Structural Instability
• So far, in considering the behaviour of structural members under load, we
have been concerned with their ability to withstand different forms of stress.
Their strength, therefore, has depended upon the strength properties of the
material from which they are fabricated.
• However, structural members subjected to axial compressive loads may fail
in a manner that depends upon their geometrical properties rather than
their material properties.
• It is common experience, for example, that a long slender structural
member such as that shown in Fig. (a) will suddenly bow with large lateral
displacements when subjected to an axial compressive load (Fig. (b)).
• This phenomenon is known as instability and the member is said to buckle. If
the member is exceptionally long and slender it may regain its initial straight
shape when the load is removed.
Buckling of a slender column
• Structural members subjected to axial compressive loads are known as
columns or struts, although the former term is usually applied to the
relatively heavy vertical members that are used to support beams and slabs;
struts are compression members in frames and trusses.
• It is clear from the above discussion that the design of compression
members must take into account not only the material strength of the
member but also its stability against buckling.
• Obviously the shorter a member is in relation to its cross-sectional
dimensions, the more likely it is that failure will be a failure in compression
of the material rather than one due to instability.
• It follows that in some intermediate range a failure will be a combination of
both.
• We shall investigate the buckling of long slender columns and derive
expressions for the buckling or critical load; the discussion will then
be extended to the design of columns of any length and to a
consideration of beams subjected to axial load and bending moment
EULER THEORY FOR SLENDER COLUMNS
• if an increasing axial compressive load is applied to a long slender column
there is a value of load at which the column will suddenly bow or buckle in
some un-predetermined direction. This load is patently the buckling load of
the column or something very close to the buckling load.
• The fact that the column buckles in a particular direction implies a degree of
asymmetry in the plane of the buckle caused by geometrical and/or
material imperfections of the column and its load.
• Theoretically, however, in our analysis we stipulate a perfectly straight,
homogeneous column in which the load is applied precisely along the
perfectly straight centroidal axis.
• Theoretically, therefore, there can be no sudden bowing or buckling, only
axial compression. Thus we require a precise definition of buckling load
which may be used in the analysis of the perfect column.
• If the perfect column of Fig. c is subjected to a compressive
load P, only shortening of the column occurs no matter
what the value of P.
• Clearly if P were to produce a stress greater than the yield
stress of the material of the column, then material failure
would occur.
• However, if the column is displaced a small amount by a
lateral load, F, then, at values of P below the critical or
buckling load, PCR, removal of F results in a return of the
column to its undisturbed position, indicating a state of
stable equilibrium.
• When P = PCR the displacement does not disappear and the
column will, in fact, remain in any displaced position so long
as the displacement is small. Thus the buckling load, PCR, is
associated with a state of neutral equilibrium.
• For P > PCR enforced lateral displacements increase and the Definition of buckling
load of a column
column is unstable.
• BUCKLING LOAD FOR A PIN-ENDED COLUMN
Consider the pin-ended column shown in Fig. We shall assume that it is in the
displaced state of neutral equilibrium associated with buckling so that the compressive
axial load has reached the value PCR.
We also assume that the column has deflected so that its displacements, v, referred to the
axes 0xy are positive.
The bending moment, M, at any section X is then given by;
so that substituting for M into we obtain
Rearranging, we obtained
Determination of buckling load for a
pin-ended column
The solution of Eq. above is of standard form and is
v = C1 cos μx + C2 sin μx
in which C1 and C2 are arbitrary constants and μ2 =PCR/EI.
The boundary conditions for this particular case are v = 0 at x = 0 and x = L.
The first of these gives C1 = 0 while from the second we have
0 = C2 sin μL
so that μL= nπ where n =1, 2, 3, . . .
• Note that C2 is indeterminate and that the displacement of the column
cannot therefore be found. This is to be expected since the column is in
neutral equilibrium in its buckled state.
• The smallest value of buckling load corresponds to a value of n=1
The column then has the displaced shape v =C2 sin μx and buckles into the
longitudinal half sine-wave shown in Fig. (a) below.
Other values of PCR corresponding to n =2, 3, . . . are
Buckling modes of a
pin-ended column
• These higher values of buckling load correspond to more complex buckling modes as shown in Fig. (b)
and (c).
• Theoretically these different modes could be produced by applying external restraints to a slender
column at the points of contraflexure to prevent lateral movement.
• However, in practice, the lowest value is never exceeded since high stresses develop at this load and
failure of the column ensues. Therefore we are not concerned with buckling loads higher than this.
Buckling Load For a Column With Fixed Ends
• In practice, columns usually have their ends
restrained against rotation so that they are, in effect,
fixed.
• The Figure shows a column having its ends fixed and
subjected to an axial compressive load that has
reached the critical value, PCR, so that the column is
in a state of neutral equilibrium.
• In this case, the ends of the column are subjected to
fixing moments, MF, in addition to axial load.
• Thus at any section X the bending moment, M, is
given by
Buckling of a slender column with fixed ends
Substituting for M
which gives
Hence deflection eq becomes
Note that again v is indeterminate since MF cannot be found. Also since dv/dx = 0 at X =L we have from the
eq above
0 = 1 − cos μL
whence
cos μL = 1
and
μL = nπ where n = 0, 2, 4, . . .
For a non-trivial solution, i.e. n ≠ 0, and taking the smallest value of buckling load (n = 2) we have
Buckling Load For a Column with One End Fixed and One End
Free In this configuration the upper end of the column is free to move laterally and also
to rotate as shown in Figure.
At any section X the bending moment M is given by
Eq 1
Substituting for M in the first of these expressions (equally we could use the
second) we obtain
Eq 2
which, on rearranging, becomes
Eq 3
The solution of Eq. 3
Eq 4
where μ2 =PCR/EI. When x = 0, v = 0 so that C1=−δ. Also when x = L, v = δ so that
from Eq. 4, we have
Eq 5
which gives
Eq 6
Again v is indeterminate since δ cannot be determined. Finally we have dv/dx = 0 at x = 0.
Hence from Eq. 6
Thus taking the smallest value of buckling load (corresponding to n =1) we obtain
Eq 7
Buckling of a Column with One End Fixed and the other Pinned
• In this case, the column is allowed to rotate at one end but requires a
lateral force, F, to maintain its position (Fig.);
At any section X the bending moment M is given by
Substituting for M from given deflection Equation
Eq 1
which, on rearranging, becomes
Eq 2
The solution of Eq. (2) is
Eq 3
Now dv/dx = 0 at x = 0, so that
from which
When x = L, v = 0, hence
which gives
Thus Eq. 3 becomes
Also v = 0 at x = 0. Then
Equation (2) is a transcendental equation which may be solved
graphically as shown in Fig. The smallest non-zero value
satisfying Eq. (21.20) is approximately 4.49.
This gives
• It can be seen from buckling equations that the buckling load in all cases
has the form
in which K is some constant. The above equation may be written in the form
in which Le (= L/K) is the equivalent length of the column, i.e. (by comparison of Eqs the length of a pin-ended column
that has the same buckling load as the actual column.
Clearly the buckling load of any column may be expressed in this form so long as its equivalent length is known.
By inspection of the buckling eqs , we see that the equivalent lengths of the various types of column are
both ends pinned Le = 1.0L
both ends fixed Le = 0.5L
one end fixed and one free Le = 2.0L
one end fixed and one pinned Le = 0.7L
For a column of cross-sectional area A the critical stress, σCR, is, from Eq.
The second moment of area, I, of the cross section is equal to Ar2 where r is the
radius of gyration of the cross section. Thus we may write Eq. as
Therefore for a column of a given material, the critical or buckling stress is inversely
proportional to the parameter (Le/r) 2.
Le/r is an expression of the proportions of the length and cross-sectional dimensions of
the column and is known as its slenderness ratio. Clearly if the column is long and
slender, Le/r is large and σCR is small; conversely, for a short column having a
comparatively large area of cross section, Le/r is small and σCR is high.
A graph of σCR against Le/r for a particular material has the form shown in Fig. For
values of Le/r less than some particular value, which depends upon the material, a
column will fail in compression rather than by buckling so that σCR as predicted by the
Euler theory is no longer valid. Thus in the Fig, the actual failure stress follows the
dotted curve rather than the full line.
Failure of Columns of any Length
• Empirical or semi-empirical methods are generally used to predict the
failure of a column of any length: these then form the basis for safe load
or safe stress tables given in Codes of Practice.
• One such method which gives good agreement with experiment is that
due to Rankine.
Rankine Theory
• Suppose that P is the failure load of a column of a given material and of any
length. Suppose also that PS is the failure load in compression of a short
column of the same material and that PCR is the buckling load of a long
slender column, again of the same material.
The Rankine theory proposes that
Equation is valid for a very short column since 1/PCR→0 and P then →PS; the equation is also valid for a
long slender column since 1/PS is small compared with 1/PCR; thus P→PCR.
Therefore, Eq. is seen to hold for extremes in column length.
• Now let σS be the yield stress in compression of the material of the column
and A its cross-sectional area. Then
Also,
Substituting for PS and PCR we have
Dividing top and bottom of the right-hand side of this equation by
π2EI/L2e we have
But I =Ar2 so that
which may be written
in which k is a constant that depends upon the material of the column.
The failure stress in compression, σC, of a column of any length is then,
Note that for a column of a
given material σC is a
function of the slenderness
ratio, Le/r.
Assignments
In the experimental determination of the buckling loads for 12.5 mm diameter,
mild steel, pin-ended columns, two of the values obtained were:
(i) length 500 mm, load 9800 N,
(ii) length 200 mm, load 26 400 N.
(a) Determine whether either of these values conforms to the Euler theory for
buckling load.
(b) Assuming that both values are in agreement with the Rankine formula, find
the constants σs and k. Take E=200 000N/mm2.
Ans. (a) (i) conforms with Euler theory.
(b) σs =317N/mm2 k=1.16×10−4.
A tubular column has an effective length of 2.5 m and is to be designed to
carry a safe load of 300 kN. Assuming an approximate ratio of thickness to
external diameter of 1/16, determine a practical diameter and thickness
using the Rankine formula with σs =330 N/mm2 and k= 1/7500.
Use a safety factor of 3.
Ans. Diameter=128 mm thickness= 8 mm.
A mild steel pin-ended column is 2.5m
long and has the cross section shown in
Fig. If the yield stress in compression of
mild steel is 300 N/mm2, determine the
maximum load the column can withstand
using the Euler theory.
