ME211B: Thermodynamics
Instructor: Joon Sang Kang
Chapter 9
GAS POWER CYCLES
Objectives
• Evaluate the performance of gas power cycles for which the working fluid
remains a gas throughout the entire cycle.
• Develop simplifying assumptions applicable to gas power cycles.
• Review the operation of reciprocating engines.
• Analyze both closed and open gas power cycles.
• Solve problems based on the Otto and Diesel
• Solve problems based on the Brayton cycle; the Brayton cycle with
regeneration; and the Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and
regeneration.
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ANALYSIS OF
POWER CYCLES
Most power-producing devices operate on
cycles.
Reversible cycles such as Carnot cycle
have the highest thermal efficiency of all
heat engines operating between the same
temperature levels.
Thermal efficiency of heat engines
BASIC CONSIDERATIONS IN THE ANALYSIS OF
POWER CYCLES
The ideal cycles are internally
reversible, but, unlike the Carnot
cycle, they are not necessarily
externally reversible.
The thermal efficiency of an ideal
cycle, in general, is less than that
of a totally reversible cycle
operating between the same
temperature limits.
However, it is still considerably
higher than the thermal efficiency
of an actual cycle because of the
idealizations utilized.
The idealizations and simplifications in the
analysis of power cycles
1. The cycle does not involve any friction.
Therefore, the working fluid does not experience
any pressure drop as it flows in pipes or devices
such as heat exchangers.
2. All expansion and compression processes
take place in a quasi-equilibrium manner.
3. The pipes connecting the various components
of a system are well insulated, and heat transfer
through them is negligible.
On a T-s diagram, the ratio of the area enclosed
by the cyclic curve to the area under the heat-
addition process curve represents the thermal
efficiency of the cycle.
Any modification that increases the ratio of these
two areas will also increase the thermal
efficiency of the cycle
THE CARNOT CYCLE AND ITS VALUE IN
ENGINEERING
The Carnot cycle is composed of four totally reversibl
e processes:
1-2 isothermal heat addition
2-3 isentropic expansion
3-4 isothermal heat rejection
4-1 isentropic compression
A steady-flow Carnot engine.
Important message from Carnot cycles:
Thermal efficiency increases with an increase in the average
temperature at which heat is supplied to the system or with a
decrease in the average temperature at which heat is
rejected from the system.
Derivation of the Efficiency of the Carnot Cycle
AIR-STANDARD ASSUMPTIONS
Air-standard cycle: A cycle for which the
air-standard assumptions are applicable.
Air-standard assumptions:
1. The working fluid is air, which
continuously circulates in a closed loop
and always behaves as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make up the
cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by
a heat-addition process from an
external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a
heat-rejection process that restores the
working fluid to its initial state.
Cold-air-standard assumptions: When the working fluid is considered to be air
with constant specific heats at room temperature (25°C).
AN OVERVIEW OF RECIPROCATING ENGINES
Compression Spark-ignition (SI) engines
ratio Compression-ignition (CI) engines
Mean effective pressure
The mean effective pressure can be used as a
parameter to compare the performances of
reciprocating engines of equal size.
The engine with a larger value of MEP delivers
more net work per cycle and thus performs better.
OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
Four-stroke cycle
1 cycle = 4 stroke = 2 revolution
Two-stroke cycle
1 cycle = 2 stroke = 1 revolution
The two-stroke engines are
generally less efficient than their
four-stroke counterparts but they are
relatively simple and inexpensive,
and they have high power-to-weight
and power-to-volume ratios.
OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
Process 0-1: Air enters the cylinder
through the open intake valve at
atmospheric pressure P0 as the piston
moves from TDC to BDC.
Process 1-2: The intake valve is closed at
state 1 and air is compressed
isentropically to state 2. Piston moves
from BDC to TDC.
Process 2-3: Heat is transferred at
constant volume.
Process 3-4: Air is expanded isentropically.
Process 4-1: Heat is rejected at constant
volume.
Process 1-0: Air is expelled through the
open exhaust valve.
OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
s ratic
compression
OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
rselfignition
In SI engines, the compression ratio is
limited by autoignition or engine knock.
Engine knock: The temperature of the
air–fuel mixture rises above the
autoignition temperature of the fuel during
the combustion process, causing an early
and rapid burn of the fuel at some point or
points ahead of the flame front, followed by
almost instantaneous inflammation of the
end gas.
Engine knock hurts performance and can
cause engine damage
OTTO CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
SPARK-IGNITION ENGINES
DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES
In diesel engines, only air is compressed
during the compression stroke, eliminating
the possibility of autoignition.
Diesel engines can be designed to operate
at much higher compression ratios than SI
engines, typically between 12 and 24.
In diesel engine, the air is compressed to a
temperature that is above the autoignition
temperature of the fuel, and combustion
starts on contact as the fuel is injected into
this hot air.
The spark plug is replaced by a fuel
injector in diesel engines
DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES
(T3 T 2)
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= Cp
1-2 isentropic compression
mmressure heat addition
2-3 constant-volume
3-4 isentropic expansion
4-1 constant-volume heat rejection
DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES
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Cutoff ratio
for the same compression ratio
DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES
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DIESEL CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
COMPRESSION-IGNITION ENGINES
Dual cycle: A more realistic ideal cycle In modern high-speed compression ignition
model for modern, high-speed engines, fuel is injected into the
compression ignition engine. combustion chamber much sooner
piesel compared to the early diesel engines.
O Fuel starts to ignite late in the compression
stroke, and consequently part of the
combustion occurs almost at constant
volume.
Fuel injection continues until the piston
reaches the top dead center, and
combustion of the fuel keeps the pressure
high well into the expansion stroke.
Thus, the entire combustion process can
better be modeled as the combination of
constant-volume and constant-pressure
processes.
BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
GAS-TURBINE ENGINES
The combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition
process from an external source, and the exhaust process is replaced by a
constant-pressure heat-rejection process to the ambient air.
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor)
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine)
4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection
(Jete engine) ( poverplant)
BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
GAS-TURBINE ENGINES
BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
GAS-TURBINE ENGINES
Pressure
ratio
BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
GAS-TURBINE ENGINES
vin
n1 -
BRAYTON CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
GAS-TURBINE ENGINES
The two major application areas of
gas-turbine engines are aircraft
propulsion and electric power
generation.
The highest temperature in the cycle is
limited by the maximum temperature
that the turbine blades can withstand.
This also limits the pressure ratios that
can be used in the cycle.
The air in gas turbines supplies the
necessary oxidant for the combustion
of the fuel, and it serves as a coolant
to keep the temperature of various
components within safe limits. An air–
fuel ratio of 50 or above is not
uncommon.
Development of Gas Turbines
1. Increasing the turbine inlet (or firing) temperatures
2. Increasing the efficiencies of turbomachinery compone
nts (turbines, compressors):
3. Adding modifications to the basic cycle (intercooling, re
generation or recuperation, and reheating).
30
Deviation of Actual Gas-Turbine
Cycles from Idealized Ones
Reasons: Irreversibilities in
turbine and compressors,
pressure drops, heat losses
Isentropic efficiencies of the
compressor and turbine
THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH
REGENERATION
In gas-turbine engines, the temperature of the
exhaust gas leaving the turbine is often considerably
higher than the temperature of the air leaving the
compressor.
The high-pressure air leaving the compressor can
be heated by the hot exhaust gases in a counter-
flow heat exchanger (a regenerator or a recuperator).
The thermal efficiency of the Brayton cycle
increases as a result of regeneration since less fuel
is used for the same work output.
A gas-turbine
engine with
regenerator.
Effectiveness
of regenerator
Effectiveness under
cold-air standard
assumptions
Efficiency under cold-air standard
assumptions
The thermal efficiency depends on the ratio of the minimum to maximum
temperatures as well as the pressure ratio.
Regeneration is most effective at lower pressure ratios and low minimum-to-
maximum temperature ratios.
THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH INTERCOOLING,
REHEATING, AND REGENERATION
For minimizing work input to compressor and
maximizing work output from turbine:
T-s diagram of an ideal
gas-turbine cycle with
intercooling, reheating,
and regeneration.
35
THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH INTERCOOLING,
REHEATING, AND REGENERATION
Multistage compression with
intercooling: The work required to
compress a gas between two specified
pressures can be decreased by carrying
out the compression process in stages and
cooling the gas in between. This keeps the
specific volume as low as possible.
Multistage expansion with reheating
keeps the specific volume of the working
fluid as high as possible during an
expansion process, thus maximizing work
output.
Intercooling and reheating always
decreases the thermal efficiency unless
they are accompanied by regeneration.
THE BRAYTON CYCLE WITH INTERCOOLING,
REHEATING, AND REGENERATION
Summary
• Basic considerations in the analysis of power cycles
• The Carnot cycle and its value in engineering
• Air-standard assumptions
• An overview of reciprocating engines
• Otto cycle: The ideal cycle for spark-ignition engines
• Diesel cycle: The ideal cycle for compression-ignition engines
• Brayton cycle: The ideal cycle for gas-turbine engines
• The Brayton cycle with regeneration
• The Brayton cycle with intercooling, reheating, and
regeneration
