Rudolf Peierls

Sir Rudolf Ernst Peierls, CBE FRS (/ˈpaɪ.ərlz/;

Sir
German: [ˈpaɪɐls]; 5 June 1907 – 19 September 1995)
was a German-born British physicist who played a Rudolf Peierls
CBE FRS
major role in Tube Alloys, Britain's nuclear weapon
programme, as well as the subsequent Manhattan
Project, the combined Allied nuclear bomb
programme. His 1996 obituary in Physics Today
described him as "a major player in the drama of the
eruption of nuclear physics into world affairs".[1]

Peierls studied physics at the University of Berlin, at

the University of Munich under Arnold Sommerfeld,
the University of Leipzig under Werner Heisenberg,
and ETH Zurich under Wolfgang Pauli. After receiving
his DPhil from Leipzig in 1929, he became an assistant
to Pauli in Zurich. In 1932, he was awarded a
Rockefeller Fellowship, which he used to study in
Rome under Enrico Fermi, and then at the Cavendish Peierls in 1966
Laboratory at the University of Cambridge under Born Rudolf Ernst Peierls
Ralph H. Fowler. Because of his Jewish background, 5 June 1907
he elected to not return home after Adolf Hitler's rise to Berlin, Kingdom of Prussia in
power in 1933, but to remain in Britain, where he the German Empire
worked with Hans Bethe at the Victoria University of Died 19 September 1995
Manchester, then at the Mond Laboratory at (aged 88)
Cambridge. In 1937, Mark Oliphant, the newly Oxford, Oxfordshire,
appointed Australian professor of physics at the England
University of Birmingham recruited him for a new
Citizenship German (1907–1940)
chair there in applied mathematics.
British (1940–1995)
In March 1940, Peierls co-authored the Frisch–Peierls Alma mater University of Berlin
memorandum with Otto Robert Frisch. This short University of Munich
paper was the first to set out that one could construct University of Leipzig
an atomic bomb from a small amount of fissile University of Manchester
uranium-235. Until then it had been assumed that such St John's College,
a bomb would require many tons of uranium, and Cambridge
consequently was impractical to build and use. The Known for Peierls argument
paper was pivotal in igniting the interest of first the Peierls bracket
British and later the American authorities in nuclear Peierls droplets
weapons. He was also responsible for the recruitment Peierls substitution
of his compatriot Klaus Fuchs to work on Tube Alloys, Peierls stress
Peierls transition
as the British nuclear weapons project was called, Landau–Peierls instability
which resulted in Peierls falling under suspicion when Peierls–Bogoliubov
Fuchs was exposed as a spy for the Soviet Union in inequality
1950. Peierls–Nabarro potential
Bohr–Peierls–Placzek
After the war, Peierls returned to the University of relation
Birmingham, where he worked until 1963, and then Frisch–Peierls memorandum
was the Wykeham Professor of Physics and a Fellow Charge density wave theory
of New College at the University of Oxford until he Umklapp process
retired in 1974.[2] At Birmingham he worked on Tube Alloys project
nuclear forces, scattering, quantum field theories, Awards Commander of the Order
collective motion in nuclei, transport theory and of the British Empire (1946)
statistical mechanics, and was a consultant to the Medal of Freedom (1946)
Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell. He Royal Medal (1959)
received many awards, including a knighthood in Lorentz Medal (1962)
1968, and wrote several books including Quantum Max Planck Medal (1963)
Theory of Solids, The Laws of Nature (1955), Surprises Knight Bachelor (1968)
in Theoretical Physics (1979), More Surprises in Enrico Fermi Award (1980)
Theoretical Physics (1991) and an autobiography, Bird Matteucci Medal (1982)
of Passage (1985). Concerned with the nuclear Copley Medal (1986)
weapons he had helped to unleash, he worked on the
Scientific career
Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, was President of the
Atomic Scientists' Association in the UK, and was Fields Physicist

involved in the Pugwash movement. Institutions University of Manchester

University of Cambridge
University of Birmingham
Early life New College, Oxford
University of Washington
Rudolf Ernst Peierls was born in the Berlin suburb of Manhattan project
Oberschöneweide, the youngest of three children of Thesis Zur kinetischen Theorie der
Heinrich Peierls an electrical engineer, from a family Wärmeleitung in Kristallen
of Jewish merchants. His father was the managing (1929)
director of a cable factory of Allgemeine Elektricitäts- Doctoral Werner Heisenberg
Gesellschaft (AEG), and his mother was his father's
advisor
first wife, Elisabeth (née Weigert). Rudolf had an older
Other academic Wolfgang Pauli
brother, Alfred, and an older sister, Annie.[3] His
advisors
mother died from Hodgkin's lymphoma in 1921,[4] and
his father married Else Hermann, the sister-in-law of Doctoral Fred Hoyle
the playwright Ludwig Fulda.[5] The family was students E. E. Salpeter
Jewish, but assimilated, and Peierls and his siblings Gerald E. Brown
Stuart T. Butler
were baptised as Lutherans.[3] When he came of age,
Walter Marshall
Peierls left the church.[6]
James S. Langer
Peierls commenced school a year late because he John Stewart Bell
needed glasses, and his parents did not trust him not to Stanley Mandelstam
lose them or break them. After two years at the local Other notable N. M. Butt
preparatory school, he entered his local gymnasium, students M. A. Beg
the Humboldt Gymnasium, where he spent the next nine years, passing his abitur examinations in
1925.[7] He wanted to study engineering, but his parents, who doubted his practical abilities, suggested
physics instead.[5] He entered the University of Berlin, where he listened to lectures by Max Planck,
Walther Bothe and Walther Nernst. Fellow students included Kurt Hirsch and Käte Sperling. The physics
laboratory classes were overcrowded, so the first year students were encouraged to take theoretical
physics courses instead. Peierls found that he liked the subject.[8]

In 1926 Peierls decided to transfer to the University of Munich to study under Arnold Sommerfeld, who
was considered to be the greatest teacher of theoretical physics. Fellow students there included Hans
Bethe, Hermann Brück and William V. Houston.[9] At the time, the Bohr-Sommerfeld theory was being
overturned by the new quantum mechanics of Werner Heisenberg and Paul Dirac.[10] In 1928,
Sommerfeld set off on a world tour. On his advice, Peierls moved to the University of Leipzig, where
Heisenberg had been appointed to a chair in 1927.[5][11]

Heisenberg set Peierls a research project on ferromagnetism. It was known that this was caused by the
spin of the electrons in the metal aligning; but the reason for this was unknown. Heisenberg suspected
that it was caused by a quantum mechanical effect, caused by the Pauli exclusion principle.[12] Peierls
was unable to develop the theory, but work on Hall effect was more productive. The anomalous Hall
effect could not be explained with the classical theory of metals, and Heisenberg sensed an opportunity to
demonstrate that quantum mechanics could explain it. Peierls was able to do so, resulting in his first
published paper.[13]

Heisenberg left in 1929 to lecture in America, China, Japan and India,[13] and on his recommendation
Peierls moved on to ETH Zurich, where he studied under Wolfgang Pauli. Pauli set him a problem of
investigating the vibration of atoms in a crystal lattice. Peierls explored—and named—the phenomenon
of umklapp scattering. He submitted this work as his DPhil thesis, Zur kinetischen Theorie der
Wärmeleitung in Kristallen (On the Kinetic Theory of Heat Conduction in Crystals),[14] which was
accepted by the University of Leipzig in 1929.[15] His theory made specific predictions of the behaviour
of metals at very low temperatures, but another twenty years would pass before the techniques were
developed to confirm them experimentally.[3]

Early career
Peierls accepted an offer from Pauli to become his assistant in place of Felix Bloch. Lev Landau was
there at this time on a scholarship from the government of the Soviet Union, and Peierls and Landau
became friends. They collaborated on deriving a series of wave equations similar to the Schrödinger
equation for photons. Unfortunately, their equations, while complicated, were nonsensical.[16] In 1930,
Peierls travelled to the Netherlands to meet Hans Kramers, and to Copenhagen to meet Niels Bohr.[17]

In August 1930 Pauli and Peierls attended a physics congress in Odessa and met a young physics
graduate, Eugenia (Genia) Nikolaievna Kannegiesser, who, like Landau, came from Leningrad. Since he
did not speak Russian and she did not speak German, they conversed in English.[16] During a subsequent
visit by Peierls to lecture in Leningrad they were married on 15 March 1931.[18] However, she had to
wait for a passport and exit visa. They finally left for Zürich that summer. They had four children: Gaby
Ellen (b.1933), Ronald Frank (b.1935), Catherine (Kitty; b.1948), and Joanna (b.1949).[3]
Peierls assisted Egon Orowan in understanding the force required to move a dislocation which would be
expanded on by Frank Nabarro and called the Peierls–Nabarro force. In 1929, he studied solid-state
physics in Zurich under the tutelage of Heisenberg and Pauli. His early work on quantum physics led to
the theory of positive carriers to explain the thermal and electrical conductivity behaviours of
semiconductors. He was a pioneer of the concept of "holes" in semiconductors.[19] He established
"zones" before Léon Brillouin, despite Brillouin's name being currently attached to the idea, and applied
it to phonons. Doing this, he discovered the Boltzmann equations for phonons and the umklapp
process.[1] He submitted a paper on the subject for his habilitation, acquiring the right to teach at German
universities.[20] Physics Today noted that "His many papers on electrons in metals have now passed so
deeply into the literature that it is hard to identify his contribution to conductivity in magnetic fields and
to the concept of a hole in the theory of electrons in solids".[1]

Academic in exile
In 1932, Peierls was awarded a Rockefeller Fellowship to study abroad, which he used to study in Rome
under Enrico Fermi, and then at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in England
under Ralph H. Fowler.[21] In Rome, Peierls completed two papers on electronic band structure, in which
he introduced the Peierls substitution, and derived a general expression for diamagnetism in metals at low
temperatures. This provided an explanation of the hitherto mysterious properties of bismuth, in which
diamagnetic properties were more pronounced than in other metals.[22][23][24]

Due to Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany, he elected to not

return home in 1933, but to remain in Britain. He declined an offer
from Otto Stern of a position at the University of Hamburg.
Granted leave to remain in Britain, he worked at the Victoria
University of Manchester with funding from the Academic
Assistance Council, which had been set up to help academic
refugees from Germany and other fascist countries.[25] Most of his
immediate family also left Germany; his brother and his family
The Poynting Physics building at the
settling in Britain, and his sister and her family, along with his
University of Birmingham. Its mode father and stepmother, moved to the United States, where his uncle
of construction helped give rise to Siegfried lived.[26]
the phrase "redbrick university".
Peierls collaborated with Bethe on photodisintegration and the
statistical mechanics of alloys when challenged by James
Chadwick. Their results still serve as the basis for mean-field theories of structural phase changes in
complete alloys.[22] Although most of his work continued to be about the electron theory of metals, he
also looked at Dirac's hole theory,[27] and co-wrote a paper with Bethe on the neutrino.[28] The University
of Manchester awarded him a D.Sc. degree.[29] Moving back to Cambridge, he worked with David
Shoenberg at the Mond Laboratory on superconductivity and liquid helium.[27] To allow him to lecture, in
accordance with its rules, St John's College, Cambridge, awarded him an ex officio M.A. degree.[30]

In 1936, Mark Oliphant was appointed the professor of physics at the University of Birmingham, and he
approached Peierls about a new chair in applied mathematics that he was creating there. (Applied
mathematics being what would today be called theoretical physics.) Peierls got the job despite
competition from Harrie Massey and Harry Jones. The appointment at last gave Peierls a secure,
permanent position.[31] His students included Fred Hoyle and P. L.
Kapur, a student from India.[32] With Kapur he derived the dispersion
formula for nuclear reactions originally given in perturbation theory
by Gregory Breit and Eugene Wigner, but now included generalising
conditions. This is now known as the Kapur–Peierls derivation. It is
still used, but in 1947 Wigner and Leonard Eisenbud developed a
more widely used alternative method.[32][33] In 1938, Peierls paid
visits to Copenhagen, where he collaborated with Bohr and George
Placzek on a paper on what is now known as the Bohr–Peierls–
Placzek relation. The Second World War broke out before it could be
published; but drafts were circulated for comment, and it became one
of the most cited unpublished papers of all time.[34]
Peierls in 1937

Second World War

Frisch–Peierls memorandum
After the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939,
Peierls started working on nuclear weapons research with Otto
Robert Frisch, a fellow refugee from Germany. Ironically, they
were excluded from the work on radar at the University of
Birmingham because it was considered too secret for scientists
who were enemy aliens.[35] Peierls was naturalised as a British
subject on 27 March 1940.[36] He was eager to participate in the
fight against fascism and militarism, but the only organisation that
would accept him was the Auxiliary Fire Service.[37] He accepted
an offer from the University of Toronto to send his two children to Plaque commemorating the Frisch-
live with a family in Canada.[38] Peierls memorandum at the
University of Birmingham's Poynting
In February and March 1940, Peierls and Frisch co-authored the Physics Building
Frisch–Peierls memorandum, which Peierls typed. This short
paper was the first to establish that an atomic bomb could be
created from a small amount of fissile uranium-235. Based on the information at hand, they calculated
that less than 1 kg would be required. The true figure for the critical mass is about four times as large; but
until then it had been assumed that such a bomb would require many tons of uranium, and consequently
was impractical to build and use. They went on to estimate the size of the explosion, and its physical,
military and political effects.[39][40]

The Frisch–Peierls memorandum was pivotal in igniting the interest of first the British and later the
American authorities in atomic weapons. In 1941 its findings made their way to the United States through
the report of the MAUD Committee, an important trigger in the establishment of the Manhattan Project
and the subsequent development of the atomic bomb. With the Frisch-Peierls memorandum and the
MAUD Committee report, the British and American scientists were able to begin thinking about how to
create a bomb, not whether it was possible.[41]
As enemy aliens, Frisch and Peierls were initially excluded from the MAUD Committee, but the
absurdity of this was soon recognised, and they were made members of its Technical Subcommittee.[42]
This did not mean that they were cleared for radar work. When Oliphant made the services of his
secretary available for typing up the Peierl's and Frisch's papers for the MAUD Committee in September
1940, they were not allowed to enter the Nuffield Building where she worked, so Peierls submitted them
for typing by dictaphone on wax cylinders. Frisch and Peierls thought at first that uranium enrichment
was best achieved through thermal diffusion, but as the difficulties with this approach became more
apparent they switched to gaseous diffusion, bringing in a fellow refugee from Germany, Franz Simon, as
an expert on the subject.[43] Peierls also recruited yet another refugee from Germany, Klaus Fuchs, as his
assistant in May 1941.[44]

Manhattan Project
As a result of the MAUD Committee's findings, a new directorate known as Tube Alloys was created to
coordinate the nuclear weapons development effort. Sir John Anderson, the Lord President of the
Council, became the minister responsible, and Wallace Akers from Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI)
was appointed the director of Tube Alloys. Peierls, Chadwick and Simon were appointed to its Technical
Committee, which was chaired by Akers. Its first meeting, in November 1941,[45] was attended by two
American visitors, Harold Urey and George B. Pegram.[46] Later that year, Peierls flew to the United
States, where he visited Urey and Fermi in New York, Arthur H. Compton in Chicago, Robert
Oppenheimer in Berkeley, and Jesse Beams in Charlottesville, Virginia.[47] When George Kistiakowsky
argued that a nuclear weapon would do little damage as most of the energy would be expended heating
the air, Peierls, Fuchs, Geoffrey Taylor and J. G. Kynch worked out the hydrodynamics to refute this.[48]

The signing of the Quebec Agreement on 19 August 1943 merged Tube Alloys with the Manhattan
Project.[49] Akers had already cabled London with instructions that Chadwick, Peierls, Oliphant and
Simon should leave immediately for North America to join the British Mission to the Manhattan Project,
and they arrived the day the agreement was signed.[50] Simon and Peierls were attached to the Kellex
Corporation, which was engaged in the K-25 Project, designing and building the American gaseous
diffusion plant.[51] While Kellex was located in the Woolworth Building, Peierls, Simon and Nicholas
Kurti had their offices in the British supply mission on Wall Street.[52] They were joined there by Tony
Skyrme and Frank Kearton, who arrived in March 1944. Kurti returned to England in April 1944 and
Kearton in September.[51] Peierls moved on to the Los Alamos Laboratory in February 1944; Skyrme
followed in July, and Fuchs in August.[53]

At Los Alamos, the British Mission was fully integrated into the laboratory, and British scientists worked
in most of its divisions, being excluded only from plutonium chemistry and metallurgy.[54] When
Oppenheimer appointed Bethe as the head of the laboratory's prestigious Theoretical (T) Division, he
offended Edward Teller, who was given his own group, tasked with investigating Teller's "Super" bomb.
Oppenheimer then wrote to the director of the Manhattan Project, Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves, Jr,
requesting that Peierls be sent to take Teller's place in T Division.[55] Peierls arrived from New York on 8
February 1944,[53] and subsequently succeeded Chadwick as head of the British Mission at Los
Alamos.[56]

Peierls also became leader of T-1 (Implosion) Group,[57][58] and so was responsible for the design of the
explosive lenses used in the implosion-type nuclear weapon to focus an explosion onto a spherical
shape.[59] He sent regular reports to Chadwick, the head of the British Mission to the Manhattan Project,
in Washington, DC. When Groves found out, he asked Peierls to send him reports too.[60] Peierls was one
of those present at the Trinity nuclear test on 16 July 1945.[61] He returned to England in January
1946.[62] For his services to the nuclear weapons project, he was appointed a Commander of the Order of
the British Empire in the 1946 New Year Honours,[63] and was awarded the US Medal of Freedom with
Silver Palm in 1946.[64]

Espionage
Peierls was responsible for the recruitment of Fuchs to the British project, an action which was to result
in Peierls falling under suspicion when Fuchs was exposed as a Soviet spy in 1950. In 1999, The
Spectator garnered outrage from Peierls's family when it published an article by journalist Nicholas
Farrell that alleged that Peierls was a spy for the Soviet Union.[65][66] The article was based on
information supplied by intelligence historian Nigel West, who identified Peierls as the spy codenamed
"Fogel" and later "Pers" in the Venona intercepts, and his wife Genia as the spy codenamed "Tina".[67]
However, the association of Tina with Genia did not fit with what was known about Tina, and she was
conclusively revealed to be Melita Norwood in 1999. Nor did Peierls fit Pers, as the latter worked at the
Clinton Engineer Works, whereas Peierls did not.[68]

There were good reasons for the postwar intelligence agencies to suspect Peierls. He not only had
recruited Fuchs, and served as his "sponsor" on recruitment and security matters,[67] but had pressed the
authorities for Fuchs to be given a full security clearance without which he could not have assisted Peierls
in his work. Fuchs lived with the Peierls family for a time.[69] Peierls had a Russian wife, as did his
brother, and he maintained close contact with colleagues in the Soviet Union before and after the Second
World War.[70]

While not a communist like Fuchs, Peierls was known to have left-wing political views,[71] and had
colleagues with similar views.[72] He was denied a visa to visit the United States to attend a Nuclear
Physics Conference in Chicago in 1951. A similar request the following year was granted,[73] but in 1957
the Americans expressed concerns about him, indicating that they were unwilling to share information
with the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell while he remained as a consultant.[3]

Post-war
Physicists were in demand after the war, and Peierls received
offers from several universities.[74] He seriously considered an
offer of a position at Cambridge from William Lawrence Bragg,
but decided to return to Birmingham.[75] He worked on nuclear
forces, scattering, quantum field theories, collective motion in
nuclei, transport theory, and statistical mechanics.[1] Peierls had
largely left solid state physics behind when, in 1953, he began
collecting his lecture notes on the subject into a book.
Reconsidering the way that the atoms in metal crystals are
arranged, he noted an instability. This became known as the Paul Dirac, Wolfgang Pauli and
Peierls transition.[76] Rudolf Peierls, c 1953.
Peierls built up the physics department at Birmingham by attracting high quality researchers. These
included Gerald E. Brown, Max Krook, Tony Skyrme, Dick Dalitz, Freeman Dyson, Luigi Arialdo
Radicati di Brozolo, Stuart Butler, Walter Marshal, Stanley Mandelstam and Elliott H. Lieb.[77] An
undergraduate school of mathematical physics was created. Peierls delivered the lectures on quantum
mechanics, a subject that had not been taught at Birmingham before the war.[78]

In 1946 Peierls became a consultant to the Atomic Energy Research Establishment at Harwell. After
Fuchs was dismissed from his position there as head of the Theoretical Physics Division in 1950, Maurice
Pryce acted in the position in a part-time capacity, but when he went to America for a year on sabbatical,
Peierls took his place. The position was finally filled permanently by Brian Flowers.[79] Peierls resigned
from Harwell in 1957 due to what he saw as a lack of openness in security vetting at the request of the
Americans, which he felt indicated a lack of trust in him on the part of senior staff; but he was invited to
rejoin in 1960, and did so in 1963, remaining as a consultant for another 30 years.[80]

Peierls became the Wykeham Professor of Physics at the University of Oxford in 1963. He remained
there until he retired in 1974.[3] He wrote several books including Quantum Theory of Solids (1955), The
Laws of Nature (1955), Surprises in Theoretical Physics (1979), More Surprises in Theoretical Physics
(1991) and an autobiography, Bird of Passage (1985). Concerned with the nuclear weapons he had helped
to unleash, he worked on the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, was President of the Atomic Scientists'
Association in the UK, and was involved in the Pugwash movement,[1] and FREEZE, now known as
Saferworld.[81]

Genia died on 26 October 1986. Peierls remained active, although his eyesight deteriorated. In 1994, he
suffered a combination of health problems, including heart, kidney and lung problems, and relocated
himself to Oakenholt, a nursing home near Farmoor, Oxfordshire. He liked to read scientific papers in
enlarged script on a computer screen. During 1995, his health continued to decline,[82] and he required
regular kidney dialysis sessions at Churchill Hospital, where he died on 19 September 1995.[3]

Honours
Peierls was knighted in the 1968 Birthday Honours.[83] He was awarded the Rutherford Memorial Medal
in 1952,[84] the Royal Medal in 1959,[85] the Lorentz Medal in 1962,[86] the Max Planck Medal in
1963,[87] the Guthrie Medal and Prize in 1968,[3] the Matteucci Medal in 1982,[88] and the Enrico Fermi
Award from the United States Government for exceptional contribution to the science of atomic energy in
1980.[89]

In 1986, he was awarded the Copley Medal, and delivered the Rutherford Memorial Lecture,[90] and in
1991 he was awarded the Dirac Medal and Prize.[3] On 2 October 2004, the building housing the sub-
department of Theoretical Physics at the University of Oxford was formally named the Sir Rudolf Peierls
Centre for Theoretical Physics.[91]

Notes
1. Edwards, S. (1996). "Rudolph E. Peierls". Physics Today. 49 (2): 74–75.
Bibcode:1996PhT....49b..74E (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996PhT....49b..74E).
doi:10.1063/1.2807521 (https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2807521).
 2. Cathcart, Brian (21 September 1995). "Obituary: Sir Rudolf Peierls" (https://www.independe
nt.co.uk/news/people/obituary-sir-rudolf-peierls-1602308.html). The Independent. Retrieved
24 April 2023.
3. Dalitz, Richard (2008) [2004]. "Peierls, Rudolf Ernst (1907–1995)". Oxford Dictionary of
National Biography (online ed.). Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/ref:odnb/60076 (http
s://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F60076). (Subscription or UK public library
membership (https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public) required.)
4. Peierls 1985, pp. 5, 11.
5. Lee 2007, p. 268.
6. Peierls 1985, p. 6.
7. Peierls 1985, pp. 6–13.
8. Peierls 1985, pp. 16–20.
9. Peierls 1985, pp. 23–24.
10. Peierls 1985, pp. 25–27.
11. Peierls 1985, pp. 32–33.
12. Peierls 1985, pp. 33–34.
13. Lee 2007, p. 269.
14. Peierls, R. (1929). "Zur kinetischen Theorie der Wärmeleitung in Kristallen". Annalen der
Physik. 395 (8): 1055–1101. Bibcode:1929AnP...395.1055P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/a
bs/1929AnP...395.1055P). doi:10.1002/andp.19293950803 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fand
p.19293950803). ISSN 1521-3889 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1521-3889).
15. Peierls 1985, pp. 40–45.
16. Lee 2007, pp. 269–270.
17. Peierls 1985, pp. 54–55.
18. Peierls 1985, p. 68.
19. 1. R.E. Peierls, "Zur Theorie der galvanomagnetischen Effekte", 1929. 2. R.E. Peierls, "Zur
Theorie des Hall Effekts", 1929. The English translation of these 2 papers can be found in
"Selected Scientific Papers of Sir Rudolf Peierls", edited by R H Dalitz & Sir Rudolf Peierls,
World Scientific, 1997.
20. Peierls 1985, p. 80.
21. Peierls 1985, pp. 82–93.
22. Lee 2007, p. 271.
23. Peierls, R. (November 1933). "Zur Theorie des Diamagnetismus von Leitungselektronen"
[On the theory of diamagnetism of conduction electrons]. Zeitschrift für Physik (in German).
80 (11–12): 763–791. Bibcode:1933ZPhy...80..763P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/193
3ZPhy...80..763P). doi:10.1007/BF01342591 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01342591).
ISSN 0044-3328 (https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0044-3328). S2CID 119930820 (https://ap
i.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119930820).
24. Peierls, R. (March 1933). "Zur Theorie des Diamagnetismus von Leitungselektronen. II
Starke Magnetfelder" [On the theory of diamagnetism of conduction electrons. II. Strong
magnetic fields]. Zeitschrift für Physik (in German). 81 (3–4): 186–194.
Bibcode:1933ZPhy...81..186P (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1933ZPhy...81..186P).
doi:10.1007/BF01338364 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01338364). ISSN 0044-3328 (http
s://search.worldcat.org/issn/0044-3328). S2CID 122881533 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/
CorpusID:122881533).
25. Peierls 1985, pp. 89–96.
26. Peierls 1985, p. 141.
27. Lee 2007, pp. 271–272.
28. Bethe, H.; Peierls, R. (5 May 1934). "The Neutrino". Nature. 133 (532): 689–690.
Bibcode:1934Natur.133..689B (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1934Natur.133..689B).
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91. Lee 2009, p. vii.

See also
Cavity method
Peierls–Bogoliubov inequality
Peierls–Nabarro potential
Hofstadter's butterfly
Mermin–Wagner theorem
Mott insulator

References
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web/20141007074359/http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/011/11-10/CMH_Pub_11-10.p
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2007.0003). JSTOR 20461379 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/20461379).
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External links
1979 Audio Interview with Sir Rudolf Peierls by Martin Sherwin (https://ahf.nuclearmuseum.
org/voices/oral-histories/sir-rudolf-peierlss-interview/) Voices of the Manhattan Project
Portraits of Rudolf Peierls (https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person.php?LinkID=m
p06523) at the National Portrait Gallery, London
Rudolf Peierls own biographical notes from Los Alamos National Laboratory as a pdf (http
s://web.archive.org/web/20120926125713/http://lanl.gov/history/wartime/pdf/Rudolf%20Peie
rls%20questionnaire%20form,%20June%2012,%201945.pdf) at the Wayback Machine
(archived 26 September 2012)
War and Peace in the Nuclear Age; Dawn; Interview with Rudolf Peierls, 1986 (http://openva
ult.wgbh.org/catalog/V_28F1C920696B486F8796D1E449FF8391)
FBI file on Rudolf and Eugenia Peierls (https://vault.fbi.gov/Rudolph%20and%20Eugenia%2
0Peierls)
O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Rudolf Peierls" (https://mathshistory.st-andrews.
ac.uk/Biographies/Peierls.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St
Andrews
Rudolf Peierls (https://mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=44061) at the Mathematics Genealogy
Project

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