ENG157 SPEECH AND THEATER ARTS P2 REVIEWER

MODULE 10
• What is a playwright? Is it different from a play?
ELABORATING THE NATURE, STRUCTURE OF PLAY
• Playwright: A playwright is a person who writes plays. They
• The Elements of a Play (Aristotle, 335 B.C.) create the dialogue, characters, and storyline intended for
• Aristotle, a famous philosopher, explained the six basic performance on a stage.
parts of a play around 335 B.C. These parts are Plot,
Character, Thought/Theme, Diction/Language, Song/Music, • Play: A play is the actual work of drama that the playwright
and Spectacle. Playwriting has changed over time, but these writes. It usually consists mostly of dialogue between
six elements are still important in creating plays. characters and is designed to be performed in front of an
audience, not just read like a regular book.
• 1. Plot (What happens in the play)
• Definition: The plot is the sequence of events or actions • Example to Help You Understand
that take place in the play. It has three parts: • Playwright: William Shakespeare is a famous playwright. He
• Beginning (Exposition): Introduces the story, characters, wrote many plays like Romeo and Juliet and Hamlet.
and setting. • Play: Romeo and Juliet is the play that Shakespeare wrote,
• Middle: Includes complications and conflicts, leading to a which actors perform on stage for an audience. It includes
climax (the most exciting part). all the characters, dialogue, and scenes.
• End: Resolves the conflict and concludes the story. • In short:
Example: In Cinderella, the plot begins with her living a hard • Playwright = The writer.
life with her stepmother, reaches the climax at the ball • Play = The finished product for the audience to watch.
when the prince falls in love with her, and ends when the
prince finds her with the glass slipper.
MODULE 11
• 2. Character (The people in the play)
• Definition: Characters are the people (or personalities) in DISCUSSING THE NATURE OF DRAMA
the play. The two main types are:
• Understanding Drama
• Protagonist: The main character (e.g., the hero/heroine).
• Drama: A drama, or play, is a type of writing that is mostly
• Antagonist: The character who opposes the protagonist made up of dialogue (the characters talking to each other).
(e.g., the villain). It’s like a short story or a novel because it has a setting,
Example: In The Lion King, Simba is the protagonist, and characters, plot, and even symbolism (hidden meanings or
Scar is the antagonist. messages).
• Key Difference: Unlike short stories or novels, which are
• 3. Thought/Theme (The message of the play) meant to be read, a play is designed to be performed in
• Definition: This is the main idea or message the writer front of an audience. This means people watch the story
wants to share through the play. It connects the characters unfold through the actors' performance on stage, instead of
and events to a central meaning. just reading it in a book.
Example: In The Little Prince, the theme is about love, • Example
friendship, and seeing with the heart, not just the eyes.
• A short story like The Gift of the Magi is written to be read
and imagined by the reader.
• 4. Diction/Language (How the story is told)
• A drama like Romeo and Juliet is meant to be performed on
• Definition: The words or language used in the play help the stage, where the audience can see the characters, hear
audience understand the story, the characters, and the their dialogue, and experience the action directly.
setting.
Example: A play about kings might use formal, royal
• Dramatic Form: Script
language, while a comedy might use casual and funny
• What is a Script?
words.
• Plays are not written in paragraphs like novels or short
stories. Instead, they are written as lines of dialogue in a
• 5. Song/Music (Sounds and rhythm in the play)
script format. Each line tells the actors exactly what to say
• Definition: Music or sound effects enhance the mood and
and sometimes how to say it (through stage directions).
help tell the story. This includes songs, background music,
or even how the actors speak.
• How is a Script Organized?
Example: In musicals like The Sound of Music, songs like
• Acts: These are the major sections of a play. Think of them
"Do-Re-Mi" are used to make the story more engaging.
as "chapters."
• Scenes: Each act is divided into smaller parts called scenes.
• 6. Spectacle (The visual elements)
A new scene often means a change in time or place.
• Definition: Spectacle includes everything you can see in the
play—scenery, costumes, lighting, props, and special
• This example is from August Wilson's Fences:
effects.
• Act I, Scene 2:
Example: In Harry Potter and the Cursed Child, the magical
• The stage directions tell us that it’s the following morning,
effects like flying wands and spells make the play visually
and the character Rosé is hanging clothes.
exciting.
• Dialogue:
• Rosé sings: "Jesus, be a fence all around me every day..."
• Important Names and Dates
• Troy enters and the conversation between them begins.
• Aristotle: A Greek philosopher who described these six
• This format helps the actors and directors know exactly how
elements in 335 B.C. His ideas have influenced playwriting
for centuries. the play should look and sound during a performance.

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 ENG157 SPEECH AND THEATER ARTS P2 REVIEWER

• Key Terms: • Actor Guidance:

• Script: The written version of the play with all the dialogue • They describe how actors should move, like entering or
and stage directions. leaving the stage.
• They explain how actors should speak a line, including facial
• Acts and Scenes: The divisions of the play for structure and expressions or tone of voice.
flow. Example
• Stage Directions: Instructions for the actors, like where to • Setting Description: A play might describe a cozy living
stand or how to act. room with a fireplace, a sofa, and a coffee table with a book.
These details give the audience a sense of the environment.
• Why is a Script Important? • Stage Directions:
• A script is like the "recipe" for a play. It tells everyone • (Rosé enters the room, holding a tray of tea. She looks
involved—the actors, directors, and crew—exactly what to around nervously.)
do to bring the story to life on stage. • This direction tells the actor how to act and move, helping
the audience understand the character's feelings and
• Setting and Staging in Drama actions.
• What Are Stage Directions?
• Stage directions are instructions included in the script to • Why Are Stage Directions Important?
guide the actors and crew. These notes are often written in • Help Actors: They know how to portray their characters
italics or placed in parentheses. convincingly.
• They explain actions, movements, or expressions, and they • Assist the Audience: They visualize the setting and
help the actors understand how to perform a scene. emotions through the actor’s performance and stage setup.
Example: Stage directions describe how Rosé transitions • Guide the Production Crew: They set up the stage to match
from singing to speaking to Troy, telling the actor how to act the story’s needs
and whom to address.
• Characters and Actors in a Play
• The Setting • Cast of Characters:
• Definition: The setting describes the location and • Before the play begins, the playwright usually provides a list
environment where the action takes place. It helps the of characters (major and minor) and their roles in the story.
audience visualize the scene. This helps the audience understand the relationships and
In this example: roles each character plays in the narrative.
• Act I, Scene 1 describes the yard in front of the Maxson
household, an old brick house in a big-city neighborhood. • Example from the Image:
The setting includes details like: • In Fences, the characters include:
• A wooden porch in need of paint. • Troy Maxson: The main character.
• A sturdy porch roof with mismatched furniture. • Jim Bono: Troy's friend.
• An old-fashioned icebox at the other end of the yard. • Rose: Troy's wife.
• Lyons: Troy’s oldest son from a previous marriage.
• Why Are Setting and Staging Important? • Gabriel: Troy’s brother.
• For the Actors: • Cory: Troy and Rose's son.
• They know where to stand, move, or direct their attention. • Raynell: Troy’s daughter.
• Stage directions help them express emotions or actions as
intended by the playwright. • Plot Structure
• The plot of a play is similar to that of a story or novel. It
• For the Audience: includes:
• The setting and staging create a visual image of the story’s • Exposition: Introduction of characters, setting, and the
world. basic situation.
• It makes the performance more realistic and immersive. • Rising Action: The conflict develops, and tension builds.
• Climax: The turning point or the most intense moment.
• Example in Action • Falling Action: Events following the climax that lead to
• In the play Fences: resolution.
• The setting in this scene tells us it’s a modest household, • Resolution: The conclusion of the play, where conflicts are
reflecting the characters' struggles and environment. resolved.
• The stage directions help Rosé and Troy's actors portray Example:
their conversation naturally, making it relatable to the • In Romeo and Juliet, the climax occurs when Romeo kills
audience. Tybalt, leading to the falling action of the lovers’ separation
and the tragic resolution.
• Understanding Setting and Stage Directions in Plays
• Difference from Novels: • Symbolism
• Unlike novels, which use paragraphs to describe settings in • Definition: A symbol is something that represents a deeper
great detail, plays are limited to what the audience can see meaning or idea beyond its literal sense. Playwrights use
on the stage. This means that the playwright must provide symbols to communicate themes or highlight important
clear instructions about the setting and its use in the concepts.
performance.

• Role of Stage Directions:

• Description of the Stage: Stage directions tell the actors
and crew how the stage should look. This includes items like
furniture, props, and the general appearance of the setting.
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 ENG157 SPEECH AND THEATER ARTS P2 REVIEWER

• How Symbols Are Used: • Theories of Origin:

• Symbols can be objects, props, or actions that carry special • Link to Epic Poetry:
meaning. • Some scholars suggest tragedy evolved from the lyrical
• They remind the audience of the play’s themes or performance of epic poetry, where stories were sung or
messages. recited.
Example:
• In The Great Gatsby, the green light symbolizes hope and • Rituals of Dionysos:
the American Dream. • Others believe tragedy originated from rituals honoring
• In Fences, the fence represents protection, family, and Dionysos, the Greek god of wine, fertility, and theatre.
separation.
• These rituals included:
• Summary • Sacrifices of goats (possibly symbolizing tragedy's "goat
• Understanding characters, plot structure, and symbolism is song" name).
essential in interpreting plays. The characters drive the • Songs and dances during Dionysiac festivals.
story, the plot structure organizes the events, and symbols • Participants wearing masks and performing in honor of
add layers of meaning that connect the audience to the Dionysos.
themes of the play.
• Emotional Transformation:
• During rituals, worshippers often lost control of their
MODULE 12 emotions, symbolizing a transformation into another
character—similar to what actors (hypokritai) do on stage.
REVISITING GREEK THEATRE
• Role of Music and Dance:
• Greek Theatre: The Beginning of Drama
• Chorus: Played a significant role in early tragedy, providing
• When and Where Did It Start?
commentary and connecting the audience to the story.
• Greek theatre began in the 6th century BCE in Athens,
• Music: Often performed with an aulos (a wind instrument),
Greece. It started as performances of tragedy plays during
adding rhythm and mood to the performance.
religious festivals to honor the gods.
• Poetic Rhythm:
• What Did It Inspire?
• Early tragedies used specific poetic rhythms:
• Over time, Greek tragedy inspired the creation of Greek
• Trochaic Tetrameter for lively parts.
comedy. These two types of drama—tragedy and comedy—
• Iambic Trimeter for spoken dialogue.
became extremely popular and were performed widely.

• Key Takeaway:
• Spread and Influence
• The origins of tragedy are deeply rooted in religious rituals,
• Greek drama spread across the Mediterranean region,
music, and storytelling traditions. It combined song, dance,
influencing Hellenistic theatre (Greek theatre after
and dramatic performance to explore human emotions and
Alexander the Great) and Roman theatre.
stories, eventually becoming the foundation of Greek
• Many elements of modern theatre trace their origins back
drama.
to these traditions.

• A Tragedy Play
• Famous Greek Playwrights:
• Where Were Tragedy Plays Performed?
• Sophocles: Known for tragedies like Oedipus Rex and
• Tragedy plays were performed in open-air theaters
Antigone.
(theatron) in ancient Greece. These theaters had excellent
• Aristophanes: Known for comedies like Lysistrata and The
acoustics and were open to male audiences (though the
Birds.
presence of women is debated).
• From the mid-5th century BCE, entrance to these
• Importance:
performances was free, making them accessible to the
• The works of these playwrights formed the foundation of
public.
modern theatre. Ideas about storytelling, character, and
dramatic structure in plays today are deeply rooted in Greek
• Plot of Tragedy Plays:
theatre traditions.
• The plots were often inspired by episodes from Greek
mythology, deeply connected to Greek religion.
• Summary
• They focused on serious topics like:
• Greek theatre began as religious performances and grew
• Moral dilemmas (right and wrong).
into two major forms: tragedy and comedy. These forms
• Tragic situations where characters faced no-win outcomes.
influenced many cultures and laid the groundwork for the
• Violence was not allowed on stage, so events like a
theatre we know today. Playwrights like Sophocles and
character’s death were heard offstage but not seen.
Aristophanes were pioneers of this art form.

• Early Limitations:
• The Origins of Tragedy
• What is Tragedy? • Playwrights (poets) could not make direct political or social
comments through their plays, especially in the genre's
• The word "tragedy" comes from the Greek word tragōidia,
early stages.
meaning "goat song."
• Scholars debate its exact origins, but many theories link it
to ancient rituals and performances.

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 ENG157 SPEECH AND THEATER ARTS P2 REVIEWER

• Famous Greek Tragedy Playwrights • Famous Comedy Playwrights

• Aeschylus (c. 525–c. 456 BCE): • Aristophanes (460–380 BCE):
• Known for innovations like introducing a second actor for • Known for satirical plays like The Wasps and Lysistrata,
more complex interactions and writing sequels. poking fun at politicians and society.
• He referred to his works as “morsels from the feast of • Menander (342–291 BCE):
Homer,” highlighting his admiration for epic poetry. • Focused on more personal, everyday themes, influencing
Roman comedy.
• Sophocles (c. 496–406 BCE):
• Added a third actor and introduced painted scenery for a • Greek Theatre: Features and Performance
more engaging performance.
• Famous for popular tragedies like Oedipus Rex and • Theatre Design
Antigone. • Theatron: Large, open-air theaters built on hillsides.
• Orchestra: Central circular or rectangular area where the
• Euripides (c. 484–407 BCE): chorus danced and acted.
• Celebrated for: • Skene: A building behind the orchestra used for costume
• Clever dialogues. changes and as a backdrop.
• Realism in his characters. • Audience: Rising seats around the orchestra,
• Raising thought-provoking questions for the audience to accommodating up to 14,000 people.
consider.
• Known for exploring human emotions and flaws deeply. • Acting
• Legacy: • Cast: All actors were male and often amateurs.
• The plays of these three playwrights were so influential that • Gestures: Actors used exaggerated gestures so even the
they were re-performed and even written into scripts for farthest audience members could follow the story.
education. Children • Acoustics: Theaters were designed to carry sound
• in ancient Greece studied these works as part of their effectively to the audience.
learning.
• Costumes and Masks
• Key Takeaways • Masks: Made of cork or linen, with tragic masks showing
• Greek tragedy plays combined mythology, religion, and sadness and comic masks showing exaggerated smiles.
moral themes to create powerful stories. Playwrights like • Costumes: Elaborate and exaggerated to help the audience
Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides shaped this genre, and identify characters.
their works continue to be celebrated as masterpieces in
drama and literature today. • Key Takeaway
• Greek comedy and theatre blended humor, social
• Greek Comedy: Origins and Structure commentary, and elaborate performances. Through
• Origins playwrights like Aristophanes and Menander, Greek
• Prehistoric Roots: comedy left a lasting legacy on Western drama. The open-
• The exact origins are unclear, but Greek comedy likely air theaters, unique designs, and use of costumes and
originated from early rituals where people mimicked others masks made the performances accessible and memorable
and wore costumes. for all audiences.
• Evidence of these activities includes:
• Pottery decorations (6th century BCE) showing actors
dressed as animals or exaggerated figures. MODULE 14
• Poems by Archilochus (7th century BCE) and Hipponax (6th
century BCE) containing crude and explicit humor. REVISITING ROMAN THEATRE
• Dionysian festivals that included comedic songs.
• Roman History and Theatre Development
• Key Historical Milestones
• Structure of a Comedy Play
• 753 BCE:
• Parados (Entrance of the Chorus):
• Rome was a small town dominated by the Etruscans from
• The chorus, up to 24 performers, entered with songs and
Etruria (North of Rome).
dances, wearing outlandish costumes such as giant bees or
• Over time, Roman governance evolved, and by 509 BCE,
knights on horseback.
Rome expelled the Etruscan ruler and became a republic,
• Plays were often named after the chorus, e.g.,
similar to Athens' democracy.
Aristophanes' The Wasps.

• 4th Century BCE:

• Agon (Witty Contest):
• Rome began expanding its territory, eventually controlling
• This was a verbal debate or contest between the main
the Italian peninsula, Sicily, and later Greek territories.
actors, featuring fantastical plot twists and often some
improvisation.
• 240 BCE:
• Greek theatre became familiar to the Romans, who
• Parabasis (Direct Address to Audience):
translated Greek works into Latin.
• The chorus spoke directly to the audience, delivering social
• This marked the beginning of Roman theatre, with early
or political commentary.
records of drama appearing in Ludi Romani (Roman
• The play ended with an exodos, a grand finale with songs
Games).
and dances.

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 ENG157 SPEECH AND THEATER ARTS P2 REVIEWER
• 27 BCE: • Roman Tragedy and a Tragic Playwright
• After Julius Caesar's death, Rome transitioned from a • Roman Tragedies:
republic to an empire. • Roman tragedies were mostly translations of Greek
tragedies and were not as important in Roman theater as
• 345 AD: comedies.
• Rome celebrated 175 festivals annually, with 101 of them • They often featured violent actions, ghosts, and magic,
dedicated to theatre. making them more dramatic and supernatural than Greek
• The first stone theatre was constructed in 55 BCE during originals.
Julius Caesar's rule.
• Famous Roman Tragic Playwright:
• Greek Influence on Roman Theatre • Seneca (5 BCE–65 AD):
• Adaptation: Romans borrowed heavily from Greek theatre, • Known for his 5-act plays with choral interludes.
translating plays and incorporating Greek mythology into • Famous works include The Trojan Women, Oedipus, and
Roman performances. Medea.
• Festivals: Theatre was a major part of Roman festivals, • His plays were not performed publicly but were closet
much like in Greek culture. dramas, meaning they were meant to be read, not
performed.
• Ancient Roman Theaters
• Structure of Roman Theaters • Roman Comedy
• Design: • Characteristics:
• Roman theaters were built in a half-circle shape, with an • Roman comedies were influenced by Greek New Comedy
orchestra space in front of the stage. (like the works of Menander) with some changes:
• They were constructed on flat ground, with the structure • No Chorus: The traditional Greek chorus was removed.
raised to improve visibility and sound projection. • Musical Elements: Spread throughout the play instead of
being sung by a chorus.
• Sound Issues: • Setting: All actions took place on the street.
• To address problems with sound, Romans used costumes • Themes: Focused on domestic affairs and the lives of the
and masks with exaggerated features to help the audience middle class.
understand the type of character.
• Roman Comic Playwrights
• The Stage and Symbols: • Plautus (254–184 BCE):
• Triangular wooden prisms (periaktoi): These were placed • Rewrote 21 plays, including The Menaechmi and The Pot of
near the side entrance and had different scenes painted on Gold.
each side, allowing for quick scene changes. • Focused on humor, aiming to make audiences laugh more
• Elevated stages: These provided better visibility for the than developing deep plots or characters.
audience and gave actors more space to perform.
• Terence:
• Actors and Performances • Wrote six plays, such as The Eunuch and The Brothers.
• Restrictions on Women: • A former slave educated by his master, making him the first
• Women were not allowed to act, so their roles were played black playwright.
by men or young boys, often wearing a white mask. • His works had complex plots and realistic characters,
appealing to the upper class.

• Lines and Gestures: • A New Type of Theatre

• One actor spoke the lines, while another mimed the • 1. Fabula Atellana (Atellan Farce)
gestures, accompanied by background music. • Stock Characters: These were stereotypical roles like the
beggar, miser, or trickster, which stayed the same across
• Extreme Realism: plays.
• In plays involving death scenes, condemned men • Key Features:
(prisoners) were sometimes used to die on stage instead of • Emphasized buffoonery, trickery, and slapstick comedy.
actors, adding a grim realism to the performances. • Typically had rural settings.
• Became popular in the 1st century BCE.
• The Role of Entertainment • Included music and dance as important elements.
• Bloodthirsty Spectacles:
• Romans enjoyed violent and dramatic spectacles in their • 2. Mime
plays. • Introduction of Women: Female roles were played by
• Emperors like Nero used theater to showcase their talents women for the first time in Roman theater.
(e.g., singing), sometimes forcing audiences to stay until the • Characteristics:
performance was over. • Actors did not wear masks.
• Themes were based on urban life and often used indecent
• Popularity and Innovation: language.
• The high stage and use of props attracted actors and • Aimed to entertain through humor and mimicry.
audiences, helping Roman theater grow in popularity.

• The Origins of Italian Drama

• The earliest known Italian drama originated in the region of
Campania (Southern Italy), influenced by Roman traditions.

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 ENG157 SPEECH AND THEATER ARTS P2 REVIEWER
MODULE 15
• 3. Pantomime
DESCRIBING DRAMA AND THEATRE IN MEDIEVAL WORLD
• Silent Performance:
• Similar to modern mime but more dramatic. • Medieval History and Theater (600–1000 A.D.)
• One actor portrayed multiple roles using a mask with a • The "Dark Ages"
closed mouth. • After the fall of Rome in the 600s A.D., Europe entered a
• Accompanied by a chorus that narrated the story. period called the "Dark Ages."
• Themes: • Key Features:
• Storylines were serious and often drawn from mythology. • Political instability: No central or reliable political structure
• Focused on interpretive dance and gestures. existed.
• Theatre Structure • The Church became the only stable form of "government."
• Key Components: • In the 4th century, the Bishop of Rome (successor to St.
• Scaena: A roofed house located at the back of the stage. Peter) established religious and secular authority.
• Scaenae Frons:
• The front wall of the scaena. • Feudalism
• Often three stories high, featuring balconies and doors. • Definition: A social and economic system where:
• Pulpitum: The main stage where actors performed. • Manors (large estates) were controlled by noblemen, who
• Versurae: Wings of the stage that had entrances. had absolute authority over serfs (peasants) working the
• Orchestra: land.
• Circular area for musicians and dancers. • Lords of manors were vassals (subjects) to a king, and
• Dignitaries often sat here during performances. knights protected the lords and their lands.
• Cavea: • Serfs owed allegiance to their lord in exchange for
• The large, round auditorium for commoners. protection.
• Designed to seat a large audience. • The Church issued edicts against secular performers,
labeling them mimi, histriones, and ioculatores (actors,
• FAQ: What Influenced Roman Theater? jugglers, or secular entertainers).
• Roman theater was influenced by several key factors:
• Village Entertainments: • Theater in the Early Medieval Period (600–1000 A.D.)
• Early Roman theater evolved from local performances such • Limited References:
as the Atellana (Atellan farces), which were comedic and • Actors like histriones, jugglers, and rope dancers performed
involved stock characters like the miser or trickster. in nomadic tribes or during pagan festivals.
• Teutonic minstrels (troubadours or scops) preserved tribal
• Greek Drama: histories through oral performances.
• Greek traditions greatly shaped Roman theater. Romans • These were later denounced as immoral when Teutonic
adapted many elements of Greek drama, including its tribes converted to Christianity.
themes, styles, and even specific plays, particularly during
their conquests of southern Italy and Sicily. • Lack of Written Drama:
• Little written drama survives from this time, as secular
• Festivals and Religious Rites: theater was largely suppressed by the Church.
• The earliest Roman dramas were linked to carnivals and
bawdy fertility rites held during religious festivals. These • Rebirth of Drama (925–975 A.D.)
celebrations often included music, dance, and • Theater found a new life in Christian ceremonies:
performances, laying the groundwork for Roman drama. • Drama became part of Church services and focused on
religious themes.
• Greek Colonists in Italy: • The Church, which had previously opposed theater, became
• Greek colonists living in southern Italy and Sicily brought its main supporter during this period.
their theatrical traditions, which were then adapted by
Roman playwrights and performers. • Cultural Exchange in the 12th Century
• Key Takeaway • The Crusades brought exposure to other cultures, leading
• Roman theater combined local comedic traditions, Greek to the reintroduction of diverse artistic and theatrical
dramatic influences, and festive celebrations to create a traditions into Europe.
unique form of entertainment that became an integral part
of Roman culture. • Liturgical Drama
• What is Liturgical Drama?
• A type of religious play performed within the church liturgy
(church services).
• It began as part of Christian religious practices and
expanded over time.
• Expansion Outside the Church
• Over time, religious dramas moved outside the church and
started being performed in the vernacular (local or native
languages) to reach a broader audience.
• The Earliest Extant Drama
• The earliest surviving medieval drama is a four-line
dramatization of the resurrection.
• It included directions for performance.

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 ENG157 SPEECH AND THEATER ARTS P2 REVIEWER
• Origin: • Performers:
• Came from an Easter trope (additional text added to • Often featured comedic or dramatic performances purely
existing liturgical music). for entertainment purposes.
• First recorded around 925 A.D..
• Performance:
• Sung by a choir and titled "Quem Quaeritis" ("Whom Do You
Seek?").

• Medieval Theater: Types and Evolution

• 1. Liturgical Drama
• Origins:
• Stemmed directly from mass, with theatrical elements as
visible reflections of the invisible (spiritual) world.
• Aimed to create harmony in religious values, increasing the
musicality of plainsong in the church by the 9th century.
• Antiphonal singing (choirs divided into two parts) was
developed, leading to the creation of tropes, which were
musical or textual embellishments to parts of the liturgy,
such as the final syllable of Alleluia.

• 2. Mystery Cycles
• Development:
• As theater moved outside the church, it was performed
entirely in vernacular languages, though some liturgical
dramas remained inside the church until the 16th century.
• Structure:
• A series of short plays were organized into cycles covering
biblical stories, focusing on the Passion and other key
events.
• These plays expressed both the humanity and divinity of
Christ.
• Regional Variants:
• In France: Mystères
• In Italy: Sacre rappresentazioni
• In Spain: Autos sacramentales
• In Germany: Mysterienspielen
• In England: Mystery plays
• Themes:
• Stories ranged from Creation to the Last Judgment.

• 3. Morality Plays
• Characteristics:
• Introduced in the 15th century, these plays reflected darker
worldviews of the medieval period.
• Themes highlighted plagues, death, and the human
condition as "worm's meat."
• Focused on allegories, portraying a spiritual journey and the
battle between good and evil.
• Notable Content:
• Mankind or Humanum Genus: A character represented
humanity setting out on a spiritual pilgrimage, confronting
vices and virtues.
• Seven Deadly Sins were key themes, reflecting the
transitory nature of life.
• Purpose:
• Illustrated medieval society's preoccupation with death and
the conflict between the spirit and flesh.

• 4. Interludes
• Definition:
• These were short secular performances performed during
the 15th and 16th centuries by small professional
companies.
• Content:
• Ranged from simple farces performed in public to dramatic
sketches performed in noble halls.
• Focus:
• Plays were more concerned with entertainment and ideas
rather than moral lessons.
CREATED BY MARK NATHANIEL B. JAVIER