203.36 1284.00 1759.86 2372.06 2956.26 3507.98 4144.62
Commercial 10%TDD 120.34 128.40 175.99 237.21 295.63 350.80 414.46
Industrial 5%TDD 60.17 64.20 87.99 118.60 147.81 175.40 207.23
Institutional 15% 180.504 192.6 263.529 355.809 443.439 526.197 621.693
NDD(m3/day) 361.01 385.20 527.96 711.62 886.88 1052.40 1243.39

5.4.4 Fire Fighting Demand

Fire fighting is a quantity of water required for fighting a fire outbreak. The quantity of water
required for firefighting purpose is a function of population, but within minimum limit.
Because the greater the population, the greater will be the number of buildings and hence
greater risk of fire. By the minimum limit of fire demand is meant the amount and rate of
supply required for extinguishing the largest possible fire that could be in the community.
The required amount of water for firefighting will not be more than the amount of water
distributed during the maximum day water demand.

42
The quantity of water needed to extinguish fire depends upon population, contents of
Buildings, density of buildings and their resistance to life. In our case the fire fighting water
requirement is taken care of by increasing 10 % of the volume of storage reservoir will be
meet from the storage but not from the sources. Therefore, the water required for fire fighting
shall be meet by stopping supply to consumer for required time and directly it for firefighting
purposes.

5.4.5 Non-revenue water

Losses from a water distribution system consist of:

 Leakage and over flow from service reservoirs
 Leakage from main and service pipe connections,
 Leakage and losses on consumers premises when they get unmetered house hold
supplies
 Under registration of supply meters and
 Large leakage or wastage from public taps
 Losses in the supply lines are mainly due to defective pipe joint, cracked pipe and
loose valves and fittings.
Table 24: Percentage lost
Year 2015 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041
Percentage % 30.70% 30.40% 28.86% 27.20% 26.78% 26.18% 25.58%
TDD m3/d 1203.4 1284.0 1759.9 2372.1 2956.3 3508.0 4144.6
NDD m3/d 361.01 385.20 527.96 711.62 886.88 1052.40 1243.39
UWD m3/d 480.26 507.44 660.27 838.76 1029.19 1193.91 1378.25

5.5 Water demand variation

5.5.1 Average Water Demand

The average daily water demand is the sum of the domestic, non-domestic and unaccounted
for water which is used to estimate the maximum day & the peak hour demand. The average
day demand is used in economic calculations over the projects lifetime.

43
5.5.2 Maximum Day Water Demand

The water consumption varies from day to day. The maximum day water demand is
considered to meet water consumption changes with seasons and days of the week. The ratio
of the maximum daily consumption to the mean annual daily consumption is the maximum
day factor.
Table 25: Maximum daily factor
Town population MDF
0 to20000 1.3
20001 to 50000 1.25
50001 and above 1.2
Source: ministry of water and energy water supply module for urban, 2003
The proposed maximum Day factor usually varies between 1.2 & 1.3 as per the design
criteria. Hence, a maximum day factor of 1.2 is used for Stage I and for stage II design
period. The maximum day demand is used to in infrastructure calculations such as for source
pumping requirements.
Table 26: Recommended maximum daily demand
Year 2015 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041
Total population 45217 47232 58037 69901 82523 95495 105538

ADD m3/day 2044.63 2176.64 2948.09 3922.45 4872.33 5754.29 6766.27

MDF 1.25 1.25 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2

MDD m3/day 2555.79 2720.80 3537.71 4706.93 5846.80 6905.14 8119.52

5.5.3 Peak Hour Water Demand

The peak hour demand is greatly influenced by the size of the town, mode of service and
social activity in the town. It is the highest demand of any one-hour over the maximum day.
It represents the diurnal variation in water demand resulting from the behavioral patterns of
the
total population. The peak factor utilized to the peak hour demand show similar dependences
that the maximum day factor for the maximum demand.
In our case the population ranges for phase Ιis between 50,001 to 100,000 i.e. 82523 and for
phase ΙΙ greater than 100,000 i.e. 105538 so we have adopted peak hour factor of 1.8 for
phase Ι and 1.6 for phase ΙΙ respectively.

44
Table 27: Recommended peak hour Factors
Population Range Peak hour factor
<20,000 2
20,001 to 50,000 1.9
50,001 to 100,000 1.8
>100,000 1.6
Source: ministry of water and energy water supply module for urban, 2003

Table 28: Summary of water demand assessment

Year 2015 2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041
Tot population 45217 47232 58037 69901 82523 95495 105538
TDD m3/d 1203.36 1284.00 1759.86 2372.06 2956.26 3507.98 4144.62
NDD m3/d 361.01 385.20 527.96 711.62 886.88 1052.40 1243.39
UWD m3/d 480.26 507.44 660.27 838.76 1029.19 1193.91 1378.25
ADD m3/d 2044.63 2176.64 2948.09 3922.45 4872.33 5754.29 6766.27
l/day 2044629 2176644 2948090 3922446 4872329 5754285 6766265
l/sec 23.66 25.19 34.12 45.40 56.39 66.60 78.31
MDF 1.25 1.25 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2 1.2
MDD m3/d 2555.79 2720.80 3537.71 4706.93 5846.80 6905.14 8119.52
l/day 2555786 2720805 3537708 4706935 5846795 6905142 8119518
l/sec 29.58 31.49 40.95 54.48 67.67 79.92 93.98
PHF 1.9 1.9 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.6
PHD m3/d 4855.99 5169.53 6367.87 8472.48 10524.23 12429.26 12991.23
l/day 4855994 5169529 6367874 8472483 10524232 12429256 12991229
l/sec 56.20 59.83 73.70 98.06 121.81 143.86 150.36

45
 200,00
175,00
150,00 ADDM l/sec
DEMAND l/sec

125,00 MDD l/sec

100,00 P(D l/sec
75,00
50,00
25,00
0,00
2016 2021 2026 2031 2036 2041
TIME(year)
Figure 5: Summary of water demand assessment

46
6. WATER SOURCE AND WELL HYDRAULICS

6.1 General

Water source is the critical part of any water supply scheme. It’s important that sources of
supply be capable of providing service for both the short term and long term demands being
projected. After deciding the water demand of the population at the design period, the next
step is to search water source, which may be able to supply the required quantity of water.
There are mainly two aspects on which the success of a water supply scheme depends. These
aspects are amount of available water from the source and the amount of water actually
needed by the town. The source of water should be such that can provide adequate quantity of
water. Availability of water from the source should at least be equal to the demand.
Availability of water from a source which may be surface or ground ultimately depends upon
rainfall. Rainfall is a natural feature, which may be more in one year and very slack in the
next. In drought year, availability of water is minimum. The source of water for water supply
schemes should be such which can provide adequate water even during severe drought
conditions.
The existing water supply source of Holeta town is from three boreholes. The first borehole
was drilled in 1997 by Oromia Water resources Bureau at the eastern end of the town near the
bridge across the Holeta River, adjacent to Holeta-Wolmera road. According to the Town
Water Supply and Enterprise/TWSSE/ head, the borehole has a production yield of 4l/s and
depth of 90meters. The second borehole was drilled in 2000 as a test well during Feasibility
Study and Engineering Design of Holeta Town water supply Development and Rehabilitation
Project. It is in the east of the town at about 1,116m from the first borehole in the in the
south. Currently, the borehole has a production yield of 3l/s with total depth of 147meters.
The third borehole was drilled recently in 2007 by Oromia Water Resources Bureau, Holeta
Town Administration and Holeta Water Supply and Sewerage Enterprise in the compound of
Institute of Research for Agriculture /IRA/ in the east of town and commissioned service in
April 2008. The borehole is reported to have a production yield of 5l/s and a total depth of
334m. Hence, the total yield of the existing water supply source is 12.3l/s.
Water shortage is the major problem with the existing system. Domestic supplies are
supplemented from secondary sources from the river, small springs and hand dug wells.

47
6.2 Source of water

Determining the source of water is the main task in water supply scheme. Knowing the water
demand of the population at the design period, the next step is to search water source, which
may be able to supply the required quantity of water. The source of water can be either
surface source of water or subsurface source of water (ground water).
This source should be capable of supplying enough water for the town population in a right
quantity and quality. Availability of water from source, which may be surface or ground,
ultimately depends up on rainfall. The sources of water supply schemes such which may
provide adequate water during sever draught conditions.
Source Selection Criteria
Factors which are to be considered while selecting a source of water for a given water supply
scheme are stated below.
 Location of the water source.
 Quantity of water.
 Quality of water.
 The cost of the water supply scheme.
1. Location
The source of water should be as near to the town as possible. If there are both surface and
ground source available to the town selection should by considering other factors also. If
there is no river, stream or reservoirs the city will have to depend on the underground source
of water only.
2. Quantity of Water
The selected source should have sufficient quantity of water to meet up all the demand of city
such as domestic demand, non-domestic demand and unaccounted for water throughout the
year.
There should be sufficient quantity of water to meet the demand dictated by future expansion.
Source of water should be able to meet the maximum demand in dry weather also.
3. Water Quality
Water to be used for a public supply must be potable, i.e. drinkable. The water found in
nature contains a number of impurities in varying amounts. The aim of water treatment is to
produce and maintain water that is safe, aesthetically attractive and potable, in an economic
manner the amount and type of treatment process will depend on the quality of raw water and
standards of

48
quality required after treatments. The water that is to be supplied to public consumption has
to satisfy the standard of World Health Organization (WHO).
The water that removes its impurities only up to certain extent so that it may not be harmful
to the public health is called wholesome water. Drinking water must be wholesome and
potable.
Generally, the requirements of wholesome water are:-
 It should be free from disease producing organisms and poisonous
 It should be colorless, odorless and must be attractive
 It should be not corrode pipes
 It should be free from all objectionable matter
 It should have dissolved oxygen and free carbonic acid so that it remains fresh.
4. Cost
The cost of water supply project should also be taken in to account while selecting the source
of water. The cost of water scheme depends on many factors as system of supply, ground
levels of city, distance between source and distribution system etc. If the water flows under
the gravitational force it will be cheap, but if it is to be pumped it will be costly. Similarly,
the cost will directly depend on the distance between the source and city. If the distance is
more it will be costly.

6.3 Existing source in Holeta

6.3.1 Surface source of water

The potentially available surface source for Holeta River is a good source of surface water
close to Holeta town. It is a perennial river and the minimum 95% flow computed is about
150 l/s (i.e. the chance that less than this flow will occur is only 5%).This is sufficient to
supply the town without a major storage requirement. Holeta River is only about 1.5 km from
the town and is the most reliable surface water resource in the area for water supply
development. This stream is not further considered for development of the town water
supply both for Stage I and II since the water demand can be covered from groundwater
which will be easier to manage.

6.3.2 Ground source of water

Ground water is the underground water that occurs in the saturated zone of variable thickness
and depth, below the earth’s surface. Cracks and pores in the existing rocks and

49
unconsolidated crystal layers, make up a large underground reservoir, where a part of
precipitation is stored.
The ground water is utilized through wells and tube wells. Various lifting devices, such as
those using animal, manual, diesel or electric power, may be used, so as to bring the
underground supplies to the surface.
The use of open wells is a traditional method of trapping ground water in where ground water
table is high. The use of tube wells, however, is a subsequent development in the techniques
of trapping ground water, certainly requires diesel or electric power.
Ground water sources include Springs Wells, Artesian wells, Infiltration galleries, Porous
pipe galleries, Infiltration wells.
The recommended production rate from boreholes at Dobi near the Holeta–Mugger road was
about 35 l/s (report by WWDSE, 2007). However, borehole yield is normally highly variable
in fractured volcanic rock aquifers yet the assumed high production discharge rate is based on
a single well test result. For similar borehole depths and well design, it is assumed that
average, sustainable production discharges will be 8-10 l/s from the new boreholes in
DobiKebele area.

6.4 Ground Water Recharge

Part of the rain water, that falls on the ground is infiltrated to the soil this infiltrated water is
utilized partly in filling the soil moisture deficiency and part for it is percolated down
reaching the water table. Recharge due to rainfall depends on various Hydro meteorological
and topographical factors, soil characteristics and depth to the water table. To check the
recharge of the borehole site, we used Krishna Reo empirical formula given as follows:
R= k (p –x)
Where - k, x, are constants according to annual rainfall
P- Rain fall in mm/year
R- Recharge in mm
Table 29: Values of k and x according to rainfall amount
K X P
0.2 400 400-600
0.25 400 600-1000
0.35 600 Above 2000
Source: Ray, K.Linsley, Water Resources Engineering 3rd edition

50
Since Holeta has an average precipitation of 1367 mm, to obtain the constant k and X values
we must interpolate.
By interpolation for p= 1367 mm we have estimated,
k=0.2867
x=473.4
R=k (p-x)
R=0.2867(1367-473.4)
R=256.2m/year
Ground water recharges in terms of volume
V= R *well site area
V=0.256.2m/year*149km2
= 38.17*103m3/year
V=1210.5l/sec
In Holeta there are limited numbers of ground water sites. A bore hole drilled by WWDSE
for exploration purpose at the vicinity of Holeta town is found to have attractive yield. In
addition to the three existing boreholes and additional new borehole in Dobi site give the
yield of 8 l/s.
Table 30: Existing borehole yield
Existing IAR BH (334m) 5.0 l/s,
HG1 3.3 l/s,
Wolmera bridge (BH I) 4.0 l/s
Source: from feasibility study
The Dobi test borehole indicates that the scoria aquifer at this location is of moderate
transitivity and forms a potentially productive aquifer.
From this information we select the Dobi site for our project because the ground water yield
is better rather than the existing site. After selecting the borehole site we have to know how
many bore holes are enough to satisfy our peak hourly demand.
Determination of Number of Bore Holes
Number of bore hole at the end of design period i.e. at 2041
For economical purpose we have divided the design period into two phases
1st phase (2016 – 2031)
2nd phase (2031 – 2041)

51
 (i) For 1st phase (2016-2031)
Max, day demand at 2031- existing maximum daily demand
Number of bore holes =
safe yield
Safe yield=8l/sec (from feasibility study)
5846.8 *10^3 /(24 * 3600)l / s − 20.3l / s
= =5.92
8l / s
= 5.92 bore holes say 6
As reported in feasibility study there are three existing bore holes having 5, 4 and 3.3 l/s each.
So for first phase these existing boreholes can be included.
Therefore number of bore holes which have to be constructed in the 1st phase = 6-3= 3
boreholes.
(ii) For 2nd phase (2031-2041)
Max, day demand at 2041- existing maximum daily demand at2031
Number of bore holes =
safe yield
Safe yield=8l/sec (from feasibility study)
5846.8 *10^3 /(24 * 3600)l / s − 20.3l / s
= =5.92
8l / s
= 5.92 bore holes say 6
Therefore, keeping in mind the presence of three existing bore holes in phase Ӏwe will
construct (4+3) =7 bore holes for this project to satisfy the water demand of the town up to
2041.

6.5 Well Hydraulics

6.5.1 General

Water well is a hole or shaft, in most cases, vertical excavated in the earth, or sunk in to the
ground intercepting one or more water bearing strata, for bringing ground water to the
surface.
The objective of water well is:-
 To provide water with good quality
 To provide sufficient quantity of water
 To provide water for long time
 To provide water at low cost

52
6.5.2 Factors Affecting the Quantity of Well Water

The quantity of water available from wells is affected by:-

 Porosity of different layers of earth
 Amount of water stored and absorbed in different layers
 Geological conditions indicating the slope of water bearing stratum

6.5.3 Well Development

The development of well have broad objectives:-

 Repairing of damage is done during the drilling operation, so that the natural
hydraulic properties are restored.
 Altering the basic physical characteristics of the aquifer near the borehole, so that
water will flow more freely to a well
 Well development is the most important for the wells where the formation material
has been disturbed during the construction processes and highly affected by the
drilling activity.

6.5.3.1 The Importance of Well Development

 Remove the filter cake or drill in fluid film that coats the borehole, and remove much
or all of the drilling fluid and natural formation solid that have invaded the formation.
 Reduce the compaction and intermixing of grain size during drilling by removing fine
material from the pore space.
 Increase the natural porosity and permeability of previously undisturbed formation
near the well by selectively removing the finer fractional of an aquifer.
 Create a graded zone of sediment around the screen in a naturally development well,
there by establishing the formation so that the well will yield sand

6.5.3.2 Methods of Well Development

In case of rocks the capacity of well can be increased by explosions in the wells which will
increase the cracks and passage through which water in the wells. In the case of sandy
stratum the yield can be increased by packing gravel around the well. In the beginning when
new well is constructed the water which is drawn contains large quantity of sand. These sand
particles will stick on the mesh of strainer pipe and will decrease the capacity of the well.
Different well development methods have evolved in different areas, because of the
difference of the physical characteristics of aquifer and the type of drilling methods used.

53
 Back washing or back blowing: - In this method water is forced in the reverse direction
by means of compressed air pressure. All the sand, clay material which is stickled
around the strainer pipe and chocked it is agitated and removed. These are then removed
by means of pumping and bailing.
 Surging: is used to loosen sand and fine materials in the screen and filter zone. The
surging action is created by lifting the water near to the surface by injecting air in to the
well and then shut off the air to allow the water to flow back through the well and
formation. Pumping water with air lift can be used for cleaning a well from sand and fine
materials. Using the air lift means no water, as would be the case if a submersible or
turbine pump is used to clean the well.
 Over pumping; - loose sand materials are removed by pumping the well at a higher rate
than the well will be pumped when put in to service. It has advantage that much of the
fine material brought into the borehole is pumped out immediately.
 Water-jetting; - maximum development efficiently is developed if water jetting is
combined with simultaneous pumping with air lift, as the loosened material is not
allowed to settle again.
Well development work must be done in a manner that does not cause under settlement and
disturbance of the strata above the water bearing formation, not disturb the seal affected
around the well casing and thereby reducing the sanitary protection otherwise afforded by
such a seal.

6.6 Well Design

Well design is the process of specifying the physical material and dimension for a well. This
includes the selection of a suitable material diameter and thickness of pipe. The choice of
open wells or bore wells and the method of well design depend up on topography, geological
conditions of the underlying strata, and depth of ground water table, rain fall climate and the
quantity of water required. A well design involves selection of proper dimensions like the
diameter of the well and that of the casing, length and location of the screen including slot
size, shape and percentage open area whether the well naturally developed or gravel pack is
necessary; design of gravel pack, selection of screen materials etc. Good water well design
aims at ensuring an optimum combination of performance and long service life at reasonable
cost. The use of correct sizes of well casing and well screen, choice of good quality materials,
and strength and proper development of the well, will reduce long term power costs due to
higher costs of pumping and maintenance costs and increases the useful life of the well.

54
Generally a well is completed to the bottom of the aquifer. This allows more of the aquifer to
be utilized and ensures the highest possible production from the well.
The principal objective of good design should ensure:-
 To obtain highest yield with minimum draw down consistent and aquifer capability.
 Durability of the well so as to coincide with design period.
 Reduction of operation and maintenances cost to a certain extent.
 Good quality of water with proper protection.
As it is maintained above standard well design procedure involves choosing the casing
diameter and material estimating the well depth, selecting the height diameter and material of
screen.

6.7 Well Depth

The depth of a tube well depends up on the locations of water bearing formations, desired
yields of the well and economic considerations.The well must be designed to penetrate the
aquifer as deep as possible within the budgeted cost. During the test hole drilling, the drilling
contractor will complete a formation log. Soil and rock samples are taken at various depths
and the type of geologic material is recorded. This allows the driller to identify aquifers with
the best potential for water supply. The well is usually drilled up to the bottom of the aquifer
so that aquifer thickness is available, permitting greater well yield.
Generally a well is completed to the bottom of the aquifer. This allows more of the aquifer to
be utilized and ensures the highest possible production from the well.

6.7.1 Design of Length and Size of Screen

Screen diameter is selected to satisfy a basic principle: enough open area must be provided so
that the entrance velocity of the water generally not exceed the design standard of 3cm/sec.
screen diameter can be adjusted with in rather narrow limits after the length of the screen and
size of screen opening ( slot size ) have been selected . Well yields are affected by screen
diameter, although increasing the screen diameter has much less in pelted on well yield than
increasing the screen length.
The total length of the screen to be provided for a tube well shall be primarily controlled by
the available thickness of the aquifers. In case of confined homogeneous aquifers about 80 to
90% of central portion of the aquifer is selected for screening.
Based on the above information the length of screen shall be taken 90% of the main aquifer
depth. The main aquifer depth is from 236m – 300m, which is 250m and considered as

55
confined aquifer. Hence 90% of the depth of the main aquifer should be screened which is
225m. There for our project the length of screen is 225m.

Table 31: Recommended value of screen diameter

Discharge l/min Recommended screen diameter (cm)
0 to 475 10
475 to 1125 15
1125 to 3000 25
3000 to 5250 30
5250 to 9500 35
9500 to 13300 40
(Source:-Environmental Engineering vol.1, S.K.Garg)

The discharge of one well is 8l/sec that means 480 lpm. Therefore the recommended value of
screen diameter will be 15cm.(Source:-Environmental Engineering vol.1, S.K.Garg)
Well screen slot openings
The size of the slot opening is determined by the size of gravel pack or aquifer material
which the screen has to retain. The width of slot cut in iron pipes falls in the range of 1.6 to
2mm due to the limitations of the width of the cutting tool. Since gravel packed is used for
our project, a slot size of 2mm will be used for both phase I and phase II.
6.7.2 Design of Well Screen
A discharge of 480 l/min the recommended screen diameter is 15 cm and also (15-20) % of
opening area should be taken.
Equation
Q = Ao*ve
Where Ao = area of openings π
Ve = entrance velocity

Q = well yield = 8 
sec
Ao =k* π *Ds*Ls
Where k - % age of opening= 15%
Ds- Diameter of screen =15cm
Ls- Length of screen = 225 (calculated above)
Area of opening= 0.15*3.14*0.15m*225m

56
 =15.89m2
Therefore entrance velocity =well yield/area of opening
0.008
nVe = Q/A=
15.89
= 0.000503m/sec
This value is not safe because entrance velocity ranges 2-3cm/sec. Therefore, to get the
permissible value we must decrease the length of the screen and / or also decrease diameter
of screen, so decrease the length of the screen, take Ls = 40m, still not safe!
Using Continuity equation,
A1V1=A2V2 A1Ve=AV
Take length of screen=40m
Area of opening=0.15*0.15m*3.14*40m
=2.826m2
Take V=3cm/sec
Ve=0.008/2.826
=0.283
Therefore;
2.826m2*0.283cm/sec= A*3cm/sec
A = 0.266m2
Use this area to get the length of the screen (Ls)
A=0.15*0.15*3.14*Ls
Ls = 3.76m, take 4m.
From the above calculation we conclude that the length of screen is 4m with 15 % opening
area and diameter of 15 cm with entrance velocity of 3cm / sec are used for designing of well
screen.

6.7.3 Diameter of the well pipe

The size of the well should be properly chosen since it significantly affects cost of well
construction. It must be large enough to accommodate the pump required for the head and
discharge with proper clearance of at least 5 cm around the maximum diameter of the bowl
assembly for installation an efficiency operation
The diameter of the well pipe (or well tube) depends up on the discharge and Permissible
velocity of flow through the perforation or slots of screen. The permissible velocity is usually
limited b/n 1.5 to 3 cm /sec, based on the gross cross sectional area of the pipe.

57
The cross-sectional area of the pipe can be determined from the relation:
A= Q/v
where Q-yield of the well =8 l/sec
V-permissible velocity = take 2m/sec
∗
A=

A =40cm2

But, =

 D=

∗ . m
D=
m/s ∗ π

=0.071383061024825m
=7.14cm take 1”=2.54cm
=2.81inch takes 3 inch diameter of well pipe

6.7.4 Diameter of Bore Hole

The diameter of the bore hole is kept at least 5cm greater than the diameter of the well pipe,
so that the pipe can be easily lowered into the bore hole and gravel packing can be done.
Diameter of the Bore Hole=Diameter of the well pipe + Allowance of 5cm + thickness of
gravel packing.
D b = 7.14cm + 5cm + 15cm
=27.14cm diameter of borehole.

58
Table 32:Recommended well diameter with varies yields
Anticipated nominal size size of well casing (cm)
Yield pump bowl (cm) Minimum optimum
<400 10 12.5 15
400-600 12.5 15 20
600-1400 15 20 25
1400-2200 20 25 30
2200-3000 25 30 35
3000-4500 30 35 40
4500-6000 35 40 50
6000-10000 40 50 60
(Source:-Environmental Engineering vol.1, S.K.Garg)
From the given test, data the proposed site for development of well is 8/s, which is 480l/min.
From the given well yield and casing diameter relationship (table) the recommended
optimum size of casing hill is 20cm.

59
7. SERVICE RESERVOIR

7.1 General

Distribution reservoir is also called service reservoir, which are mainly provided for storing
the treated water, for supplying water to the town or city. These reservoirs are provided for
meeting the water demand during breakout of fires, breakdown of pumps, repair etc. The
reservoirs avoid the hourly fluctuations in the water demand.
Water storage requirement should take in to consideration the peak daily water uses and
maximum hourly demand, the capacity of the normal and stand by pumping equipment, the
availability and capacity of auxiliary power, the probable duration of power failure and
promptness with which repairs can be made, and to furnish water for such emergencies as
firefighting or accidental breakdowns. Additional considerations are land use, topography,
pressure needs, distribution system capacity and demand.

7.2 Function of service reservoir

 To balance the hourly variation in water demand and to allow the treatment unit and
pumps to work at average constant rate. This will reduce the running, maintenance
and operation costs of the treatment units as well as improve their efficiency
 To maintain constant pressure in the distribution mains, because when the pressure in
the pipeline decreases due to increase in demand at peak hours, the extra demand of
water is fed by these reservoirs and the pumps continue their work at constant speed
 It reduces the necessary capacity of high rate pumping equipment
 It reduces the size of the transmission mains.
 It makes uniform pumping rate possible
 It reduces friction head losses.
 It provides uniform water pressure.
Water already pumped it to the elevated tank is more certain of availability than water at the
lower level.

7.3 Accessories of Service Reservoir

The service reservoir has to be provided with the following accessories:

 Storage tank: -is the most important component. The site and shape of which depend
on the design requirements.
 Inlet pipe: - pumped water under pressure is lifted through inlet pipe and this is kept
above the highest water level stored in the tank. This is also known as rising main.

60
  Man holes: -for providing entry to the inside of reservoir for inspection and cleaning.
Manholes are constructed on the roof slabs of the reservoir.
 Out let Pipe: -out let pipe is fitted at the lowest water level of the reservoir and used
for supplying water to the community. This is operated with help of out- let control
valve.
 Wash out pipe (Drain off pipe):- for removing water after cleaning of the reservoir.
This is fitted at the lowest possible water level in the reservoir.
 Float Gauge: -This is a float arrangement fitted with a graduated scale, which
indicates the water level in the tank at any time.
 Over flow pipe; - For some reason or other if the water raises above the full designed
level of the tank it goes out of the tank through the over flow pipe.
 Ladders;-normally steel ladders are provided in the overhead reservoirs. They give
facilities of climbing the top of the reservoir from ground level and also to get down
inside the reservoir from reservoir roof.
 Ventilators: - This will allow fresh air to enter the reservoir which helps keeping the
stored water under better condition

7.4 Sites of Distribution Reservoirs (proposed)

The distribution reservoirs are located near the central portion of distribution area. It is
always better to construct on high ground of city or town, at such place it can be constructed
economically.

7.5 Depth of Reservoir

There is an economical depth of service reservoir for any given site. For a given quantity of
water either a shallow reservoir having long walls and a large floor area may be constructed
or, alternatively. A deep reservoir may be constructed with high retaining walls and a smaller
floor area. Depths most usually used are as follows:

Table 33: Depth of reservoir

Size (m3) Depth of water (m)
Up to 3500 2.5 to 3.5
3500 to 15,000 3.5 to 5.0
Over 15,000 5.0 to 7.0
Source: Water Supply and Sanitation, ENE 301

61
These figures don’t apply to water towers or pre-stressed concrete reservoirs. Factors
influencing depth for a given storage are:
 Depth at which suitable foundation conditions are encountered
 Depth at which the out let main must be laid
 Slope of ground, nature and type of back fill
 The need to make the quantity of excavated material approximately equal to the
amount required for backing, so as to reduce unnecessary carting of surplus material
to tip.
 The shape and size of land available

7.6 Determination of Storage Capacity

Storage capacity of reservoir should be adequate for the demand for the period of two hours
in small communities and 10 to 12 hours in the case of large communities. Demand of water
always keeps on varying hour, but treated water continuous to come out of treatment plant of
a constant rate. Balancing reserve is that quantity of water required storing for balancing the
variable demand in the distribution system.
Reservoir capacity is determined on the following basis:
Computation of storage capacity of a reservoir can be obtained from one of the following
methods.
a. Analytical method
b. Mass curve technique
Mass curve and analytical method are adopted for the case Holeta town water supply system.
The analysis of storage capacity can be calculated as follows.
i. Phase I (2016– 2031)
a) By Analytical method
 Total demand of the town = 5846.80 m3/day
 Total demand of the town in liters per day = 5846800 lit/day
 Hourly demand of the town =5846.80/24= 243.62 m3/hr.
 Pumping hours=20hr
 Hourly supply=hourly demand of the town/pumping hour
 Hourly supply = (1/20)* 5846.80 = 292.34m3/hour

62
Table 34: Analytical calculation of storage capacity for phase I
Cumulative Hourly Demand
Time Hourly Hourly Pumping Cumulative Supply/ /Deficie
(Hr) Hourly Demand Demand Rate/Hourly Hourly Surplus ncy
Factor (m3) (m3) Supply(m3) Supply(m3) (m3) (m3)
1 0.25 60.90 60.90 0.00 0.00 60.90
2 0.25 60.90 121.81 0.00 0.00 121.81
3 0.25 60.90 182.71 292.34 292.34 109.63
4 0.25 60.90 243.62 292.34 584.68 341.06
5 0.5 121.81 365.42 292.34 877.02 511.59
6 0.75 182.71 548.14 292.34 1169.36 621.22
7 1 243.62 791.75 292.34 1461.70 669.95
8 1.2 292.34 1084.09 292.34 1754.04 669.95
9 1.5 365.42 1449.52 292.34 2046.38 596.86
10 1.8 438.51 1888.03 292.34 2338.72 450.69
11 1.7 414.15 2302.18 292.34 2631.06 328.88
12 1.6 389.79 2691.96 292.34 2923.40 231.44
13 1.5 365.42 3057.39 0.00 2923.40 133.99
14 1.4 341.06 3398.45 0.00 2923.40 475.05
15 1.32 321.57 3720.02 292.34 3215.74 504.29
16 1.32 321.57 4041.60 292.34 3508.08 533.52
17 1.4 341.06 4382.66 292.34 3800.42 582.24
18 1.4 341.06 4723.72 292.34 4092.76 630.97
19 1.2 292.34 5016.06 292.34 4385.10 630.97
20 1.06 258.23 5274.30 292.34 4677.44 596.86
21 0.9 219.25 5493.55 292.34 4969.78 523.78
22 0.7 170.53 5664.08 292.34 5262.12 401.97
23 0.5 121.81 5785.89 292.34 5554.46 231.44
24 0.25 60.90 5846.80 292.34 5846.80 0.00
Thus the reservoir capacity for phase I from the above table will be
Maximum value of excess supply = 669.95m3
Maximum value of excess demand = 630.97m3
Capacity of reservoir =669.95 m3+630.97m3= 1300.92m3

63
For fire requirement (10%) = 130.092m3
Accounting 5% for miscellaneous losses =65.046m3
Total recommended reservoir capacity =1300.92m3+130.092m3+65.046 m3 `
3
=1496.058m
For safety provide a reservoir with a capacity of =1500 m3
Capacity of existing reservoir =300+50=350m3
Capacity of new reservoir = 1500 m3-350m3 = 1150m3
We will construct 1150m3 standard reservoir.

b) Using mass curve method

mass curve diagram for phase one

cummulative demand and cummulative

7000,00

6000,00
Cumulative
5000,00 Hourly
Demand (m3)
supply

4000,00

3000,00 Cumulative
2000,00 Hourly
Supply(m3)
1000,00

0,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 101112131415161718192021222324
TIME (hr)

Figure 6: Mass curve graph for phase I

From the graph, Balancing storage= (1754.04-1084.09) + (5016.06-4385.10)
=1300.91m3
The two methods are Almost they have equal result
Fire demand (10%) =130.091m3
Accounting 5% for miscellaneous losses=65.0455m3
Total capacity of reservoir=1495.2275 m3
Capacity of new reservoir=1495.2275 -350=1145.2275m3
Therefore, the capacity of reservoir =1150m3
For design purpose we use the standard reservoir capacity of =1150 m3
ii. Phase II (2031– 2041)
a. By analytical method
Total demand of the town = 8119.52m3/day

64
Total demand of the town in liters per day = 8119520 /day
.
Hourly demand of the town = =338.31m3/hrs.

Pumping hours=20hr
.
Hourly supply/Pumping rate= m =405.976m3/hrs.

Table 35: Analytical calculation of storage capacity for phase II

Hourly Cumulative Hourly
Time Hourly Demand Hourly Pumping Cumulative Supply/ Demand/D
(Hr) Factor (m3) Demand Rate/Hourly Hourly Surplus eficiency
(m3) Supply(m3) Supply(m3) (m3) (m3)
1 0.25 84.58 84.58 0.00 0.00 84.58
2 0.25 84.58 169.16 0.00 0.00 169.16
3 0.25 84.58 253.73 405.98 405.98 152.24
4 0.25 84.58 338.31 405.98 811.95 473.64
5 0.5 169.16 507.47 405.98 1217.93 710.46
6 0.8 270.65 778.12 405.98 1623.90 845.78
7 1.05 355.23 1133.35 405.98 2029.88 896.53
8 1.35 456.72 1590.07 405.98 2435.86 845.78
9 1.55 524.39 2114.46 405.98 2841.83 727.37
10 1.6 541.30 2655.76 405.98 3247.81 592.05
11 1.6 541.30 3197.06 405.98 3653.78 456.72
12 1.45 490.55 3687.61 405.98 4059.76 372.14
13 1.35 456.72 4144.34 0.00 4059.76 84.58
14 1.35 456.72 4601.06 0.00 4059.76 541.30
15 1.4 473.64 5074.70 405.98 4465.74 608.96
16 1.45 490.55 5565.25 405.98 4871.71 693.54
17 1.5 507.47 6072.72 405.98 5277.69 795.04
18 1.4 473.64 6546.36 405.98 5683.66 862.70
19 1.25 422.89 6969.25 405.98 6089.64 879.61
20 1.05 355.23 7324.48 405.98 6495.61 828.87
21 0.9 304.48 7628.96 405.98 6901.59 727.37
22 0.7 236.82 7865.78 405.98 7307.57 558.22

65
23 0.5 169.16 8034.94 405.98 7713.54 321.40
24 0.25 84.58 8119.52 405.98 8119.52 0.00
Thus the reservoir capacity for phase II from the above table will be
Maximum value of excess supply =896.53m3
Maximum value of excess demand = 879.61m3
Capacity of reservoir =896.53m3+879.61m3=1776.14m3
For fire requirement (10%) = 177.614m3
Accounting 5% for miscellaneous losses =88.807m3
Total recommended reservoir capacity = 2042.561m3
For safety provide a reservoir with a capacity of =2050m3
There is an existing reservoir with volume of 1550(i.e. 350+1150) m3
Capacity of new reservoir =2042.561m3-1496.058m3=546.503m3
Volume=550 m3
b. Using mass curve method

9000,00

8000,00
Cumulative
cummulative demand and

7000,00 Hourly
cummulative supply

Demand
6000,00
(m3)
5000,00 Cumulative
Hourly
4000,00
Supply(m3)
3000,00

2000,00

1000,00

0,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
TIME(hr)

Figure 7: Mass curve graph for phase II

From the figure, Balancing storage = (2029.88-1133.35) + (6969.25-6089.64) =1776.26m3
Fire demand (10%) =177.626 m3
Accounting 5% for miscellaneous losses =88.813m3
Total capacity of reservoir=2042.699m3
Capacity of new reservoir=2042.699m3-1495.2275 m3=547.4715m3
Therefore we take the maximum value from two methods. I.e. 550m3

66
We use standard value of 550m3

7.7 Structural Design of service reservoir

7.7.1 Water Tank (reservoir) Design Consideration

The primary purpose of design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that the structure being
designed will not become unfit in any way for the use it is intended. To accommodate the
required amount of water and to ensure water tight structure, the reservoir must be designed
using reinforced cement concrete that accounts for tensile forces as well as those due to
bending.
The different types of reservoirs depending on the geometry (Circular and Rectangular),
supports (resting on the ground, underground and elevated), and end restraints (free sliding,
hinged and fixed at top and/or base) should be compared and selected based on their
suitability and economic condition during the design of water containing reservoirs.
For small capacities rectangular tanks are usually used. And for bigger capacities circular
tanks are generally used to ensure economical and efficient system of work.
Important considerations have to be given in limiting the size of crack (mostly with no
cracks) so that leakage does not take place. The design generally governed by the
requirements of the elastic design method, but stability considerations are particularly
important. The design has to take careful account of the construction methods to be used.
Analysis and design of water tanks are based on two criteria i.e.strength design and resistance
to cracking. Important considerations have to be given in limiting the size of crack so that
leakage does not take place. That means the tensile stress in steel will be limited by the
avoidance of crack or limitation of crack width and it is related to the allowable tensile stress
of concrete.
The design is generally governed by the requirements of the elastic design methodbut stabilit
y considerations are particularly important. The design has to take careful account of the cons
truction methods to be used.
The requirements for the elastic design method of water tanks are list as follows.
 Concrete grade C-30Mpa, (fck=24Mpa)
 Factor of safety for concrete, Yc=1.5

 = = = . /
.

 Deformed steel bar, S-300Mpa

 Factor of safety for steel, Ys = 1.15

67
  = = = . /
.

 Minimum cement content = 360kg/m3

 Water cement ratio= 0.55
 Unit weight of concrete =25KN/m3
 Unit weight of water =9.81KN/m3
 The maximum crack width is limited to 0.2mm
 The minimum concrete cover should not less than 40 mm
 The minimum steel area in each of the two directions at the right angles is 0.3% of the
concrete area (0.15% near each faces) for deformed bars.
 Maximum reinforcement spacing for wall section should not exceed 300 mm or
thickness of the wall section.
 Assume exposure condition for wall as alternative wetting and drying
 The allowable tensile stresses in concrete than control cracks in concrete grade of C-
30 shall be 1.44 N/mm2 and 2.02 N/mm2 due to direct tension and bending
respectively.
 The allowable tensile stresses in steel for direct tension (fs, allow) taken as 130
N/mm2 for deformed bars under alternate wetting and drying exposure conditions.
 The allowable compressive stress in concrete (fc, allow) is taking as 11N/mm2.
 Modular ratio, n= 15
 Assume thickness of the wall 200 mm
 Assume thickness of the bottom slab 250mm thick
 Assume roof slab 150 mm thick
 Assume service live load=1KN/m2 in addition to its own weight
There are different types of tanks in use depending on end restraints, flexible joints and rigid
joints at top & base. Due to its effectiveness and less costly relative to the other types, fixed
base type is select for the design of circular tank of reservoir.

7.7.2 Design of circular Reservoir with fixed base and Free at the top

At the top of the wall, shear force and bending moment are zero; and at the base of the wall
slope and deflection is zero.
Design of circular reservoir Phase-I
 Base condition fixed
 Water depth in the reservoir 4.8m
 Free board 0.3m
68
  Grade of concrete-30mpa
 Volume of reservoir=1150m3

 Clear diameter of reservoir (D) =

4 *V
π *h
Since our reservoir capacity is 1150m3 we Assumed, H = 4.8m
D2 H
V= π where, V = Volume of reservoir
4
D = Diameter of reservoir
H = Height of reservoir
D= 4 * V
π * h

πD 2 * 4.5
1150 =
4
D= 18.038m≈18.5m
Design of Wall Section
Assume, t=250mm at bottom
Where, t =thickness of wall
t = 250 mm at top
250 + 200 h2 4.52
tavg. = = 250 = = =4.3784
2 dtaverage 18.5 * 250 *10 −3

Figure 8: Pressure distribution on reservoir wall

Now using the value of =5 and the corresponding depth from the top of the wall, the
∗

coefficient of vertical moment and hoop tension are determine from the table below.

69
 Table 36: Coefficients for Hoop tension (Fixed at base and free at top).

h2 Coefficient at point
dt 0.1h 0.2h 0.3h 0.4h 0.5h 0.6h 0.7h 0.8h 0.9h 1.0h
4 0.067 0.164 0.256 0.339 0.403 0.429 0.409 0.334 0.21 0.073
4.378 0.0511 0.1538 0.2518 0.3416 0.4124 0.447 0.4316 0.3548 0.228 0.080
5 0.025 0.137 0.245 0.346 0.428 0.477 0.469 0.389 0.259 0.092

Table 37: Coefficient for vertical moment (For fixed at base and free at top)
h2 Coefficient at point
dt 0.1h 0.2h 0.3h 0.4h 0.5h 0.6h 0.7h 0.8h 0.9h 1.0h
4 0.0003 0.0015 0.0028 0.0047 0.0066 0.0077 0.0069 0.0023 -0.008 -0.0268

4.38 0.00026 0.00123 0.0023 0.0040 0.0058 0.0070 0.0065 0.0024 -0.00724 -0.0249

5 0.0002 0.0008 0.0016 0.0029 0.0046 0.0059 0.0059 0.0028 -0.006 -0.022
Source: IS 3370-4 (1967): Code of practice for concrete structures for the storage of liquids,
Part ΙV: Design tables [CED 2: Cement and Concrete]
Horizontal reinforcement
a) For depth b/n 0.5h to 0.9h form max. Water level.
D
TH (max) = αt +γw * H *
2
Where, H – Depth of water in the reservoir
D – Diameter of the reservoir
αt = Hoop tension coeff.
From the above table αt (coeff.) is max at 0.6h =2.7m from top
18.5
i.e. αt = TH (max.) =00.447* 9.8*4.5*
2
= 194.778KN
Area of reinforcement required along the hoop for unit strip of wall, As is
. ∗
= = = .
, /
A = . AS min = . % of the concrete area
.
AS min = ∗ ∗ = mm

AS = . AS min = mm ok!

70
Check thickness of wall for no cracks
Thickness of wall is determined using the requirement of resistance to crack; therefore,
thickness of wall is determined by limiting tensile stress in the concrete to allowable stress

value as, fct = fct, allow = . N/mm

∗

. ∗
fct = fct, allow = . N/mm
∗ + − ∗ .
fct =0. N/ fct, allow = . N/mm ok!
Therefore, thickness is adequate for no crack!
Spacing of ring bars using ∅
as ∗ b
s= mm or thickness of wall mm
As
π∗ ∗
s= = . mm mm or thickness of wall mm !
∗ .
Number of bar no bar=As/s= . / =19.4778=20 bars
Therefore, provide∅ mm 20 bars @100mm c/c equally provided at a layer in each face.
Vertical reinforcement
Using the above table for H2/Dt=4.378, the maximum value of moment coefficient=-0.02498,
which occurs at 1.0H =1*4.8=4.8m from top.
The development of maximum positive and maximum negative flexure is calculating as
follows.
Mmax = max. coeff ∗ γw ∗ ℎ
+ve max . coeff = . at . h
−ve max coeff =-0.02498 at . h
Therefore,
+ve Mmax = . ∗ . ∗ . = . .
−ve Mmax = − . ∗ . ∗ . =− . KN.
Taking absolute value of the result, the maximum moment is therefore, Mmax =
− . KN. = . KN.
The minus sign indicates tension on inner face.
Check thickness of wall for flexure
fs, allow = 130N/mm2, fc, allow = 11N/mm2, n = 15
Design constants of balanced section are,
nfc
= = ∗ / + ∗
fs + nfc

71
 k =0.5592

= − =0.8136
,
= ∗ ∗ = ∗ . ∗ . = . /

. ∗ KN.
= = = .
. ∗

Hence, the already adopted thickness t=250mm is in order from the BM consideration.
Assuming cover 40mm up to center of main bars effective depth is;
d=250-40=210mm
. ∗
, = = = . 2
∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗

Spacing of Ø16 bars,

∗ ∗
= = = . mm
.
Use S=195mm c/c
.
Number of bar = = =5.16 bars
Therefore, provide 6 bars with Ø16mm @195mm c/c inner face of the wall @ clear cover of
25mm.
Thickness of wall taking ∅ and 40 mm cover:
∅
= + + = . + + = . < = !

= − − =

Vertical reinforcement on inner face

. ∗
− = = = .
, ∗ ∗ ∗ . ∗
− = . > = !
Check thickness of wall for no crack
ƩA ∗ Y
ȳ=
ƩA
b ∗ t ∗ + n ∗ As ∗ d
ȳ=
b ∗ t + n ∗ As

∗ ∗ + ∗ . ∗
ȳ= = . mm
∗ + ∗ .
y =250 – 130 =120 mm

72
 x = 202 - 130= 72mm
∗ȳ ∗
)ce = + + ∗ ∗

∗ ∗
= + + − ∗ . ∗ = . ∗

Then check for no crack:

∗
= < , = .

. ∗ ∗
= = 2.02mm2
. ∗

=1.739mm2< 2.02mm2………………ok!
Therefore, thickness is adequate for no crack.
Spacing of Ф14 bars
∗ . ∗
= = = . < !
.
.
Number of bar = = =7.2 bar/m
Therefore provide 8 bars with Ф14 bars at 145mm c/c vertically in the inner face.
Vertical reinforcements on outer face
+ = .
Using t=200 mm and ∅ bars = − − =

+ . ∗
+ = = = .
, ∗ ∗ ∗ . ∗
+ = . < = !
2
Therefore, take Asmin=750 mm
Spacing of ∅ bars
∗ ∗
= = . <
∗
Number of bar = = =5 bar/m
So, provide 5 bar/m with ∅ @150 mm c/c in the outer face.
Design of maximum hoop tension
T= 194.778KN
. ∗ ^
Ast,T= = = . mm2

Let us provide hoop tension at both faces.

.
Thus, Area of reinforcement on each face= = . 2

73
 .
Number of bar =∗ = ∗ =6.63≈ bar/m

Spacing using Ø 12 bars,

∗
= = . mm
.

Provide Ø12mm7bars @150mm c/c in the outer face.

Curtailment of hoop reinforcement
i. @0.4hm below top
.
T=0.3416*9.81*4.5* =139.489KN
. ∗ ^
Ast,2= = = . 2

.
Ast,2, on each face= = . 2

Spacing using Ø 12 bars,

∗
= = .
.
Use Ø 12 bars,@210mm c/c
ii. @0.3h m below top
T=0.2518*9.81*4.5*9.25=102.82KN
. ∗ ^
Ast,1= = = . 2

.
Ast 1 = = . 2

Spacing using Ø 12 bars,

∗
= = .
.
.
Number of bar= ∗ = ∗ =3.5 bars/m

Use Ø 12 bars @ 280mm c/c

Check for tensile stress in concrete

fct = fct, allow = .

∗

. ∗
= = . < . !
∗ + − ∗ .
Distribution reinforcement

% Dist. =0.3- . ∗

=0.3- . ∗

74
 =0.3- . ∗ =0.257%
. ∗ ∗
Area of distribution bars= Ast1 = = . 2

.
Number of bar =∗ = ∗ =12.78 bar

Spacing using Ø 8 bars,

. ∗
= = .
. /
Use 13 no bars with Ø 8 bars@150mm c/c
Design of base slab
Keeping in view of 250mm thick base slab, minimum reinforcement
. ∗ ∗
Ast ,min = = 2

Spacing using Ø10 bars

. ∗
= = .

Number of bar = = =3.75≈4bars

Use S=200mm
Design of Roof Slab
Cover slab of service reservoir is treats as roof slab, which is simply support by the circular
wall.
Assume cover slab as freely support at edges and loaded uniformly.
Using strength limit state design for C-30Mpa,

= = = . /
.
And for S =300Mpa, = = = . /
.

Considering the tope thickness of slab as 200 mm and load on slab per m2
Dead load DL own weight = t ∗ γc = . ∗ = KN/
Live load LL = . KN/ based on EBCS .
Therefore, the design load on the slab
Wd = . DL + . LL = . ∗ + . ∗ . = . KN/
Design of moment
At centre of slab

= = ∗ ∗ , = + ℎ = . + . = .

75
 = = ∗ . ∗ . = .

At the edge of the slab

Wd ∗ x . ∗ .
Mr = , Mθ = = = . KNm

Check thickness for flexure

. .
= = . = .
. + . +
∗

= . = . ∗ . = .
.
= − = . − = .

. ∗
= = = .
∗ ∗ . ∗ . ∗

= + + = . + + = . < = !

= − − = − − =

Reinforcement
At centre of the slab
. ∗
Mr=M = . KNm, μ = = = .
∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗

= − − =
= − − ∗ . = .
∗ ∗ ∗ . ∗ . ∗ ∗
Therefore = = = .
.

. ∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗
= . > = = = .

∗ ∗
Spacing using ∅ bars = = . < = !
∗ .
.
Number of bar = ∗ = ∗
=37.969 ≈38 bars

Therefore, provide ∅ @25 mm c/c in the form of mesh.

At the edge of slab
Mθ = . KNm
. ∗
= = = .
∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗

76
 = − − = − − ∗ . = .
∗ ∗ ∗ . ∗ . ∗ ∗
Therefore = = = .
.

. ∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗
= . > = = = .

.
Number of bar = ∗ = ∗
=21.815≈22 bars

∗ ∗
Spacing using ∅ bars = = . < = !
∗ .

Therefore, provide ∅ bars @ 40 mm c/c in the form of ring at the edge of the slab just
above mesh reinforcement.

Figure 9: Roof slab reinforcement arrangement

Design of Base Slab
The bottom slab is resting on the ground (soil) and supports the water and the load of the wall
and top slab. The weight of water is directly transferring to the soil; therefore, the bearing
capacity of the soil should be adequate. The slab is design for tank empty condition.
The net bearing pressure on the soil for the tank empty condition is that due to the load from
the roof slab and wall of the tank. That means the net earth pressure is caused by the wall of

77
the tank and the load from the roof slab.
Load from roof slab = 7.3KN/m

∗ . ∗γc ∗ ∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗ ∗ .
Load from tank wall, p = = = = . KN/m
.

Pnet = . + . = . KN/m .
For circular base with fixed supports around its edge and uniform net pressure, maximum
positive radial and circumferential moments reach the same value at the centre and given by:
Mr = radial moment
Mϴ = circumferential moment
+μ + .
Mr, max = Mθ, max = ∗ Pnet ∗ r = ∗ . ∗ . = . KNm

The value of for concrete is =0.2

The maximum negative moment occur at the fixed support given by:

−ve Mr, max = − ∗ Pnet ∗ r = − ∗ . ∗ . =− . KNm

.
− , =− ∗ ∗ =− ∗ . ∗ . =− . KNm

The absolute maximum moment is . KNm/m.

. ∗
Effective thickness of base slab, dreq, = = = .
∗ . ∗

Using concrete cover of 40 mm and ∅20 mm bar,

treq = dreq + cover + ∅ = + + =
Assuming thickness of slab t = 300 mm

= − − = mm

Reinforcement
1stAt the edge supports
In radial reinforcement
− , . ∗
− = = = .
, ∗ ∗ ∗ . ∗
Spacing of ∅ bars,
∗ ∗ ∗
= = = . mm < = !
∗ .
.
Number of bars =∗ = ∗
=21.19 ≈22 bars

Provide∅20 mm bars @ 45 mm c/c at the top of slab in radial direction.

78
In circumferential direction (ring bars)
Ring bars for development length of bar:
Depth above the mesh reinforcement,d = – = mm
Mθ = − . KNm/m
− , . ∗
− = = = .
, ∗ ∗ ∗ . ∗
Spacing of ∅ bars,
∗ ∗ ∗
= = = . mm < = !
∗ .
Therefore take, S=215 mm
.
Number of bars =∗ = ∗
=4.6≈5 bars

Provide∅20 mm bars @ 215 mm c/c at the top of slab in circumferential direction.

2nd At the Centre of the Slab
Mθ, max = Mr, max = . KNm
Using ∅ bars, and 40 mm cover, =
+ . ∗
+ = = = .
, ∗ ∗ ∗ . ∗
Spacing of ∅ bars,
∗ ∗ ∗
= = = . mm < = !
∗ .
.
Number of bars =∗ = ∗
=13.8 ≈14 bars

Provide ∅20 mm14bars @70 mm c/c placed at the bottom directions in form of mesh.

79
Figure 10: Base slab reinforcement arrangement

Figure 11: Sectional view of reservoir

Design of circular reservoir Phase-II

 Base condition fixed
 Water depth in the reservoir 3m
 Free board 0.3m

80
  Grade of concrete-30mpa
 Volume of reservoir=550m3

 Clear diameter of reservoir (D) =

4 *V
π *h
Since our reservoir capacity is 550m3 we Assumed, H = 4m
D2H
V= π where, V = Volume of reservoir
4
D = Diameter of reservoir
H = Height of reservoir
πD 2 * 4
550 =
4
4 *V
D=
π *h
D= 13.5
Assume, t=250mm at bottom Where, t =thickness
t = 150 mm at top
250 + 150
tavg. = = 200
2
h2 42
= =5.926
dtaverage 13.5 * 200 *10−3

Table 38: Coefficients for Hoop tension (Fixed at base and free at top)
h2 Coefficient at point
dt
0.1h 0.2h 0.3h 0.4h 0.5h 0.6h 0.7h 0.8h 0.9h 1.0h
5 0.025 0.137 0.245 0.346 0.428 0.477 0.469 0.398 0.259 0.092
5.92 0.0185 0.1203 0.2348 0.3441 0.4400 0.5020 0.5107 0.4711 0.2979 0.11052
6 0.018 0.119 0.234 0.344 0.441 0.504 0.514 0.477 0.301 0.112

81
 Table 39: Coefficient for vertical moment (For fixed at base and free at top)
h2 Coefficient at point
dt 0.1h 0.2h 0.3h 0.4h 0.5h 0.6h 0.7h 0.8h 0.9h 1.0h
5 0.0002 0.0008 0.0016 0.0029 0.0046 0.0059 0.0028 -0.0058 -0.0222 0.0002
5.92 0.00011 0.00034 0.00086 0.0032 0.0046 0.00516 0.0029 -0.0042 -0.0189 0.00011
6 0.0001 0.0003 0.0008 0.0032 0.0046 0.0051 0.0029 -0.0041 -0.0187 0.0001
Source: IS 3370-4 (1967): Code of practice for concrete structures for the storage of liquids,
Part4: Design tables [CED 2: Cement and Concrete]
For strength
, = /

, = / & =
For no concrete crack
, = . / --------------for direct tension

, = . / -------------for bending
Assume area of horizontal reinforcement for unit depth or unit width (BS-5337)
. .
= ∗ ∗ = ∗ ∗ =

Detail reinforcement
Horizontal reinforcement
From the above table the maximum coefficient for hoop is equal to 0.51067 at 0.h.
(oop tention T( = max. coef ∗ yw ∗ h ∗ r
(oop tention T( = . ∗ . ∗ ∗ . = . KN/m
Area of reinforcement required along the hoop for unit strip of wall, As is
. ∗
= = = .
, /
AS = . AS min = . % of the concrete area
.
AS min = ∗ ∗ = mm

AS = . AS min = mm !

82
Check Thickness of Wall for No Cracks
Thickness of wall is determined using the requirement of resistance to crack; therefore,
thickness of wall is determined by limiting tensile stress in the concrete to allowable stress

value as, fct = fct, allow = . N/mm

∗

. ∗
fct = fct, allow = . N/mm
∗ + − ∗ .
fct = . N/ fct, allow = . N/mm !
Therefore, thickness is adequate for no crack!
Spacing of ring bars using ∅
as ∗ b
s= mm or thickness of wall mm
As
π∗ ∗
s= = . mm mm or thickness of wall mm !
∗ .
.
Number of bar= = =9.33≈10 bar
Therefore, provide ∅ ring bars @ 145mm c/c equally provided at a layer in each face.
Vertical reinforcement
The development of maximum positive and maximum negative flexure is calculating as
follows.
Mmax = max. coeff ∗ γw ∗ ℎ
+ve max . coeff = . at . h
−ve max coeff = − . at . h
Therefore,
+ve Mmax = . ∗ . ∗ = . .
−ve Mmax = − . ∗ . ∗ =− . .
Taking absolute value of the result, the maximum moment is therefore,
Mmax = − . . = . .
Check Thickness of Wall for Flexure
fs, allow = 130N/mm2, fc, allow = 11N/mm2, n = 15
Design constants of balanced section are,
n fs, allow
kb = ,r = = = .
n+r fc, allow

kb = = .
+ .

83
 kb .
jb = − = − = .

,
= ∗ ∗ = ∗ . ∗ . = . /

The effective depth of section (dreq) is giving by

. ∗
dreq = = = .
∗ . ∗

Thickness of wall taking ∅ and 40 mm cover:

∅
= + + = . + + = . < = !

= − − =

Use t assume=200 mm and dreq=152 mm

Vertical reinforcement on inner face
. ∗
− = = = .
, ∗ ∗ ∗ . ∗
− = . > = !
Check thickness of wall for no crack
ƩA ∗ Y
ȳ=
ƩA
b ∗ t ∗ + n ∗ As ∗ d
ȳ=
b ∗ t + n ∗ As
∗ ∗ + ∗ . ∗
ȳ= = . mm
∗ + ∗ .
y =200 – 103 = 97
x = 152 - 103= 49
∗ȳ ∗
= + + ∗ ∗

∗ ∗
= + + − ∗ . ∗ = . ∗

Then check for no crack:

∗
= < , = .

. ∗ ∗
=
. ∗
2 2
=1.726mm < 2.02mm ………………OK!

84
Therefore, thickness is adequate for no crack.
Spacing of Ф12 bars
∗ . ∗
= = = . < !
.
.
Number of bar = = =4.69≈5 bars
Therefore provide Ф12 bars @ 155mm c/c vertically in the inner face.
Vertical reinforcements on outer face
+ = .
Using t=200 mm and ∅ bars = − − =

+ . ∗
+ = = = .
, ∗ ∗ ∗ . ∗
+ = . < = !
Therefore take Asmin=600 mm2
Spacing of ∅ bars
∗ ∗
= = . <
∗
Number of bars =∗ =∗ =5.3≈6 bars

So, provide ∅ 6bars @ 190 mm c/c in the outer face.

Design of roof slab for phase 2
Cover slab of service reservoir is treats as roof slab, which is simply support by the circular
wall.
Assume cover slab as freely support at edges and loaded uniformly.
Using strength limit state design for C-30Mpa,

= = = . /
.
And for S =300Mpa, = = = . /
.

Considering the tope thickness of slab as 200 mm and load on slab per m2
Dead load DL own weight = t ∗ γc = . ∗ = KN/
Live load LL = . KN/ based on EBCS .
Therefore, the design load on the slab
Wd = . DL + . LL = . ∗ + . ∗ . = . KN/

85
Design Moment
At center of slab

= = ∗ ∗ , = + ℎ = . + . = .

= = ∗ . ∗ . = .

At the edge of the slab

Wd ∗ x . ∗ .
Mr = , Mθ = = = . KNm

Check thickness for flexure

. .
= = . = .
. + . +
∗

= . = . ∗ . = .
.
= − = . − = .

. ∗
= = = .
∗ ∗ . ∗ . ∗

= + + = . + + = . < = !

= − − = − − =

Reinforcement
At Centre of the slab
. ∗
Mr=M = . Nm, μ = = = .
∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗

= − −
= − − ∗ . = .
∗ ∗ ∗ . ∗ . ∗ ∗
Therefore = = = .
.

. ∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗
= . > = = = .

Spacing using ∅ bars

∗ ∗
= = . < = !
∗ .
.
Number of bars = = =34.51≈35 bars
Therefore, provide ∅ bars @ 55 mm c/c in the form of mesh.

86
At the edge of slab
Mθ = . KNm
. ∗
= = = .
∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗
= − − = − − ∗ . = .
∗ ∗ ∗ . ∗ . ∗ ∗
Therefore = = = .
.

. ∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗
= . > = = = .

Spacing using ∅ bars

∗ ∗
= = . < = !
∗ .
.
Number of bar= = =13.338≈14 bars
Therefore, provide ∅ bars @ 90mm c/c in the form of ring at the edge of the slab just
above mesh reinforcement.
Design of base slab for Phase-II
The bottom slab is resting on the ground (soil) and supports the water and the load of the wall
and top slab. The weight of water is directly transferring to the soil; therefore, the bearing
capacity of the soil should be adequate. The slab is design for tank empty condition.
The net bearing pressure on the soil for the tank empty condition is that due to the load from
the roof slab and wall of the tank. That means the net earth pressure is caused by the wall of
the tank and the load from the roof slab.
Load from roof slab = 7.3KN/m

∗ . ∗γc ∗ ∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗ ∗
Load from tank wall, = = = = . /
.

= . + . = . / .
For circular base with fixed supports around its edge and uniform net pressure, maximum
positive radial and circumferential moments reach the same value at the center and given by:
Mr = radial moment
Mϴ = circumferential moment
+ + .
, = , = ∗ ∗ = ∗ . ∗ . = .

The value of for concrete is =0.2

The maximum negative moment occur at the fixed support given by:

87
 − , =− ∗ ∗ =− ∗ . ∗ . =− .

.
− , =− ∗ ∗ =− ∗ . ∗ . =− .

The absolute maximum moment is . KNm/m.

. ∗
Effective thickness of base slab, dreq, = = = .
∗ . ∗

Using concrete cover of 40 mm and ∅18 mm bar,

treq = dreq + cover + ∅ = + + =
Assuming thickness of slab t = 300 mm

= − − = mm

Reinforcement
At the edge supports.
In radial reinforcement
− , . ∗
− = = = .
, ∗ ∗ ∗ . ∗
Spacing of ∅ bars,
∗ ∗ ∗
= = = . mm < = !
∗ .
.
Number of bars =∗ = ∗
=21.86≈22 bars

Provide∅18 mm bars @ 45 mm c/c at the top of slab in radial direction.

In circumferential direction (ring bars)
Ring bars for development length of bar:
Depth above the mesh reinforcement,d = – = mm
Mθ == − .
− , . ∗
− = = = .
, ∗ ∗ ∗ . ∗
Spacing of ∅ bars,
∗ ∗ ∗
= = = mm > = !
∗ .
.
Number of bars =∗ = ∗
=2.8≈3 bars

Therefore take, S=300 mm

88
Provide∅18 mm bars @ 300 mm c/c at the top of slab in circumferential direction.
At The Centre of the Slab
Mθ, max = Mr, max = .
Using ∅ bars, and 40 mm cover, =
+ . ∗
+ = = = .
, ∗ ∗ ∗ . ∗
Spacing of ∅ bars,
∗ ∗ ∗
= = = . mm < = !
∗ .
.
Number of bars = = =13.616≈14 bars
Provide∅18 mm bars @ 135mm c/c placed at the bottom directions in form of mesh.

89
8 COLLECTION CHAMBER AND PUMPS

8.1 Collection Chamber

Water from boreholes should be pumped and stored in temporary reservoir. Assuming for
submersible pumping is working 20hour per day, hence the reservoir is needed to compensate
the ideas hours of pump from 3 boreholes having design yield of 8l/s for each borehole in
stage-Ӏ and 4 boreholes having design yield of 8l/s for each borehole in stage-ӀӀ.
The collection works mainly consists of pumping works which are essential to convey water.
The collection works are done to collect the raw water from the sources. The collection
system mainly depends on:
 The topographical and hydrological features of the area.
 The location.
 The area to be served.

8.1.1 Determination of collection chamber capacity

The total yield of 24l/s and 32l/s is expected from the well field from five 5 boreholes and
nine (9) boreholes for stage-Ӏ and stage-ӀӀ respectively.
Water is assumed to be detained for some time in the collection chamber and the detention
time in the collection chamber affects directly the size of reservoir i.e. the larger the detention
time the larger the reservoir has. Thus, it is considered that the water will be detained for 10-
30 minute (Urban water supply design criteria, 2006)
For phase-Ӏ
Taking discharge of 24l/s and detention time of 20minute,
Capacity of collection chamber = (24l/s*20*60) / 1000 = 28.8m3
Adopt 30m3 reservoirs (collection chamber) to ensure good detention time and capacity
during pump failure or any other fall. Also the detention time for this reservoir is expected to
be around 20 minute.
For Phase-Ӏ
Taking discharge of 32l/s and detention time of 30 minute,
Capacity of collection chamber = (32l/s*30*60) / 1000 = 38.4m3
For safety adopt 40m3 collection chamber at detention time of 30 minute.
NB. Provide different capacities of collection chamber having a total capacity of 40m3
and30m3 for phase-Ӏ and phase-ӀӀ respectively, according to the location of the service
reservoirs.

90
8.1.2 Position of Collection system

The position of collection chamber, pumping station and service reservoir is very important
for our design system to distribute water economically to the consumers. These positions are
determined by observing the top map of the place and other geographical arrangement. But
for our case the two positions are taken from feasibility study due to lake of important
materials like the top map of the town. And their positions are such a way that the distribution
system has to be supplied by gravity system. Each borehole will be equipped with a pump
that pumps the raw water to the service reservoir located at 1002498 East and 443479 North
at an elevation of 2441 masl. An intermediate collecting tank on a convenient high ground
site is provided in the well field area of distribution reservoir. The collection tank and
pumping station are situated at 1000767.94East and 444771.24 North and under constant
elevation of 2359 mamsl.

8.2 Pumps

The primary function of a pump is to add hydraulic energy to certain values of fluid. This is
accomplished which the mechanical energy imparted to the pump from a power source is
transferred to the fluid, there by becoming hydraulic energy. Thus, a pump serves to transfer
energy from a power source to a fluid, thereby creating flow or simply creating greater
pressures on the fluid.

8.2.1 Purpose of Pump

Pumps are used in water works for the following reasons

 To lift raw water from a surface source of supply
 To lift raw water from wells (underground source of supply)
 To deliver treated water to consumer’s taper at desired pressure
 To fill elevated storage tanks (distribution reservoirs)
 To supply fire – pressure for fire hydrants
 To back wash filters
 To pump chemical solutions

8.2.2 Selection of a Pump

For proper selection of pump, it is necessary, to have certain essential data on the pump
installation. The information should include:-
 Number of pump units required
 Nature of liquid to be pumped
91
  Capacity of pump
 Suction conditions
 Discharge conditions
 Total head
 Position of pump (i.e. horizontal or vertical)
The following points may be kept in mind while selecting any pumping machinery for water
works.
 Reliability of service: It should be variable and should not fail suddenly and cause
trouble.
 Capacity: It should be capable of pumping required quantity of water
 Cost: It should be cheap in initial cost
 Power: The power which is used for running pumps should be available easily at low
cost.
 Maintenance: The maintenance cost of running pumps should be as less as possible.
 Efficiency: Pump should have higher efficiency
 Deprecation: pump should have long life and depreciation cost should be less.

8.2.3 Centrifugal Pumps

Centrifugal pumps are the most important types of variable displacement pump because of
their wide use. It is capable of delivering large quantities of water, against high as well as low
head condition, with good efficiency, combining those features with its other attributes such
as simplicity, completeness, and adaptability to different methods of driving initiated us to
select this type of pump.
The two most commonly used types of centrifugal pumps are:-
 Vertical spindle pump
 Submersible pump
I. Vertical spindle pump: It is frequently used for pumping water form a well. The driving
motor is at the surface and the pump is immersed in water and it must, therefore, driven by a
vertical spindle. This spindle rotates with in tube or sleeve which is held centrally in the
raising main by spindle bearing the pumped water is delivered to surface via the annular
space between the sleeve and the raising main.
II. Submersible pump: It is the modification on the deep well pump as the name indicates in
this electric motor and pump both are submersed in the water. By submersing electric motor
large economy can be made by avoiding long shaft, large number of bearing and large size

92
rising main etc. Generally here in Holeta case both submersible and surface pump for source
site are essential.

8.2.4 Determination of Pipe Size

Size of the pipe is determined by considering the discharge through the pipe and permissible
velocity of the flow in the pipe.
 Diameter of suction pipe for phase-Ӏ
Velocity in suction pipe, permissible velocity of 0.6–1.5 m/s assumed v = 1.5 m/s for our
project.
Qdesign = 8 l/sec for single tube well
πD 2
Q =AV, A=
4

4*Q 4 * 8 * 10 −3
D= = = 0.082 m = 90 mm But pipe size take, D = 90mm
∏ *V ∏ *1 . 5
Check velocity

Q = AV  0.008m3 /sec =
π * D 2 *V
4
8 * 10 −3
V= = 1.26m / s
Π * (0.09) 2
4

 Economical rising mains diameter

For pumping a particular fixed discharge of water, it can be pumped through bigger diameter
pipe at low velocity or through lesser diameter pipe at very high velocity. But, if the diameter
of the pipe is increased, it will lead to the higher cost of the pie line. On the other hand if the
diameter of the pipe is reduced, the increased velocity will lead to higher frictional head loss
and will require more horse power for the required pumping, thereby increasing the cost of
pumping.
For obtaining the optimum conditions , it is at most necessary to design the diameter of the
pumping main, which will be overall most economical in initial cost as well as maintenance
cost for pumping the required quantity of water .
The following formula given by Lea is commonly used in determining the diameter of the
pumping mains.

D = 0.97 to 1.22 Q

93
Where D = Economical diameter of pipe in meters
Q = safe discharge of water to be pumped in m3/sec.
This formula gives optimum velocity of water flow between 0.8 to 1.35 m/sec.
 Calculation of economical diameter

Based on the above economical size of pipe, from each bore hole to collection chamber is
calculated as follows
For safety take the larger coefficient i.e. 1.22.

D = 1.22 Q

= 1.22 8 *10−3 =0.109m

Take D = 110mm
Check for velocity:-
Q
V= Where Q = required discharge of water to be pumped in m3/s
A
A = area of pumping in m2
8 *10 −3
V= = 0.84m / s
Π * (0.11) 2
4
Therefore, the velocity is OK since it is within the allowable limit i.e. 0.8 to 1.35m/s
For phase-Ӏ
In phase-1 there are a total number of 3 boreholes which feeds to reservoirs having capacity
of 1150m3. Sample of calculation for the 3 boreholes which feeds to reservoir capacity of
1150m3
8.2.5 Determination of Total Dynamic Head
For the phase-Ι (2016-2031)
From borehole to collection chamber
πD 2
Q =AV, A= Qdesign = 8 l/sec for single borehole
4

4*Q 4 * 8 *10 −3
D= = = 0.082m = 90mm But pipe size take, D = 90mm
∏ *V ∏ *1.5
Check velocity

Q = AV  0.008m3 /sec =
π * D 2 *V
4

94
 V= 8 * 10 − 3
= 1 . 26 m / s
Π * ( 0 . 09 ) 2
4
 The total head against which the pump must operate including the total static head and
total head losses.
TDH is represented by the following equation
=( +( +(
Where =total static head (i.e. elevation difference between the pumping source &
reservoir)
= head loss in suction pipe
= head loss in raising main (i.e. friction, bend, valve & velocity head).
Sample calculation for one bore hole
Head loss from bore hole to collection chamber for BH-1
Total head loss due to friction loss
flv
( = … … … … … … … . Darcy − Weisbach head loss equation
gd
Where hf= head loss due to equation.
f= coefficient of friction.
l= length of the pipe in m.
v= average velocity of flow in m/s.
d = internal diameter of the pipe in m.
. ∗ . ∗ .
( = = = 1.65m, assume, f=0.02
∗ . ∗ .

.
Head loss due to velocity in pipe = = = = 0.0809m
∗ .

. ∗ .
Head loss due to valve and bends of pipes = = = 0.0404m where, k=0.5 for
∗ .

circular pipe.
.
Head loss due to entry = ℎ = ∗ =0.0404m
∗ .

THL= 1.65m +0.0809m +0.0404 +0.0404m

=1.812
=Elevation difference between source and junction= 2359m – 2354m =5m
Assume, Head loss in suction pipe
= the depth of pump submerged + the depth from water level to the borehole top
= 5m +10m =15m

95
Total head for source to junction =5m + 15m + 1.812m = 21.812m
Head loss from bore hole to collection chamber for BH-2
. ∗ . ∗ .
Total head loss due to friction loss =( = = = 1.75m, assume, f=0.02
∗ . ∗ .

.
Head loss due to velocity in pipe = ( = = = 0.0809m
∗ .

. ∗ .
Head loss due to valve and bends of pipes = = = 0.0404m where, k=0.5 for
∗ .

circular pipe.
.
Head loss due to entry = ℎ = ∗ =0.0404
∗ .

THL= 1.75m +0.0809m +0.0404 +0.0404m

=1.912m
=Elevation difference between source and junction= 2359m – 2354m =5m
Assume, Head loss in suction pipe
= the depth of pump submerged + the depth from water level to the borehole top
= 5m +10m =15m
Total head for source to junction =5m + 15m + 1.912m = 21.912
Head loss from bore hole to collection chamber for BH-3
. ∗ . ∗ .
Total head loss due to friction loss =( = = = 1.71m, assume, f=0.02
∗ . ∗ .

.
Head loss due to velocity in pipe = ( = = = 0.0809m
∗ .

. ∗ .
Head loss due to valve and bends of pipes = = = 0.0404m where, k=0.5 for
∗ .

circular pipe.
.
Head loss due to entry = ℎ = ∗ =0.0404
∗ .

THL= 1.71m +0.0809m +0.0404 +0.0404m

=1.875m
=Elevation difference between source and junction= 2359m – 2354m =5m
Assume, Head loss in suction pipe
= the depth of pump submerged + the depth from water level to the borehole top
= 5m +10m =15m
Total head for source to junction =5m + 15m + 1.875m = 21.875 m
From collection chamber to service reservoir

4*Q 4 * 8 *10 −3 * 2
D= = = 0.116m = 116mm
∏ *V ∏ *1.5

96
But pipe size available in market 110mm. So take, D = 110mm
Check velocity

Q = AV  0.008m3 /sec =
π * D 2 *V
4
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
V= = =0.906m/sec
∗ ∗ .

which lies b/n the range of permissible velocity ok !

. ∗ . ∗ .
Total head loss due to friction loss =( = = = 23.75m, assume, f=0.02
∗ . ∗ .

.
Head loss due to velocity in pipe = = = = 0.0418m
∗ .

. ∗ .
Head loss due to valve and bends of pipes = = = 0.0209m where, k=0.5 for
∗ .

circular pipe.
.
Head loss due to entry = ℎ = ∗ =0.0209m
∗ .

THL = 23.75m + 0.0418m + 0.0209m + 0.0209m

= 23.834m
=Elevation difference between junction and reservoir = 2441m – 2359m =82m
TDH= THL +Hst = 23.834m + 82m = 105.834m
For the phase-ΙӀ (2031-2041)
Head loss from bore hole to collection chamber for BH-1
. ∗ ∗ .
Total head loss due to friction loss =( = = = 5.78m, assume, f=0.02
∗ . ∗ .

.
Head loss due to velocity in pipe = ( = = = 0.0809m
∗ .

. ∗ .
Head loss due to valve and bends of pipes = = = 0.0404m where, k=0.5 for
∗ .

circular pipe.
.
Head loss due to entry = ℎ = ∗ =0.0404
∗ .

THL=5.78m +0.0809m +0.0404 +0.0404m

=5.9417m
=Elevation difference between source and junction= 2372m – 2367m =5m
Assume, Head loss in suction pipe
= the depth of pump submerged + the depth from water level to the borehole top
= 5m +75m =80m
Total head for source to junction =5m + 80m + 5.9417m = 90.9417 m

97
Head loss from bore hole to collection chamber for BH-2
. ∗ ∗ .
Total head loss due to friction loss =( = = = 6.129m, assume, f=0.02
∗ . ∗ .

.
Head loss due to velocity in pipe = ( = = = 0.0809m
∗ .

. ∗ .
Head loss due to valve and bends of pipes = = = 0.0404m where, k=0.5 for
∗ .

circular pipe.
.
Head loss due to entry = ℎ = ∗ =0.0404
∗ .

THL= 6.129m +0.0809m +0.0404 +0.0404m

=6.29m
=Elevation difference between source and junction = 2372m – 2368m =4m
Assume, Head loss in suction pipe
= the depth of pump submerged + the depth from water level to the borehole top
= 5m +75m =80m
Total head for source to junction =4m + 80m + 6.29m = 90.29 m
Head loss from bore hole to collection chamber for BH-3
. ∗ ∗ .
Total head loss due to friction loss =( = = = 6.19m, assume, f=0.02
∗ . ∗ .

.
Head loss due to velocity in pipe = ( = = = 0.0809m
∗ .

. ∗ .
Head loss due to valve and bends of pipes = = = 0.0404m where, k=0.5 for
∗ .

circular pipe.
.
Head loss due to entry = ℎ = ∗ =0.0404
∗ .

THL= 6.19m +0.0809m +0.0404 +0.0404m

=6.35m
=Elevation difference between source and junction = 2372m – 2365m =7m
Assume, Head loss in suction pipe
= the depth of pump submerged + the depth from water level to the borehole top
= 5m +75m =80m
Total head for source to junction =7m + 80m + 6.35m = 91.35 m
Head loss from bore hole to collection chamber for BH-4
. ∗ ∗ .
Total head loss due to friction loss =( = = = 6.129m, assume, f=0.02
∗ . ∗ .

.
Head loss due to velocity in pipe = ( = = = 0.0809m
∗ .

98
 . ∗ .
Head loss due to valve and bends of pipes = = = 0.0404m where, k=0.5 for
∗ .

circular pipe.
.
Head loss due to entry = ℎ = ∗ =0.0404
∗ .

THL= 6.129m +0.0809m +0.0404 +0.0404m

=6.29m
=Elevation difference between source and junction = 2372m – 2362m =10m
Assume, Head loss in suction pipe
= the depth of pump submerged + the depth from water level to the borehole top
= 5m +75m =80m
Total head for source to junction =10m + 80m + 6.29m = 96.29 m
From collection chamber to service reservoir

4*Q 4 * 8 *10 −3 * 2
D= = = 0.116m = 116mm
∏ *V ∏ *1.5
But pipe size available in market 110mm. So take, D = 110mm
Check velocity

Q = AV  0.008m3 /sec =
π * D 2 *V
4
∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
V= = =0.906m/sec
∗ ∗ .

which lies b/n the range of permissible velocity ok !

. ∗ ∗ .
Total head loss due to friction loss =( = = = 5.38m, assume, f=0.02
∗ . ∗ .

.
Head loss due to velocity in pipe = = = = 0.0418m
∗ .

. ∗ .
Head loss due to valve and bends of pipes = = = 0.0209m where, k=0.5 for
∗ .

circular pipe.
.
Head loss due to entry = ℎ = ∗ =0.0209m
∗ .

THL = 5.38m + 0.0418m + 0.0209m + 0.0209m

= 5.464m
=Elevation difference between junction and reservoir = 2441m – 2372m =69m
TDH= THL +Hst = 5.464m + 69m = 74.464m

99
Pump Power Requirement
This will depend on the head against which the pumping is to be done. Also it will depend on
the energy losses due to friction, flow through valves, and fittings, rate of pumping etc. if the
total head against pumping is to be done is H (including all losses) the rate of flow is Q and
unit weight of water is w, and the efficiency of pumps and driving motors can be taken as 80
% and 90% respectively. Then water horse power required:
For phase-Ι
∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗ .
W.H.P-1= = =2.3266 HP

And brake horse power will be:

.
B.H.P = = = 3.2314 HP
. ∗ .

Power required = 3.2314 * 0.735KW/HP = 2.375KW.

∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗ .
W.H.P-2= = =2.3373 HP

And brake horse power will be:

.
B.H.P = = = 3.2462 HP
. ∗ .

Power required = 3.2462 * 0.735KW/HP = 2.3856KW.

∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗ .
W.H.P-3= = = 2.3333 HP

And brake horse power will be:

.
B.H.P = = = 3.241 HP
. ∗ .

Power required = 3.241HP * 0.735KW/HP = 2.382KW

From collection chamber to reservoir
∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗ .
W.H.P= = = 11.289 HP

And brake horse power will be:

.
B.H.P = = = 15.67 HP
. ∗ .

Power required = 15.67 HP * 0.735KW/HP = 11.24KW

The Power source for both stations (well & booster) is from the national grid of EEPCO
through pole mounted transformers.
For Phase ΙΙ
∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗ .
W.H.P-1= = =9.7 HP

And brake horse power will be:

.
B.H.P = = = 13.473 HP
. ∗ .

100
Power required = 13.473 * 0.735KW/HP = 9.9025KW.
∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗ .
W.H.P-2= = =9.63HP

And brake horse power will be:

.
B.H.P = = = 13.375 HP
. ∗ .

Power required 13.375 * 0.735KW/HP = 9.83KW.

∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗ .
W.H.P-3= = = 9.744 HP

And brake horse power will be:

.
B.H.P = = = 13.53 HP
. ∗ .

Power required = 13.53HP * 0.735KW/HP = 9.947KW

∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗ .
W.H.P-3= = = 10.27 HP

And brake horse power will be:

.
B.H.P = = = 14.265 HP
. ∗ .

Power required = 14.265 HP * 0.735KW/HP =10.485KW

From collection chamber to reservoir
∗ ∗ . ∗ ∗ .
W.H.P= = = 7.94 HP

And brake horse power will be:

.
B.H.P = = = 11.03 HP
. ∗ .

Power required = 11.03 HP * 0.735KW/HP = 8.11KW

The Power source for both stations (well & booster) is from the national grid of EEPCO
through pole mounted transformers.

101
 9 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

The water distribution system is the part of the water work which receives the water from the
pumping station or the conduit in several different ways, as local conditions or other
considerations may dictate.
After the water is treated completely, it becomes necessary to distribute it to a number of
houses, estates, industries, and public places by means of a network of distribution system.
The distribution system consists of pipes of various sizes, valves, meters, pumps, distribution
reservoirs, hydrants; stand posts etc. The pipelines carry the water to every street and road.
Valves control the flow of water through the pipes. Pumps are provided to pump the water to
the elevated service reservoirs or directly in the water mains to obtain the required pressure in
the pipelines. Meters are provided to measure the quantity of water consumed by individual
as well as by the town.

9.1 Classification of distribution system

Depending on the method of distribution there are three types of distribution system
1. Gravity system: - This is the most reliable method of distributing water when there is
some ground level sufficiently above the city. The adequate pressure of distribution is
maintained by gravity force only.
2. Pumping system: - In this system the distribution pressure is maintained by direct
pumping to the mains. This system has an increased maintenance cost for the pumps have to
work at varying rates, their life is also reduced.
3. Dual system. In this system the pump is connected to the mains as well as to an elevated
reservoir. The water to be supplied is pumped and stored in an elevated distribution reservoir
from which it is supplied to the consumer under gravity. The surplus water is stored in the
storage reservoir and may be supplied during maximum demand and emergency period.
Therefore, this system is efficient and economical because the pumps are operated at constant
speed which increases the efficiency and reduces wear and tear of the pumps.
Where some ground sufficiently high above the city area is available, gravity system can be
used for distribution system. Depending upon these for Holeta town we adopt gravity system.
Requirement of good distribution system
Some of the requirements are:-
 It should convey the treated water up to consumers with the same degree of purity
 The system should be economical and easy to maintain and operate
 The diameter of pipes should be designed to meet demands
102
  It should safe against any future pollution.
 Water should be supplied without interruption even when repairs are undertaken

9.2 Layout of distribution system

Generally in practice there are four different systems of distribution, which are used
depending up on their lay out and direction of supply.
1. Dead End or Tree System
2. Circular or ring system
3. Radial system
4. Grid iron system
From the above systems Grid iron system is most suitable for towns that have a rectangular
lag out of roads & for newly developed cities. The main advantages of this system are all
dead ends are eliminated; very small area will be affected during repair work, the friction
losses and the sizes of pipes are reduced, and in case of fire demand more quantity of water
can be diverted to the affected area by closing the valves of nearby localities.
The main disadvantages of this system are increased in the overall cost, difficult design
calculation & increase in the number of valves to be closed for repair work.
Based on the above criteria we use grid iron system for our project distribution system even
though it may have relative disadvantages.

9.2.1 Selection of pipe material

Pipes are made from different materials like cast iron, wrought iron, asbestos, steel, plastic
etc. so that selection of pipe material is based on the following methods.
 strength, durability & life of pipe
 carrying capacity of the pipe
 Type of water to be converged & its possible corrosive effect on the pipe
 Ease of transportation, handling & installation
 Tightness of joints & ease to tap for making connections
 Maintenance cost, repair etc.
Among different types of pipes, existing on the market PVC pipes is selected for the
distribution system. This is because PVC pipes are light in weight, cheap, easy to join and
install durable, good electric insulators and free from corrosion

103
9.2.2 Pipe Appurtenance

Appurtenances are very necessary materials required in the distribution network for good
operation. Distribution system, pipes of various diameters, having many connections and
branches are used.
i. Valves and Fittings: - In the water works valves are used to control the flow of
water, to regulate pressures, to admit air, to prevent flow of water in opposite
direction
ii. Water meter: used to measure volume of water. It also helps for billing purpose.
iii. Valves: are installed at necessary points so as to control the flow of water, for
pressure regulations.
iv. Fire hydrant: This is installed on the main line and distribution system so as to
prevent fire break at any instant. They are provided at places where fire break is
expected.
v. Valve chamber: are provided for easy access and for safety of valves.
vi. Flash-out valves: Mostly located at low points in the pipe line for washing of the
system.
vii. Pressure-relief valve: A safety valve designed to relief pressure in a pipe line.
viii. Air release value: A valve to release air or gas which tends to accumulate at high
point on pipe lines.

9.2.3 Laying of Pipes

Since it passes mostly through farmer’s private lands and main road side, it should be below
ground. A trench about 60*80 cm size should be excavated along the alignment.

9.2.4 Flow Metering

Propeller or turbine types of flow meters calibrated in metric units will be provided at the
following locations:
 Outlet from the boreholes;
 Outlet from the service reservoirs
The flow meter from outlet of boreholes indicates the volume of raw water produced, the
flow meter from outlet of booster pumping station indicates volume water pumped to the
storage and the flow meter from reservoir indicate the daily variation in water consumption
including losses in the distribution system.

104
9.3 Analysis of water distribution network

We use the following basic elements for the analysis of the distribution system. These are,
 Elevation of the junctions using contour maps
 Length of pipes from one junction to another junction and from reservoir to the first
node
 Reservoir elevation
 Peak hourly demand of the town
Then, having the above elements as input we analyse,
 Pressure of the distribution system
 Velocity of the flow
 Flow fluctuation within 24hours, etc...
And this analysis was done using the computer software of EPANET 2.0. The network is
shown as follows:-

Figure 12: Epanetdistribution layout analysis

105
10 WATER QUALITY AND WATER TREATMENT

10.1 Ground water quality and treatment

For the most part ground water originates form infiltrated rainwater which after reaching the
aquifer flows through the underground during infiltration, the water will pick up many
impurities such as in organic and organic soil particles debris form plant and animal life
micro-organisms natural or man – mode fertilizers pesticides etc. During its flow
underground, however a great improving in water quality will occur suspended particles are
removed by filtration, organic substances are degraded by oxidation, and micro – organisms
die away because of lock of nutrients .The dissolved mineral content of the water can
increase considerably through the leaching of salts form the underground layers.
The quality of ground water is influenced mainly by the quality of its source. Changes or the
gradation in the quality of source water can have seriously affected the quality of ground
water supply. Municipal and industrial waste seepage in to an aquifer is a major source of
both organic and inorganic pollution.
According to the feasibility study of Holeta town water supply the standards are with in
allowable limit of WHO guide line for potable water. Then our supply needs only
disinfection.
Water samples were collected from Holeta Genet BH#1, BH#2 and BH#3 and sent to water
works Design and Supervision Enterprise Laboratory for analysis. This groundwater is fresh
and of low conductivity: (conductivity 295 μS/cm) and TDS (152 mg/l to 186 mg/l). The
nitrate (3.5 to 7 mg/l), iron (trace amount) and fluoride (0.3 to 0.54 mg/l) contents are very
low. The pH value (7.8 to 8.08) of the groundwater shows that it is to the alkaline side.
Generally, the ground water is fresh, potable and within the acceptable limits of the WHO
and Ethiopian drinking water guidelines.

106
 Table 40: Selected water analysis results
SOURCE OF SAMPLE BH BH BH WHO maximum
DATE RECEIVED 15/08/08 15/08/08 15/08/08 allowable
CLIENTS ID.NO. Holeta Genet Holeta Genet Holeta Genet Concentration
BH#2 BH #3 BH #1 (mg/l)
LAB.ID NO. 378/2001 379/2001 377/2001 -
Colour (app) - - - -
Turbidity (NTU) - - - 5.0
Total Solids 105˚C (mg/l) - - - -
T. Dissolved Solids 105˚C 186.0 192.0 152.0 1000.0
(mg/l)
Electrical Conductivity 284.0 295 215.0 -
(µS/cm)
PH 7.91 8.08 7.81 6.5-8.5
Ammonia (mg/l NH3) 0.124 0.151 0.080 -
Sodium (mg/l Na) 38.0 35.0 40.0 200.0
Potassium (mg/l k) 1.4 1.5 0.6 -
Total Hardness (mg/l Ca 102.9 117.6 58.8 500.0
Co3)
Calcium (mg/l Ca) 28.56 30.24 16.80 200.0
Magnesium (mg/l Mg) 7.65 10.2 4.08 150.0
Total Iron (mg/l Fe) Trace Trace Trace 0.3
Manganese (mg/l Mn) - - - 0.1
Fluoride (mg/l F) 0.5 0.54 0.32 1.5
Chloride (mg/l Cl) 11.33 9.27 10.3 250.0
Nitrite (mg/l NO2) 0.01 0.1 Trace -
Nitrate (mg/l NO3) 5.09 3.49 7.2 45.0
Alkalinity (mg/l CaCO3) 144.9 153.3 111.3 -
Carbonate (mg/l CO3) Nil Nil Nil -
Bicarbonate (mg/l HCO3) 176.78 187.03 135.79 -
Sulphate (mg/l SO4) 3.32 6.33 1.24 400
Phosphate (mg/l PO4) - - - -
Source: feasibility study

107
10.2 Treatment processes

A number of treatment methods have been developed to produce water of requisite quality.
The character and degree of treatment will depend up on the nature of the water and this
depends largely up on its source. Surface waters are likely to be bacteriological contaminated
and more or less turbid. They will thus generally require coagulation, sedimentation, filtration
and disinfection. Whereas ground water is usually clear and therefore depends entirely up on
disinfection. Since our source is ground water we concern only with disinfection.

10.2.1 Disinfection

The process of killing the pathogenic organisms from water and making it to the user is called
disinfection; and the chemicals which are used for killing of the bacteria are known as
disinfectant.
Requirements of disinfectant:-
 Destroy bacteria/pathogens within a practicable period of time, over an expected
range of water temperature.
 Effective at variable compositions, concentration and conditions of water treated.
 Neither toxic to humans and domestic animals nor unpalatable or otherwise
objectionable in required concentration.
 Not change water properties
 Have residual in a sufficient concentration to provide protection against
recontamination
 Can be determined easily, quickly, and preferably automatically.
 Dispensable at reasonable cost
 Safe and easy to store, transport, handle and supply
 Not form toxic by-products due to their reactions with any naturally occurring
materials in water.
 Readily available
 Cheap

10.2.2 Methods of Disinfection

The disinfection of water can be done by the following common methods:

a) By boiling the water:- The water can be disinfected by boiling for 15 to 20 minutes.
All the pathogenic bacteria’s can be killed by this method. This is very costly method

108
 and can not be used for water works, but it can be used in emergency by individuals
during the break up of epidemics in the locality .
b) By using ozone: - Ozone is very efficient disinfectant. It is used in gaseous form.
This method can be used only if electricity is easily and cheaply available at water
works.
c) By using excess lime:-Lime is usually used for reducing hardness of water. It has
been noted practically that if some additional quantity of lime is added than what it
actually requires for removal of hardness, it will also disinfect the water while
removing the hardness. The addition of excess lime increases the PH value of the
water which may be harmful to human health.
d) By Using ultra-violet rays: - Ultra-violet rays are invisible light rays having wave
lengths 1000 to 4000 m µ . These rays are very effective disinfectant and kill all the
disease producing. But this Process is costly and requires technical skill and costly
equipment.This method is mainly used for disinfection of water in swimming Pool.
e) By potassium Permanganate: - Potassium permanganate (KMnO4) is the most
common disinfectant and used in the villages for disinfection of dug-well water, pond
water or private source of water. In addition to the killing of bacterial, it also reduces
the organic matters by oxidizing them. Since the efficiency of killing bacterial is 98%
and not 100% and the colour of the water becomes light pink, it is not being used.
f) By using iodine & Bromine: - All the pathogenic bacteria can be killed with in 5
minutes contact period by adding Iodine and Bromine in water but their quantity
should not exceed 8ppm. These disinfectants are easily available in the form of pills
and also handy. Due to the high cost, they are not used in water works of public water
supplies but they are used in individual dwellings.
g) By using chlorine: - when chlorine is added to water it produces nascent oxygen
which kills the bacteria. This method is cheap and most reliable. Therefore, in the
case of Holeta water supply system this method of disinfection is selected.
For our treatment process, chlorine, compounds (hypochlorite) are used as disinfectant
because they are universally accepted. This is for the reasons that:-
 Quick and effective at killing micro-organisms
 Readily soluble at the concentration needed for disinfection
 Tasteless and odorless at the concentration required
 Non-toxic to human life at the concentration required

109
  Easy to handle, transport and apply
 Easy to detect and concentration easy to measure
 Capable of providing protection against later contamination.

10.2.2.1 Disinfection by Chlorination

When chlorine is added to water, it produces nascent oxygen which kills the bacteria .The
method is cheap and most reliable .
The following are the types of chlorination depending up on the amount of chlorine added or
the stage of treatment or the result of chlorination.
i. Plain Chlorination:- The plain chlorination is the process of chlorination in plain or
raw water in the tanks or reservoirs By this method bacteria is removed from water
and the growth or algae is controlled. This method also helps in removing color and
organic matter from water. The amount of chlorine required is 0.5 ppm.
ii. Pre chlorination: - when chlorine is added to raw water before any treatment i.e.
before sedimentations this type of chlorination is known as pre-chlorination .The dose
of chlorine applied should be such that at least 0.2 to 0.5 ppm of residual chlorine
comes to the filter plant. Pre-chlorination improves coagulation reducing the amount
of coagulants and reduce the lead on filters there by increasing their efficiency.
iii. Post chlorination: - The addition of chlorine after all the treatment being applied to
water is called post chlorination. This is done before the water enters the distribution
system. The amount of chlorine added should be such that residual chlorine of about
0.22pm appears in water after a contact period of 20minutes.
iv. Double chlorination:- If chlorine isadded to water at move than one point the process
is called double chlorination Both pre-chlorination and post chlorination are done
when the water contains large number of bacteria’s.
v. Supper Chlorination:-The amount of chlorine in excess of that necessary for
adequate bacterial purification of water. This is done under certain circumstances such
as epidemics of water born diseases. High dose of chlorine is added to water i.e. 2-3
ppm beyond break-point for safety of public. lt gives a strong odor and taste or
chlorine in the treated water which is later can be removed by dechlorination.
vi. Break-point chlorination:-The chlorine when added in water removes the bacteria
(disinfection) and oxidizes the organic matter .During disinfection the amount of
residual chlorine will be less in beginning but will increase gradually as the demand
for disinfection is satisfied. After this the oxidation of organic matter starts and

110
 chlorine again used and water contain less and less amount of residual chlorine as the
process is continued. When this demand of chlorine is satisfied the amount of residual
chlorine again increases. The stage at which both these demands are satisfied and
residual chlorine tends to increase is known as break-point. Any further dose of
chlorine applied will reappear as free chlorine. Application of chlorine up to the
break-point is known as break-point chlorination.
vii. Dechlorination:-The process of partial or complete reduction of residual chlorine in
water by chemical or physical treatment of residual is known as dechlorination. In this
method some chemicals are added for the purpose of reducing the chlorine residual to
a desired value in water.
viii. Chlorine demand: - chlorine demand is defined as the difference between the
amount of chlorine added to water and the amount of chlorine (free available, and
combined available) remaining at the end of a specified contact period.
The chlorine demand for a sample of water depends on:
a) Nature and concentration of chlorine consuming substances present in water
b) Time of contact
c) PH value of water
d) Temperature of water
e) Variable conditions in process of chlorination
 Dosing plant and schedule of chlorine

For sizing the container and dosing equipment, a dosing rate of 0.5 mg for post
l
chlorination is used and to be utilized for 24hr. The day tank which has sufficient capacity for
one day requirement is sized based average day demand using the formula presented below:
Ds = (Q*C2) / (a*106)
Vw = (Q*C2) / (a*S)
Vp = (Q* C2) (a*d*106)
Vs = Vw + Vp
q= 0.694* (Vw+Vp)

Where,
Ds = Mass of hypochlorite (Kg)

111
Q = Average day demand ( l )
day

C= Active chlorine Concentration immediately after application ( mg )

l
a= Active chlorine percentage (60-70%)
Vw= Volume of water required (l )

S = Solution concentration (900-11000( mg )

l
Vs = Volume of solution (l )

Vp= Volume of calcium hypochlorite (l )

d =Density of calcium hypochlorite (0.9 Kg )

l

q = Dosing rate ( ml )
min
Table 41: Dosing rate and chlorination schedule
flow rate C D Ds Q
year a s(mg/l) Vw(l) Vp(l) Vs(l)
(l/d) (mg/l) (Kg/l) (Kg) (ml/min)

2016 1283560 0.5 0.6 0.9 11000 1.070 97.239 1.189 98.428 68.309

2021 1364104 0.5 0.6 0.9 11000 1.137 103.341 1.263 104.604 72.595

2026 1444725 0.5 0.6 0.9 11000 1.204 109.449 1.338 110.787 76.886

2031 1525269 0.5 0.6 0.9 11000 1.271 115.551 1.412 116.963 81.172

2036 1605890 0.5 0.6 0.9 11000 1.338 121.658 1.487 123.145 85.463

2041 1705989 0.5 0.6 0.9 11000 1.422 129.242 1.580 130.821 90.790

112
11 COST ESTIMATION AND ANALYSIS

The water supply project is a public project and needs economic analysis in addition to
financial analysis. The evaluation of the project involves analysis of capital out lays in terms
initial investment cost, operation, maintenance cost and running cost.
Having completed the design of a given feasible project total investment cost must be
estimated for financing purpose. The estimation should consider reliable cost data. However,
in this case there is no available data for estimation. Therefore, the cost of the project is
estimated roughly

11.1 Cost estimation for 1150 m3service reservoir

For wall
Total volume of wall
Volume = perimeter*height*thickness
= 2 r*5.1*250*10-3 = 74.065 m3
Hoop reinforcement
Area of Ф16 mm ring bars
∗
= = = 201.1 mm2

Number of bar used = 20

Total area of reinforcement in both side = 2*20*201.1 mm2
=8044 mm2
Volume = 8044 mm2*12m*10-6
=0.096528m3
Length of bar =volume/area of bar=0.096528/201.1*10-6=480m
. ∗ . ∗
Weight in kilogram= *length= *480=757.92kg

Vertical reinforcement
For Inner face reinforcement
Area of Ф14 mm bar
∗
= = = 153.93mm2

Number of bar per meter width = 8 bar

Total area =8*3.14*14*153.93 mm2
= 54134.1024mm2
Volume =54134.1024* m2*12m where the length of one bar is 12m

113
 =0.06495m3
Length of bar =volume/area of bar=0.06495/153.93*10-6=421.92m
. ∗ . ∗
Weight in kilogram= *length= *421.92=509.96kg

Outer face reinforcement

Area of Area of Ф12 mm bar
∗
= = = 113.1mm2

Number of bar per meter width = 5 bar

Total area = 5*3.14*12*113.1 mm2
= 21308.04 mm2
Volume = 21308.04 * m2*12m where the length of one bar is 12m
=0.25569m3
Length of bar =volume/area of bar=0.25569/113.1*10-6=2260.7m
. ∗ . ∗
Weight in kilogram= *length= *2260.7=2007.54kg

Volume of concrete = Total volume of wall slab- Volume of steel

=74.065 m3-(0.096528m3+0.25569m3+0.06495m3) =73.647882m3
For roof slab
Total volume of roof slab
Volume=area*thickness
∗
= ∗ =
∗ ∗ ∗
= ∗ = = 70.882 m3

Volume of reinforcement
Area of Ф10 mm bar
∗
= = = 78.5398 mm2

At centre of roof slab

Total area of steel bar=no of bar*diameter of roof slab*area of one Ф12 mm bar
=38*14.4*78.5398mm2=56705.7474mm2
Total area at bottom and top reinforcement = . m ∗
= . mm in mesh
Volume for 12m long bar = 12m* . *10-6 m2= 2.722 m3
Length of bar =volume/area of bar=2.722 m3/78.5398mm2*10-6=34656m

114
 . ∗ . ∗
Weight in kilogram = *length= *34656=21371.204kg

At edge of roof slab

Total area of steel bar=no of bar*one meter width of roof slab including wall thickness*area
of one Ф12 mm ring bar
=22*1m*113.1mm =2488.2mm3
Total area at bottom and top reinforcement = . mm ∗ = . mm
Volume for 12m long bar = 12m* . mm *10 m= 0.0597168 m
-6 3

Length of bar =volume/area of bar=0.0597168 m3/113.1mm2*10-6=528m

. ∗ . ∗
Weight in kilogram = *length= *528=468.864kg

Total volume of reinforcement at roof slab= vc + ve = . m + . m

= . m
Volume of concrete = total volume – total volume of reinforcement
= . m − . m = . m
For base slab
Total volume of base slab
Volume=area*thickness
∗
= ∗ =

∗ ∗ ∗
= ∗ = = 46.18 m3

Volume of reinforcement
Area of Ф20mm bar
∗
= = = 314.159mm2

At centre of base slab

Total area of steel bar
= no of bar per width ∗ diameter of base slab ∗ area of one Ф mm bar
= ∗ ∗ . mm = , mm
Total area at bottom and top reinforcement = , mm ∗
= . mm in mesh
Volume for m long bar = m∗ . ∗ ^− m = . m
Length of bar =volume/area of bar= . m /314.159*10-6=12768.056m
. ∗ . ∗
Weight in kilogram = *length= *528=31494.4kg

115
In circumferential direction (ring bars)
Total area of ring bars
= no of bar ∗ . m inside and outside from center of wall
∗ area of one Ф mm bar
= ∗ . ∗ . mm = . mm
Total area at bottom and top of ring reinforcement = . mm ∗
= . mm in ring
Volume for m long bar = m∗ . ∗ − m = . m
Length of bar =volume/area of bar= . m /314.159mm2*10-6=91.4922m
. ∗ . ∗
Weight in kilogram = *length= *91.4922m =225.68kg

At edge of base slab

Total area of radial bar
= no of bar ∗ . m inside and outside from center of wall ∗ area of one Ф mm ba
= ∗ . ∗ . mm = . mm
Total area at bottom and top of ring reinforcement = . mm ∗
= . mm in ring
Volume for m long bar = m∗ . mm ∗ − m = . m
Length of bar =volume/area of bar= . m /314.159mm2*10-6=36.00m
. ∗ . ∗
Weight in kilogram = *length= *91.4922m =88.802kg

Total Volume of steel = Vc + Ve = . m + . + . m

= . m
Volume of concrete = Total volume of base slab- Volume of steel
= . m − . m = . m
For phase − : Total volume of concrete = vwc + vrc + vbc
= . + . + . = . m
11.2 Cost estimation for 550 m3 service reservoir
For wall
Total volume of wall
Volume = perimeter*height*thickness
= 2 r*5.1*250*10-3 = 74.065 m3
Hoop reinforcement
Area of Ф16 mm ring bars

116
 ∗
= = = 201.1 mm2

Number of bar used = 10

Total area of reinforcement in both side = 2*10*201.1 mm2
=4022 mm2
Volume = 4022 mm2*12m*10-6
=0.048264m3
Length of bar =volume/area of bar=0.048264m3/201.1*10-6=240m
. ∗ . ∗
Weight in kilogram= *length= *240=375.46kg

Vertical reinforcement
For Inner face reinforcement
Area of Ф12 mm bar
∗
= = = 113.1mm2

Number of bar per meter width = 5 bar

Total area =5*3.14*12*113.1mm2
= 21308.04mm2
Volume =21308.04* m2*12m where the length of one bar is 12m
=0.25569m3
Length of bar =volume/area of bar=0.25569/113.1*10-6=2260.8m
. ∗ . ∗
Weight in kilogram= *length= *2260.8=2007.6kg

Outer face reinforcement

Area of Area of Ф12 mm bar
∗
= = = 113.1mm2

Number of bar per meter width =6 bar

Total area = 6*3.14*12*113.1 mm2
= 25569.6 mm2
Volume = 25569.6 * m2*12m where the length of one bar is 12m
=0.3068m3
Length of bar =volume/area of bar=0.3068/113.1*10-6=2712.96m
. ∗ . ∗
Weight in kilogram= *length= *2712.96=4082.1005kg

Volume of concrete =74.065 m3-(0.3068m3+0.25569m3+0.048264m3) =73.459m3

117
For roof slab
Total volume of roof slab
Volume=area*thickness
∗
= ∗ =

∗ . ∗ ∗
= ∗ = = 32.55 m3
∗
Area of Area of Ф12 mm bar = = = 113.1mm2

At centre of roof slab

Total area of steel bar=no of bar*diameter of roof slab*area of one Ф12 mm bar
=35*14.4*113.1mm2=57002.4mm2
Total area at bottom and top reinforcement = . mm ∗
= . mm in mesh
Volume for 12m long bar = 12m* . *10-6 m2= 2.736 m3
Length of bar =volume/area of bar=2.736 m3/113.1*10-6=24192m
. ∗ . ∗
Weight in kilogram = *length= *24192 =14918.4kg

At edge of roof slab

Total area of steel bar=no of bar*one meter width of roof slab including wall thickness*area
of one Ф12 mm ring bar.
=14*1m*113.1mm =1583.4mm3
Total area at bottom and top reinforcement =1583.4mm3∗ = . mm
Volume for 12m long bar = 12m* . mm *10-6 m= 0.038 m3
Length of bar =volume/area of bar=0.038m3/113.1mm2*10-6=336m
. ∗ . ∗
Weight in kilogram = *length= *336=298.36kg

Total volume of reinforcement at roof slab= vc + ve = . m + . m m

= . m
Volume of concrete = total volume – total volume of reinforcement
= . m − . m = . m
For base slab
Total volume of base slab
Volume=area*thickness
∗
= ∗ =

118
 ∗ ∗ ∗
= ∗ = = 46.18 m3

Volume of reinforcement
Area of Ф18mm bar
∗
= = = 254.34mm2

At centre of base slab

Total area of steel bar
= no of bar per width ∗ diameter of base slab ∗ area of one Ф mm bar
= ∗ . ∗ . = . mm
Total area at bottom and top reinforcement = . mm ∗
= . mm in mesh
Volume for m long bar = m∗ . ∗ ^− m = . m
Length of bar =volume/area of bar= . m / . *10-6=9676.8m
. ∗ . ∗
Weight in kilogram = *length= *9676.8=19334.2675kg

In circumferential direction (ring bars)

Total area of ring bars
= no of bar ∗ . m inside and outside from center of wall
∗ area of one Ф mm bar
= ∗ . ∗ . = . mm
Total area at bottom and top of ring reinforcement = . mm ∗
= . mm in ring
Volume for m long bar = m∗ . ∗ ^− m = . m
Length of bar =volume/area of bar= . m / . 2 -6
mm *10 =36m
. ∗ . ∗
Weight in kilogram = *length= *36m =71.928kg

At edge of base slab

Total area of Ф mm radial bar
= no of bar ∗ . m inside and outside from center of wall ∗ area of one Ф mm ba
= ∗ . ∗ . mm = . mm
Total area at bottom and top of ring reinforcement = . mm ∗
= . mm in ring
Volume for m long bar = m∗ . mm ∗ ^− m = . m
Length of bar =volume/area of bar= . m / . mm2*10-6=264.00m

119
 . ∗ . ∗
Weight in kilogram = *length= *264m =527.47kg

Total Volume of steel = Vc + Ve = . m

Volume of concrete = Total volume of base slab- Volume of steel
= . m − . m = . m
For phase-ΙΙ: Total volume of concrete V = vwc + vrc + vbc
= . + . + . = . m
Total volume of concrete=V1+V2= . m + . m =304.7825m
Total volume of concrete in dry volume=Vt*1.5=457.1738m3
Therefore the concrete mix for C-30 is (1:1.5:3)
Assume fresh concrete is 1m3and quantity of dry volume = 1.5*1m3=1.5m3
Table 42:Concrete mix ratio for C-30
No Description Qty Remark
1 Cement=1/5.5*1.5=0.273m3 0.273m3
2 Sand=1.5/5*1.5=0.409m3 0.409m3
3 Aggregate=3/5.5*1.5=0.818m3 0.818m3
Density of cement is 3150kg/m3, Density of sand is 1840kg/m3 and Density of aggregate is 2250kg/m3
Calculate unit rate analysis for concrete
Cement = ρc*Vc = 3150*0.273m3=859.95kg or 8.5995Quintal
So for 457.1738m3 concrete we need 1440.0975Quintal
Sand =Vt*Vs. = (457.1738m3*0.409m3)/1.5= 124.6561m3
Aggregate =Vt*Va = (457.1738m3*0.818m3)/1.5=249.3121m3
So for 304.7825m of freshconcrete we need dry quantity of 457.1738m3.
Calculate Unit Rate Analysis For Bar (Steel)
Density of steel is ranges between 7750kg/m3-8500kg/m3depeds upon allowable constraint.
So we use 7750kg/m3 for our calculation.
Table 43: Analysis of reinforcement bar consumption
Diameter(mm) Length(m) Mass (kg) Volume(m3)
Ф10 58848 36289.604 5.458
Ф12 8098.36 8864.504 0.912897
Ф14 421.92 509.96 0.0649
Ф16 720 1133.38 0.14478
Ф18 9976.8 19933.6655 2.537492
Ф20 12895.5482 31808.882 4.051243

120
12 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESMENT (EIA)

12.1 Introduction

EIA is a process to improve decision –making and to ensure that the project or program
option under consideration is environmentally sound. The EIA is concerned with identifying,
predicting and evaluating the fore seeable environmental effects, alternatives and mitigating
measures aiming at minimizing the adverse effects and maximizing the benefits obtained
because of the project.
An EIA, in our case is concerned with impacts of water recourses development projects on
the environment and with the sustainability of the projects themselves. Clearly, an EIA will
not resolve all problems. There will be trade–offs between economic development and
environmental protection as in all development activities. However, without consideration of
basic concepts of EIA, the project will not be effective and economical as well as informed
decision-making would be impossible.

12.2 Description of the potential impacts

An impact can be defined as any change in the physical, chemical, biological and socio-
economic environmental system, which can be attributed to human activities relative to
alternatives under study for meeting a project need. EIA cover both positive and negative
impacts of the project and mitigation measures for the adverse effects.

12.2.1 Positive impact of the project

The significance of the Holeta town water supply project is mainly of socio –economic.
Some, which are;
 Assuring an adequate supply of water in quality as well as quantity for the population.
 Time and energy saving in fetching of drinking water
 Improvements of life standard and water supply situation
 Control of fire damage
 The construction of the proposed water supply project will provide employment for a
significant number of local skilled and unskilled workers.
 Generally, it supports the town development like establishment of different
institutions, industries, health centers etc.

12.2.2 Negative Impacts of the project

The impacts are generally categorized in to two and these are;

121
 I. Impacts during construction period or short term impact and
II. Long term impact
I. Short term impact
It is an impact that occurs during construction period of the project. Some of the short-term
impacts are;
 Interruption of the existing water supply system
 Soil erosion from trench excavation(for pipe line)
 Air pollution during the construction activity
 Traffic movement is affected Spillage of chemical
 The pipes used for transmission and distribution can bring health hazards if
they are supposed to corrode
 Access road change during construction especially in bore whole site.
 Sound pollution during well drilling
II. Long term impact
The impacts that has long lasting effects and may even bring irreversible environmental
changes may include:
 Displacement of individual living near reservoir
 Pollution due to disposal of used oil during operation to natural water source.
 Deforestation for the construction of structures

12.2.3 Mitigation measures

For the negative impacts mentioned above, mitigation measures have to be applied before or
during the commencement of the project as much as possible.
 During the excavation of trench for the new pipelines, the existing water supply will
be interrupted. This can be avoided by excavation of the trench part by part
 During digging of trenches the disordered to should be prevented and restored and
adequate precaution should be taken to prevent soil erosion.
 Because dust air that occur during construction, air pollution may be happen and this
impact avoids by spraying water along the construction area.
 This happens when pipe trenches are excavated and minimized this by providing
alternative routes until construction is completed.
 For the impacts of spillages. There should be a waste management plan. Accordingly,
these waste materials could be removed through reaching, incarnating and disposing
safely.

122
 The impact with related to pipe materials can be overcome or minimized by selecting
appropriate pipe materials.

123
13 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

13.1 Conclusion

The existing water supply system of Holeta town is not sufficient. Due to this reason and the
alarmingly increasing population of the town, it is necessary to design and construct a new
water supply scheme.
The project is designed for design period of 25 year for two phases. The first phase covers
from
2016 to 2031 and, the second phase covers from 2031 to 2041.The method of CSA
population forecasting is selected with inadequate data of central statically authority.
Selection of potential water sources are made to determine which sources should satisfy the
respective quantity and quality of the demand though our design period. Ground water is
selected as a potential water source because of its adequacy and closeness to the town.
The quality of water source at the borehole found to be potable without treatment. Thus,
chlorination is provided to avoid contamination of water through transmission line and
distribution network.
Finally this project improve the health of community by reducing water transmission
diseases, save waste of time, supply adequate water to town and reduces shortage of water.

124
13.2 Recommendation

We observed that Holeta town is a city with high potential for growth. The city obviously
needs well equipped distribution system, pollution free storage structure and consistent flow
potable water. This needs commitment, hard work and dedication. We, as a team would like
to recommend the following points to be understood and taken in to consideration for all
decision makers, practitioners, client, designers and other stakeholders for further
implementation.
 The existing distribution system and the entire system should be modified by the
design in this paper for the design period horizon of the paper so as to answer the
demand of the community in the city and within the vicinity.
 Chlorine dosage specified in this paper is more reliable which is calculated using the
given data from the feasibility report. For further use chlorine dosage by jar test should
be applied for more accuracy.
 For sustainable water use other perennial sources should be considered
 Fair and wise compensation should be given to those who lose their land due to the
implementation of this project.
 It is also recommended that prior to the end of the Stage I design horizon, and prior to
implementation of Stage II that population, town growth and the associated water
demands are reassessed against the estimates contained in this report and that detailed
design and implementation of Stage II is adjusted accordingly.

125
REFERENCES

1. Feasibility study of Holeta town water supply & sanitation project,2007

2. B.C. Punmia, Ashock, Jaine and Arun Jain, Environmental Engineering I, Water Supply
Engineering
3. BSN Raju Water Supply Waste Water Engineering
4. Holeta Town Education office, 2007
5. Ray, K.Linsley, Water Resources Engineering 3rd edition
6. Twort, law and Crowley, 1985 water supply 3rd edition
7. Water supply and sanitation engineering. DL Gupta and Bharat single, 4th edition.
8. Water Supply and Sanitation, ENE 301
9. Water supply and sanitation engineering. G.s Biridie, 1989
10. WHO, 2009
11. Twort, law and Crowley, 1985 water supply 3rd edition
12. A.K.Jain. (1989). Reinforced concrete design
13. IS 3370-4 (1967): Code of practice for concrete structures for the storage of liquids, Part
ΙV: Design tables [CED 2: Cement and Concrete].
14. Mekonnen AShenafi; Assessment Of Urban Water Supply And Consumption In Asayta
Town ,Awsiressu Zone, Afar National Regional State, Ethiopia
15. Assefa Delesho; Urban Water Supply, The Case Of Assosa Town, addis ababa university
16. Tegegene G. Egziabher and Van Dijk Mein Pieter (ed), (2004): Issues and Challenges in
Local and Regional Development, Rural Urban Linkages, and Inequalities in Developing
Countries.
17. Ministry of Water Resources (MWR) (2002): Water Sector Development Prgoramme
2002-2016, Water Supply and Sanitation Programme, 2002.
18. Dessalegn Rahmato (1999): Water Resources Development in Ethiopia: Issue of
Sustainability and Participation, Forum for Social Studies (FSS), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
19. Twort’s Water Supply Seventh Edition

126
ANNEXES
Annex A. Epanet Analysis Report

Network Table - Nodes at 8:00 Hrs.

Base
Elevation Deman Pressure
Node ID X-Cord Y-Cord Demand Head m
m d LPS m
LPS
J1 1002452 443573 2425 1.5929 2.39 2449.52 24.52
J2 1002315 443785 2417 1.39 2.09 2446.75 29.75
J3 1002447 443918 2421 1.331 2 2444.86 23.86
J4 1002443 444041 2421 0.7554 1.13 2443.75 22.75
J5 1002462 444335 2410 1.8801 2.82 2439.86 29.86
J6 1002732 444342 2415 0.5107 0.77 2439.85 24.85
J7 1002872 444346 2418 1.0308 1.55 2439.92 21.92
J8 1002183 444321 2400 2.3182 3.48 2437.79 37.79
J9 1002071 444315 2415 0.6618 0.99 2437.03 22.03
J10 1002323 444123 2420 0.6218 0.93 2440.51 20.51
J11 1002294 444083 2418 1.2834 1.93 2438.39 20.39
J12 1002811 444077 2422 2.648 3.97 2444.36 22.36
J13 1003103 444089 2420 1.9345 2.9 2441.43 21.43
J14 1003059 444357 2420 2.0194 3.03 2439.82 19.82
J15 1003132 443835 2420 3.6566 5.48 2441.6 21.6
J16 1002752 443790 2420 3.7657 5.65 2447.68 27.68
J17 1002664 443553 2422 1.2399 1.86 2447.94 25.94
J18 1003344 444118 2415 1.715 2.57 2440.23 25.23
J19 1003271 444350 2415 1.5471 2.32 2439.83 24.83
J20 1002940 444545 2410 1.3015 1.95 2438.86 28.86
J21 1002714 444539 2408 1.7451 2.62 2437.96 29.96
J22 1002692 444825 2415 0.8701 1.31 2437.94 22.94
J23 1002825 444878 2415 1.465 2.2 2438.05 23.05
J24 1002684 444889 2419 1.2702 1.91 2437.79 18.79
J25 1002394 444518 2410 1.5113 2.27 2437.16 27.16
J26 1002366 444605 2410 2.4849 3.73 2437.2 27.2

127
J27 1002297 444727 2410 1.4068 2.11 2437.15 27.15
J28 1002047 444314 2380 0.5883 0.88 2436.87 56.87
J29 1002188 444631 2376 0.9295 1.39 2436.68 60.68
J30 1002174 444114 2380 0.8576 1.29 2435.75 55.75
J31 1002356 443920 2373 0.7962 1.19 2432.35 59.35
J32 1002136 444060 2376 1.7054 2.56 2435.61 59.61
J33 1001998 444200 2380 1.6695 2.5 2435.81 55.81
J34 1001980 444319 2373 0.7615 1.14 2436.58 63.58
J35 1001997 444470 2371 0.5258 0.79 2436.27 65.27
J36 1002099 444628 2375 0.5404 0.81 2436.52 61.52
J37 1002037 444637 2374 1.1307 1.7 2436.44 62.44
J38 1002038 444774 2376 1.1827 1.77 2436.35 60.35
J39 1002048 444912 2375 1.0644 1.6 2436.33 61.33
J40 1001740 444938 2373 1.1659 1.75 2434.09 61.09
J41 1001730 444785 2375 1.0775 1.62 2434.08 59.08
J42 1001731 444642 2372 1.0887 1.63 2434.5 62.5
J43 1001721 444481 2374 1.0229 1.53 2434.51 60.51
J44 1001711 444328 2379 1.1999 1.8 2433.19 54.19
J45 1001465 444338 2376 1.8335 2.75 2430.58 54.58
J46 1001662 444788 2375 1.7041 2.56 2433.84 58.84
J47 1001704 444159 2380 1.7341 2.6 2430.18 50.18
J48 1001690 443893 2375 2.5683 3.85 2422.18 47.18
J49 1002002 443970 2390 1.425 2.14 2413.83 23.83
J50 1002161 443703 2375 1.3 1.95 2411.21 36.21
J51 1002010 443541 2380 1.564 2.35 2401.38 21.38
J52 1001636 443655 2385 2.9487 4.42 2406.99 21.99
J53 1001943 443773 2380 1.479 2.22 2402.01 22.01
J54 1001873 443919 2390 1.2272 1.84 2411.16 21.16
J55 1001817 443594 2380 2.5264 3.79 2401.88 21.88
J56 1002097 443112 2375 1.1457 1.72 2398.86 23.86
J57 1001704 443212 2370 1.1173 1.68 2399.11 29.11
J58 1001483 443316 2374 1.3495 2.02 2406.22 32.22

128
J59 1001592 443502 2378 1.9744 2.96 2406.88 28.87
J60 1001776 443442 2380 2.0302 3.05 2403.82 23.82
J61 1001456 443708 2387 2.0859 3.13 2420.16 33.16
J62 1001475 443876 2373 1.7646 2.65 2422.35 49.35
J63 1001483 444145 2380 3.3577 5.04 2426.05 46.05
J64 1001245 444101 2375 2.909 4.36 2425.91 50.91
J65 1001256 443865 2389 0.7719 1.16 2422.81 33.81
J66 1001258 443678 2382 0.9101 1.37 2417.84 35.84
J67 1001078 443686 2385 1.5488 2.32 2422.4 37.4
J68 1001089 443867 2389 1.2136 1.82 2424.48 35.48
J69 1001014 443872 2385 1.258 1.89 2426.7 41.7
J70 1001023 444107 2375 0.884 1.33 2426.84 51.84
J71 1001267 444337 2375 1.0162 1.52 2428.94 53.94
J72 1001036 444340 2375 0.9428 1.41 2427.8 52.8
J73 1000937 444363 2375 1.7655 2.65 2427.6 52.6
J74 1000856 444117 2375 0.882 1.32 2426.48 51.48
J75 1000852 443867 2384 0.9379 1.41 2425.83 41.83
J76 1000815 443737 2384 0.8351 1.25 2425.74 41.74
J77 1000737 443880 2389 1.6943 2.54 2426.35 37.35
J78 1001903 443138 2369 1.6279 2.44 2398.96 29.96
J79 1001935 443397 2376 1.4806 2.22 2400.36 24.36
J80 1002017 443378 2370 0.7971 1.2 2400.29 30.29
J81 1002221 443717 2420 1.04 1.56 2445.17 25.17
J82 1002337 443607 2435 1.75 2.63 2446 11
J83 1002416 443529 2425 0.6053 0.91 2447.68 22.68
J84 1002345 443396 2424 1 1.5 2445.14 21.14
J85 1002192 443411 2430 0.6251 0.94 2443.17 13.17
J86 1002042 443389 2430 1.0465 1.57 2443.22 13.22
J87 1002237 443540 2420 1 1.5 2443.57 23.57
J88 1002112 443625 2410 1.474 2.21 2443.7 33.7
J89 1002555 443736 2425 2.3549 3.53 2448.2 23.2
R1 1002498 443479 2359 #N/A -35.75 2359 0

129
Tank1 1000768 444771 2441 #N/A -157.41 2450.47 2.5

Network Table - Links at 8:00 Hrs

Unit
Link Start End Length Diameter Flow Velocity Head
Roughness
ID Node Node m mm LPS m/s loss
m/km
P1 R1 J1 106.1 350 140 193.16 1.95 8.95
P2 J1 J2 251.2 300 140 144.28 1.94 11.04
P3 J2 J3 187.4 300 140 137.2 1.94 10.06
P4 J3 J4 123.1 300 140 129.48 1.83 9.04
P5 J4 J10 242.5 80 140 4.94 0.98 13.34
P6 J10 J8 242.5 50 140 1.31 0.67 11.25
P7 J8 J9 112.2 300 140 110.5 1.56 6.74
P8 J4 J5 469.9 300 140 123.41 1.75 8.27
P9 J9 J27 469.9 80 140 -0.59 0.32 0.26
P10 J27 J24 419.5 80 140 -1.53 0.3 1.52
P11 J5 J25 195.2 50 140 1.46 0.75 13.85
P12 J25 J26 91.39 50 140 -0.22 0.31 0.42
P13 J26 J27 140.2 100 140 1.18 0.35 0.31
P14 J26 J22 64.5 50 140 -1.32 0.67 11.47
P15 J22 J24 64.5 100 140 3.43 0.44 2.29
P16 J22 J23 320.7 100 140 -1.25 0.36 0.35
P17 J25 J21 320.7 50 140 -0.58 0.3 2.49
P18 J5 J6 197.8 180 140 2.65 0.41 0.08
P19 J6 J21 286.8 80 140 3.37 0.67 6.58
P20 J21 J22 140.1 200 140 4.81 0.35 0.15
P21 J6 J7 140.1 100 140 -1.49 0.29 0.49
P22 J7 J20 210.3 100 140 5.23 0.67 5
P23 J21 J20 226.1 100 140 -4.64 0.59 4
P24 J20 J23 352.3 100 140 3.44 0.44 2.31
P25 J7 J14 187.3 100 140 1.56 0.28 0.53
P26 J20 J14 222.5 100 140 -4.81 0.61 4.28

130
P27 J14 J19 212.1 100 140 -0.53 0.37 0.07
P28 J19 J18 243.2 100 140 -2.85 0.36 1.63
P29 J18 J13 242.7 80 140 -2.89 0.58 4.95
P30 J14 J13 271.6 100 140 -5.74 0.73 5.94
P31 J7 J12 275.8 100 140 -9.83 1.25 16.1
P32 J12 J13 292.3 110 140 9.78 1.03 10.02
P33 J18 J15 353.6 80 140 -2.53 0.5 3.87
P34 J15 J16 382.7 100 140 -9.77 1.24 15.91
P35 J13 J15 255.7 100 140 -1.75 0.22 0.66
P36 J16 J12 293 100 140 8.14 1.04 11.35
P37 J16 J17 252.8 80 140 -1.24 0.25 1.03
P38 J16 J89 204.3 200 140 -22.32 0.71 2.51
P39 J17 J89 213 110 140 -3.1 0.33 1.19
P40 J3 J12 397.2 200 140 15.44 0.49 1.27
P41 J89 J3 211.6 100 140 9.72 1.24 15.76
P42 J8 J5 279.4 300 140 -116.48 1.65 7.43
P43 J10 J11 49.41 50 140 2.7 1.37 42.93
P44 J11 J9 321.8 50 140 0.77 0.39 4.23
P45 J8 J26 337.9 110 140 3.8 0.4 1.74
P46 J9 J28 24.02 300 140 110.88 1.57 6.78
P47 J28 J29 89.05 200 140 20.27 0.65 2.1
P48 J29 J36 89.05 200 140 18.88 0.6 1.84
P49 J36 J35 188.1 100 140 2.57 0.33 1.34
P50 J36 J37 62.65 200 140 15.5 0.49 1.28
P51 J37 J38 137 200 140 10.5 0.33 0.62
P52 J38 J39 138.4 200 140 5.15 0.16 0.17
P53 J39 J40 309.1 80 140 3.55 0.71 7.23
P54 J38 J41 308.2 80 140 3.58 0.71 7.36
P55 J37 J42 306 80 140 3.3 0.66 6.33
P56 J35 J43 276.2 100 140 5.95 0.76 6.35
P57 J28 J34 67.19 300 140 86.61 1.23 4.29
P58 J34 J44 269.2 200 140 53.35 1.7 12.61

131
P59 J34 J35 152 110 140 4.17 0.44 2.07
P60 J44 J43 153.3 80 140 -3.91 0.78 8.65
P61 J43 J42 161.3 100 140 0.51 0.06 0.07
P62 J42 J41 143 80 140 2.17 0.43 2.92
P63 J41 J40 153.3 80 140 -0.27 0.25 0.06
P64 J41 J46 68.07 100 140 4.41 0.56 3.65
P65 J40 J46 169.1 80 140 1.53 0.3 1.52
P66 J46 J45 491.2 80 140 3.39 0.67 6.63
P67 J44 J45 246.2 200 140 48.53 1.54 10.58
P68 J45 J71 198 200 140 42.46 1.35 8.26
P69 J71 J72 231 200 140 32.25 1.03 4.97
P70 J72 J73 259 180 140 8.79 0.35 0.75
P71 J73 J74 265.2 110 140 6.14 0.65 4.24
P72 J74 J77 265.2 200 140 9.09 0.29 0.48
P73 J72 J70 233.4 180 140 22.05 0.87 4.1
P74 J71 J64 237 100 140 8.69 1.11 12.79
P75 J45 J63 193.2 80 140 6.7 1.33 23.47
P76 J44 J47 120.4 80 140 6.93 1.38 24.97
P77 J34 J33 120.4 180 140 27.94 1.1 6.36
P78 J28 J30 196.6 80 140 3.12 0.62 5.69
P79 J33 J32 196.6 180 140 10.5 0.41 1.04
P80 J30 J32 66.03 80 140 1.83 0.36 2.12
P81 J33 J47 161.4 100 140 14.93 1.9 34.9
P82 J32 J49 161.4 50 140 5.01 1.55 134.93
P83 J32 J31 260.8 80 140 4.77 0.95 12.51
P84 J31 J50 291.7 50 140 3.58 1.82 72.44
P85 J50 J49 310.8 50 140 -1.12 0.57 8.42
P86 J49 J54 138.7 50 140 1.75 0.89 19.24
P87 J54 J48 184.8 50 140 -3.22 1.64 59.63
P88 J47 J48 221.4 80 140 8.46 1.68 36.11
P89 J47 J63 215.7 100 140 10.8 1.38 19.17
P90 J48 J62 215.7 100 140 -1.91 0.24 0.78

132
P91 J63 J62 269.7 110 140 11.58 1.22 13.7
P92 J62 J65 219.3 110 140 -4.21 0.44 2.1
P93 J63 J64 241.4 80 140 0.89 0.28 0.56
P94 J64 J65 236.3 110 140 11.31 1.29 13.12
P95 J64 J70 222.1 110 140 6.1 0.64 4.18
P96 J70 J74 167.3 110 140 4.26 0.45 2.15
P97 J70 J69 235.2 200 140 10.35 0.33 0.61
P98 J77 J75 115.7 50 140 0.8 0.41 4.54
P99 J77 J76 162.9 110 140 5.74 0.36 3.74
P100 J75 J76 135.2 50 140 0.27 0.34 0.62
P101 J75 J69 162.1 50 140 -0.88 0.45 5.37
P102 J76 J67 267.9 80 140 4.76 0.95 12.47
P103 J67 J68 181.3 80 140 -4.54 0.29 11.43
P104 J68 J69 75.17 80 140 -7.59 1.51 29.56
P105 J65 J68 167 50 140 -1.23 0.62 9.96
P106 J65 J66 187 80 140 7.17 1.43 26.6
P107 J66 J67 180.2 80 140 -6.98 1.39 25.34
P108 J62 J61 169.1 110 140 11.23 1.18 12.94
P109 J61 J66 200.3 80 140 4.58 0.91 11.61
P110 J48 J52 244.1 50 140 3.3 1.68 62.25
P111 J61 J52 187.6 50 140 3.52 1.79 70.19
P112 J54 J53 161.9 50 140 3.13 1.59 56.51
P113 J50 J51 221.5 50 140 2.75 1.4 44.41
P114 J53 J55 218.9 80 140 0.91 0.18 0.58
P115 J51 J55 200.1 50 140 -0.58 0.3 2.53
P116 J55 J52 191 50 140 -2.09 1.06 26.75
P117 J55 J60 157.4 50 140 -1.37 0.7 12.32
P118 J51 J80 163.2 50 140 0.99 0.5 6.65
P119 J80 J79 84.17 80 140 -1.07 0.31 0.78
P120 J79 J60 165.3 80 140 -6.31 1.25 20.97
P121 J79 J78 261 80 140 3.02 0.6 5.35
P122 J80 J56 277.8 50 140 0.86 0.44 5.16

133
P123 J56 J78 195.7 80 140 -0.86 0.17 0.52
P124 J78 J57 212.3 50 140 -0.29 0.15 0.67
P125 J60 J57 241 50 140 1.77 0.29 19.58
P126 J60 J59 193.5 110 140 -12.49 1.31 15.76
P127 J52 J59 159.2 50 140 0.3 0.15 0.74
P128 J59 J58 215.6 80 140 2.22 0.44 3.03
P129 J57 J58 244.3 20 140 -0.2 0.63 29.13
P130 J59 J66 377.5 110 140 -17.37 1.83 29.04
P131 J2 J81 116 80 140 4.99 0.99 13.6
P132 J1 J89 190.7 200 140 38.67 1.23 6.95
P133 J1 J83 58.96 80 140 7.82 1.56 31.23
P134 J83 J82 111 80 140 5.29 1.05 15.12
P135 J82 J81 159.9 50 140 0.86 0.44 5.21
P136 J83 J84 150.8 50 140 1.63 0.83 16.82
P137 J84 J85 153.7 20 140 0.13 0.26 12.83
P138 J82 J87 120.4 50 140 1.8 0.92 20.23
P139 J87 J85 136.6 50 140 0.63 0.32 2.88
P140 J85 J86 151.6 50 140 -0.18 0.29 0.3
P141 J81 J88 142.6 80 140 4.3 0.85 10.3
P142 J87 J88 151.2 50 140 -0.33 0.27 0.88
P143 J88 J86 246.2 80 140 1.75 0.35 1.96
PMP1 R1 Tank1 #N/A #N/A #N/A 35.75 0 -91.47

134
Annex B. Summary of Cost Estimation

Unit rate Total

S.N General Items Description Unit Qty
(Br) cost(ETB)
1 Earth work
1.1 Site clearing m2 625 50 31250
1.2 Trench Excavation
A 0.6mX0.9mX1m m3 16561 10 165610
B 0.6mX1mX1m m3 1236.6 12 14839.2
Sub Total 190449.2
Backfill with excavated native
1.3
soil, material
A 0.6mX0.9mX1m m3 16561 5 82805
B 0.6mX1mX1m m3 1236.6 6 7419.6
Sub Total 90224.6
2 Supplying of pipes
2.1 HDPE
A DN110 PN10 m 3278 79.8 261584.4
B DN100 PN10 m 5168 76.73 396540.6
C DN80 PN10 m 8508 57.6 490060.8
D DN50 PN10 m 6240 50.23 313435.2
E DN20 PN10 m 400 44.25 17700
Sub Total 1479321
2.2 UPVC
A DN100 PN10 m 365 32.5 11862.5
B DN180 PN10 m 5410.39 33.2 179624.9
C DN200 PN10 m 1205 33.4 40247
Sub Total 231734.4
2.3 DCI
A DN100 m 605.34 80.7 48850.94
B DN180 m 235.61 85.9 20238.9
C DN200 m 519.08 87.5 45419.5
Sub Total 114509.3

135
2.4 Cast Iron
DN100 m 135.64 60.5 8206.22
DN110 m 297.48 65.2 19395.696
Sub Total 27601.916
3 Fittings ,valves& installation works
A HDPE 608179.83
B UPVC 177539.745
C DCI 320953.54
D GS 115588.58
sub total 1222261.695
3.1 Surveying of pipeline km 505.44 340 171849.6
Total 3372467.821
4 Boreholes
4.1 Site surveying 50000
4.2 Mobilization of man power and materials 500000
4.3 Drilling up to finishing 1000000
4.4 Pumping test 72000
Total 7672000
5 Reservoirs
5.1 Earth workReservoirs 1
5.1.1 Site clearing to a depth of 30 cm m2 400 50 20000
Foundation excavation to depth not
5.1.2 m3 600 70 42000
greater 1.5m
5.2 Earth workReservoirs 2
5.2.1 Site clearing to a depth of 30 cm m2 225 50 11250
5.2.2 Foundation excavation to depth not
m3 337.5 70 23625
greater 1.5m
Total 96875
5.3 Concrete material
A cement Qntl 1440.1 250 3600024.375
B sand m3 124.656 281.25 35059.528
C aggregate m3 249.312 525 130888.8525

136
Sub total 3765972.756
5.4 Reinforcement bar
5.4.1 Bar Ø10 mm kg 36289.6 23 834660.892
5.4.2 Bar Ø12 mm kg 8864.504 23 203883.592
5.4.3 Bar Ø14 mm kg 509.96 23 11729.08
5.4.4 Bar Ø16 mm kg 1133.38 23 26067.74
5.4.5 Bar Ø18 mm kg 19933.67 23 458474.3065
5.4.6 Bar Ø20 mm kg 31808.88 23 731604.286
Sub Total 2266419.897
6 Pump
6.1 Submersible No 7 300000 2100000
Booster pump No 2 240900 481800
sub total 2581800
7 Generator
7.1 standby generator No 2 250000 500000
sub total 500000
Total 18693412.99
others 15% 2804011.948
Ground total 27,497,424.93

137