SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 21

CHAPTER 2

SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND

URBAN SOCIETY

It is often said that change is the earth for approximately 500,000 (five
only unchanging aspect of society. lakh) years, but they have had a
Anyone living in modern society does civilised existence for only about 6,000
not need to be reminded that constant years. Of these civilised years, it is only
change is among the most permanent in the last 400 years that we have seen
features of our society. In fact, the constant and rapid change; even
discipline of sociology itself emerged within these years of change, the pace
as an effort to make sense of the rapid has accelerated only in the last 100
changes that Wester n European years. Because the speed with which
society had experienced between the change happens has been increasing
seventeenth and nineteenth centuries. steadily, it is probably true that in the
But though social change last hundred years, change has been
seems such a common and obvious faster in the last fifty years than in
fact about moder n life, it is – the first fifty. And within the last fifty
comparatively speaking – a very new years, the world may have changed
and recent fact. It is estimated that more in the last twenty years than in
human beings have existed on planet the first thirty…

The Clock of Human History

Human beings have existed on earth for about half a million years. Agriculture,
the necessary basis of fixed settlements, is only about twelve thousand years old.
Civilisations date back no more than six thousand years or so. If we were to think
of the entire span of human existence thus far as a day (stretching from midnight
to midnight), agriculture would have come into existence at 11:56 pm and
civilisations at 11:57. The development of modern societies would get underway
only at 11:59 and 30 seconds! Yet perhaps as much change has taken place in
the last thirty seconds of this human day as in all the time leading up to it.
From: Anthony Giddens,2004 Sociology, 4th edition, p.40.

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22 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

Activity 1 big impact spread over a large sector

of society – in order to qualify as social
Talk to your elders and make a list
change.
of the things in your life that: (a) did
not exist when your parents were Even after this kind of
your age; and (b) did not exist when specification, social change still
your grandparents were your age. remains a very broad term. Attempts
Eg: Black & white/colour TV; to further qualify it usually try to
milk in plastic bags, zip fasteners classify it by its sources or causes; by
on clothes; plastic buckets; etc. – its nature, or the kind of impact it has
did it exist in your parents’/ on society; and by its pace or speed.
grandparents’ childhood? For example, evolution is the name
Can you also make a list of things
given to a kind of change that takes
that existed in your parents’/
place slowly over a long period of time.
grandparents’, time but don’t exist
in your time?
This term was made famous by the
natural scientist Charles Darwin, who
proposed a theory of how living
SOCIAL CHANGE
organisms evolve – or change slowly
‘Social change’ is such a general term over several centuries or even millenia,
that it can be, and often is, used to by adapting themselves to natural
refer to almost any kind of change not circumstances. Darwin’s theory
qualified by some other term, such as emphasized the idea of ‘the survival of
economic or political change. the fittest’ – only those life forms
Sociologists have had to work hard to manage to survive who are best
limit this broad meaning in order to adapted to their environment; those
make the term more specific and that are unable to adapt or are too slow
hence useful for social theory. At the to do so die out in the long run. Darwin
most basic level, social change refers suggested that human beings evolved
to changes that are significant – that from sea-borne life forms (or varieties
is, changes which alter the ‘underlying of fish) to land-based mammals,
structure of an object or situation over passing through various stages the
a period of time’ (Giddens 2005:42). highest of which were the various
Thus social change does not include varieties of monkeys and chimpanzees
any and all changes, but only big ones, until finally the homo sapiens or
changes which transform things human form was evolved. Although
fundamentally. The ‘bigness’ of Darwin’s theory referred to natural
change is measured not only by how processes, it was soon adapted to the
much change it brings about, but also social world and was termed ‘social
by the scale of the change, that is, by Darwinism’, a theory that emphasised
how large a section of society it affects. the importance of adaptive change. In
In other words, changes have to be contrast to evolutionary change,
both intensive and extensive – have a change that occurs comparatively

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SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 23

quickly, even suddenly, is sometimes previous chapter.) For example, the

called ‘revolutionary change’. It is used emergence of paper money as
mainly in the political context, when currency marked a major change in
the power structure of society changes the organisation of financial markets
very rapidly through the overthrow of and transactions. Until this change
a former ruling class or group by its came about, most forms of currency
challengers. Examples include the involved precious metals like gold and
French revolution (1789-93) and the silver. The value of the coin was
Soviet or Russian revolution of 1917. directly linked to the value of the gold
But the term has also been used more or silver it contained. By contrast, the
generally to refer to sharp, sudden and value of a paper currency note has no
total transformations of other kinds as relationship to the value of the paper
well, such as in the phrase ‘industrial it is printed on, or the cost of its
revolution’ or ‘telecommunications printing. The idea behind paper
revolution’, and so on. money was that a medium or means
for facilitating the exchange of goods
Activity 2 and services need not itself be
Refer to the discussions about the intrinsically valuable. As long as it
French Revolution and the Industrial represents values convincingly — i.e.,
Revolution which you have come as long as it inspires trust — almost
across before in your textbooks. anything can function as money. This
What were the major kinds of change idea was the foundation for the credit
that each brought about? Would market and helped change the
these changes qualify to be called structure of banking and finance.
‘social change’? Were these changes
These changes in turn produced
fast enough and far reaching enough
further changes in the organisation of
to qualify as ‘revolutionary change’?
What other kinds of social change economic life.
have you come across in your books Changes in values and beliefs can
which might not qualify as also lead to social change. For
revolutionary change? Why would example, changes in the ideas and
they not qualify? beliefs about children and childhood
have brought about very important
Types of change that are identified kinds of social change, there was a
by their nature or impact include time when children were simply
structural change and changes in considered small adults — there was
ideas, values and beliefs. Structural no special concept of childhood as
change refers to transformations in such, with its associated notions of
the structure of society, to its what was right or wrong for children
institutions or the rules by which to do. As late as the 19th century for
these institutions are run. (Recall the example, it was considered good and
discussion of social structure from the proper that children start to work as

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24 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

soon as they were able to. Children some industries in our country that
were often helping their families at even today depend on child labour at
work from the age of five or six; the least partially (such as carpet weaving,
early factory system depended on the small tea shops or restaurants, match-
labour of children. It was during the stick making, and so on), child labour
19th and early 20th centuries that is illegal and employers can be
ideas about childhood as a special punished as criminals.
stage of life gained influence. It then But by far the most common way
became unthinkable for small of classifying social change is by its
children to be at work, and many causes or sources. Sometimes the
countries passed laws banning child causes are pre-classified into
labour. At the same time, there inter nal (or endogenous) and
emerged ideas about compulsory exter nal (or exogenous) causes.
education, and childr en were There are five broad types of sources
supposed to be in school rather than or causes of social change:
at work, and many laws were passed environmental, technological,
for this as well. Although there are economic, political and cultural.

Students in a classroom

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SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 25

Students in a Vocational Training Lab

Source: https//[Link]/sites/default/files/2019-09/National%20Skill%20Development
%[Link]

Environment their environment. The same was true

for people living in very cold climates,
Nature, ecology and the physical
or in port towns, along major trade
environment have always had a
significant influence on the structure routes or mountain passes, or in fertile
and shape of society. This was river valleys. But the extent to which
particularly true in the past when the environment influences society
human beings were unable to control has been decreasing over time with the
or overcome the effects of nature. For increase in technological resources.
example, people living in a desert Technology allows us to overcome or
environment were unable to practise adapt to the problems posed by
settled agriculture of the sort that was nature, thus reducing the differences
possible in the plains, near rivers and between societies living in different
so on. So the kind of food they ate or sorts of environments. On the other
the clothes they wore, the way they hand, technology also alters nature
earned their livelihood, and their and our relationship to it in new ways
patterns of social interaction were all (see the chapter on environment in
determined to a large extent by the this book). So it is perhaps more
physical and climatic conditions of accurate to say that the effect of

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26 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

The earth caves in after heavy floods nature on society is changing rather
than simply declining.
But how, you might ask, does this
affect social change? The environment
may have shaped societies, but how did
it play any role in social change? The
easiest and most powerful answer to
this question can be found in natural
disasters. Sudden and catastrophic
events such as earthquakes, volcanic
eruptions, floods, or tidal waves (like
the tsunami that hit Indonesia, Sri
Lanka, the Andaman Islands and parts
of Tamil Nadu in December 2004) can
change societies quite drastically.
These changes are often irreversible,
that is, they are permanent and don’t
allow a return to the way things were.
For example, it is quite possible that
many of those whose livelihoods were
destroyed by the tsunami will never be
able to return to them again, and that
many of the coastal villages will have
their social structure completely
altered. There are numerous instances
of natural disasters leading to a total
transformation and sometimes total
destruction of societies in history.
Environmental or ecological factors
need not only be destructive to cause
change, they can be constructive as
well. A good example is the discovery
of oil in the desert regions of West Asia
(also called the Middle East). Like the
discovery of gold in California in the
19th century, oil reserves in the Middle
East have completely transformed the
societies in which they were found.
Countries like Saudi Arabia, Kuwait or
the United Arab Emirates would be very
different today without their oil wealth.

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Technology and Economy thereby changing the dynamics of

international trade and migration.
The combination of technological and
economic change has been responsible Both these developments created
for immense social changes, specially gigantic ripples of change which
in the modern period. Technology affected not only the economy but also
affects society in a wide variety of ways. the social, cultural and demographic
As seen above, it can help us to resist, dimensions of world society.
control, adapt to or harness nature in The importance and impact of
different ways. In combination with the steam power became visible relatively
very powerful institution of the market, quickly; however, sometimes, the
technological change can be as social impact of technological changes
impressive in its social impact as becomes visible only retrospectively.
natural factors like a tsunami or the A technological invention or discovery
discovery of oil. The most famous may produce limited immediate
instance of massive and immediately effects, as though it were lying
visible social change brought about by dormant. Some later change in the
technological change is the Industrial economic context may suddenly
Revolution itself, which you have change the social significance of the
already read about. same invention and give it recognition
You will surely have heard of the as a historic event. Examples of this
massive social impact made by the are the discovery of gunpowder and
steam engine. The discovery of steam writing paper in China, which had
power allowed emerging forms of large only limited impact for centuries until
scale industry to use of a source of
they were inserted into the context of
energy that was not only far stronger
modernising Western Europe. From
than animals or human beings, but
that vantage point, given the
was also capable of continuous
advantage of enabling circumstances,
operation without the need for rest.
When harnessed to modes of transport gunpowder helped to transform the
like the steam ship and the railway, it technology of warfare and the paper-
transformed the economy and social print revolution changed society
geography of the world. The railroad forever. Another example closer to
enabled the westward expansion of home is the case of technological
industry and trade on the American innovations in the textile industry in
continent and in Asia. In India too, Britain. In combination with market
the railways have played a very forces and imperial power, the new
important role in shaping the spinning and weaving machines
economy, specially in the first century destroyed the handloom industry of
after their introduction in 1853. the Indian subcontinent which was,
Steamships made ocean voyages until then, the largest and most
much faster and much more reliable, advanced in the world.

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28 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

Activity 3 Politics
Have you noticed other such In the old ways of writing and
technological changes which have recounting history, the actions of
social consequences in your own life? kings and queens seemed to be the
Think of the photo-copying machine most important forces of social
and its impact. Have you ever change. But as we know now, kings
thought of what things were like and queens were the representatives
before photo-copying became so
of larger political, social and economic
cheap and freely available? Another
example could be the STD telephone
trends. Individuals may indeed have
booths. Try to find out how people had roles to play, but they were part
communicated before these of a larger context. In this sense,
telephone booths had appeared and political forces have surely been
very few homes had telephone among the most important causes of
connections. Make a list of other social change. The clearest examples
such examples. are found in the history of warfare.
When one society waged war on
Sometimes changes in economic
another and conquered or was
organisation that are not directly
conquered, social change was usually
technological can also change society.
an immediate consequence.
In a well-known historical example,
Sometimes, conquerors brought the
plantation agriculture — that is, the
seeds of change and planted them
growing of single cash crops like
wherever they went. At other times,
sugarcane, tea or cotton on a large
scale — created a heavy demand for the conquered were actually
labour. This demand helped to successful in planting seeds of change
establish the institution of slavery and among the conquerors and
the slave trade between Africa, Europe transformed their societies. Although
and the Americas between the 17th there are many such examples in
and 19th centuries. In India, too, the history, it is interesting to consider a
tea plantations of Assam involved the modern instance — that of the United
forced migration of labour from States and Japan.
Eastern India (specially the Adivasi The United States won a famous
areas of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh). victory over Japan in the Second World
Today, in many parts of the world, War, partly through the use of a
changes in customs duties or tariffs weapon of mass destruction never
brought about by inter national seen before in human history, the
agreements and institutions like the nuclear bomb. After the Japanese
World Trade Organisation, can lead to surrender, the United States occupied
entire industries and occupations and ruled over Japan for several years,
being wiped out or (less often) sudden bringing about lots of changes,
booms or periods of prosperity for including land refor m in Japan.
other industries or occupations. Japanese industry, at that time, was

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SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 29

trying very hard to copy American through the redistribution of power

industry and learn from it. By the across different social groups
1970s, however, Japanese industrial and classes.
techniques, specially in fields like car Considered from this viewpoint,
manufacturing, had gone far ahead of universal adult franchise — or the ‘one
the Americans. Between the 1970s person, one vote’ principle — is
and 1990s, Japanese industry probably the single biggest political
dominated the world and forced change in history. Until modern
changes in the industrial organisation democracies formally empowered the
of Europe and specially the United people with the vote, and until
States. The industrial landscape of elections became mandatory for
the United States in particular was exercising legitimate power, society
decisively altered by the impact of was structured very differently. Kings
Japanese industrial technology and and queens claimed to rule by divine
production organisation. Large, right, and they were not really
traditionally dominant industries like answerable to the common people.
steel, automobiles and heavy Even when democratic principles of
engineering suffered major setbacks voting were first introduced, they did
and had to restructure themselves not include the whole population —
according to Japanese technological in fact only a small minority could
and management principles. vote, or had any say in the formation
Emerging fields like electronics were of the government. In the beginning,
also pioneered by the Japanese. In the vote was restricted to those who
short, within the space of four were born into high status social
decades, Japan had turned the tables groups of a particular race or ethnicity,
on the United States, but through or to wealthy men who owned
economic and technological means property. All women, men of lower
rather than warfare. classes or subordinated ethnicities, and
Political changes need not only be the poor and working people in general
inter national — they can have were not allowed to vote.
enormous social impact even at home. It is only through long struggles
Although you may not have thought that universal adult franchise came to
of it this way, the Indian independence be established as a norm. Of course,
movement did not only bring about this did not abolish all the inequalities
political change in the form of the end of previous eras. Even today, not all
of British rule, it also decisively countries follow democratic forms of
changed Indian society. A more recent rule; even where elections are held,
instance is to be found in the Nepali they can be manipulated; and people
people’s rejection of monarchy in can continue to be powerless to
2006. More generally, political influence the decisions of their
changes bring about social change government. But despite all this, it

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30 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

cannot be denied that universal adult of cultural values on economic and

franchise serves as a powerful norm social change. In India too we find
that exerts pressure on every society many examples of religion bringing
and every government. Governments about social change. Among the best
must now at least appear to seek the known are the impact of Buddhism on
approval of the people in order to be social and political life in ancient India,
considered legitimate. This has and the widespread influence of the
brought massive social changes in Bhakti Movement on medieval social
its wake. structure including the caste system.
A different example of cultural
Culture change leading to social change can
Culture is used here as a short label be seen in the evolution of ideas about
for a very wide field of ideas, values, the place of women in society. In the
beliefs, that are important to people modern era, as women have struggled
and help shape their lives. Changes for equality, they have helped change
in such ideas and beliefs lead naturally society in many ways. Women’s
to changes in social life. The struggles have also been helped or
commonest example of a socio- hindered by other historical
cultural institution that has had circumstances. For example, during
enormous social impact is religion. the Second World War, women in
Religious beliefs and norms have western countries started to work in
helped organise society and it is hardly factories doing jobs that they had
surprising that changes in these never done before, jobs which had
beliefs have helped transform society. always been done by men. The fact
So important has religion been, that that women were able to build ships,
some scholars have tended to define operate heavy machinery, manufacture
civilisations in religious terms and to ar maments and so on, helped
see history as the process of establish their claims to equality. But
interaction between religions. it is equally true that, had it not been
However, as with other important for the war, they would have had to
factors of social change, religion too struggle for much longer. A very
is contextual — it is able to produce different instance of change produced
effects in some contexts but not in by the position of women can be seen
others. Max Weber’s study ‘The in consumer advertising. In most
Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of urban societies, it is women who take
Capitalism’ showed how the religious most of the everyday decisions about
beliefs of some Christian Protestant what to buy for their households. This
sects helped to establish the capitalist has made advertisers very sensitive to
social system. It remains one of the the views and perspectives of women
most famous examples of the impact as consumers. Significant proportions

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SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 31

of advertising expenditure are now (Australia) against the dominant

directed at women, and this in turn upper class centre of authority
has effects on the media. In short, the (England). Similarly, the complete
economic role of women starts a chain world dominance of the West Indies
of changes which can have a larger cricket team during the 1970s and
social impact. For example, 1980s, was also an expression of
advertisements may tend to show racial pride on the part of a colonised
women as decision-makers and as people. In India, too, beating England
important people in ways that would at cricket was always seen as
not have been considered or something special, particularly before
encouraged before. More generally, independence. At another level, the
most advertisements used to be immense popularity of cricket in the
addressed to men; now they are Indian sub-continent has altered the
addressed as much to women, or, in commercial profile of the game which
some sectors like household is now driven by the interests of South
appliances and consumer goods, Asian fans, specially Indians.
mainly to women. So it is now As will be clear from the above
economically important for advertisers discussion, no single factor or theory
and manufacturers to pay attention can account for social change. The
to what women think and feel. causes of social change may be
Yet another instance of cultural internal or external, the result of
change bringing about social change deliberate actions or accidental
can be found in the history of sports. events. Moreover, the causes of social
Games and sports have always been change are often interrelated.
expressions of popular culture that Economic and technological causes
sometimes acquire a lot of may also have a cultural component,
importance. The game of cricket politics may be influenced by
began as a British aristocratic environment. It is important to be
pastime, spread to the middle and aware of the many dimensions of
working classes of Britain, and from social change and its varied forms.
there to British colonies across the Change is an important subject for
world. As the game acquired roots us because the pace of change in
outside Britain, it often turned into a modern and specially contemporary
symbol of national or racial pride. times is much faster than what it
The very different history of intense used to be before. Although social
rivalry in cricket shows the social change is better understood
importance of sport in a very telling retrospectively — after it has already
manner. The England-Australia occurred — we also need to be aware
rivalry expressed the resentment of the of it as it happens, and to prepare for
socially subordinated colony it in whatever ways we can.

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SOCIAL ORDER Activity 4

The meaning of social events or We are used to thinking of sameness
processes often becomes clear through as boring and change as exciting;
this is also true, of course — change
contrasts, just as the letters on the
can be fun and lack of change can
page that you are reading become be really dull. But think of what life
legible because they contrast against would be like if you were forced to
the background. In the same way, change all the time… What if you
social change as a process acquires never, ever got the same food for
meaning against the backdrop of lunch — every day something
continuity or lack of change. It may different, and never the same thing
twice, regardless of whether you
sound odd, but change makes sense
liked it or not? Here is a scarier
as a concept only if there are also some thought — what if every time you
things that are not changing, so that came back from school there were
they offer the possibility of comparison different people at home, different
or contrast. In other words, social parents, dif ferent br others and
change has to be understood together sisters…? What if whenever you
with social order, which is the played your favourite game —
football, cricket, volleyball, hockey
tendency within established social
and so on — the rules were different
systems that resists and regulates each time? Think of other areas of
change. your life where you would like things
Another way of looking at the to not change too quickly. Are there
relationship between social change and areas of your life where you want
social order is to think about the things to change quickly? Try to
possible reasons why society needs to think about the reasons why you
want or don’t want change in
prevent, discourage, or at least control
particular instances.
change. In order to establish itself as a
strong and viable social system, every The above argument was an
society must be able to reproduce itself abstract and general one about the
over time and maintain its stability. possible reasons why societies may
Stability requires that things continue need to resist change. But there are
more or less as they are — that people usually more concrete and specific
continue to follow the same rules, that reasons why societies do in fact resist
similar actions produce similar results, change. Remember what you read
and more generally, that individuals about social structure and social
and institutions behave in a fairly stratification in Chapter 1. Most
predictable manner. societies most of the time are stratified
in unequal ways, that is, the different

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SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 33

strata are differently positioned with may be more or less efficient in

respect to command over economic dif fer ent contexts, but however
resources, social status and political efficient it is, it can never completely
power. It is not surprising that those erase the will of the individual. In
who are favourably placed wish for other words, socialisation cannot turn
things to continue as they are, while people into programmed robots — it
those who are suffering disadvantages cannot produce complete and
are anxious for change. So the ruling permanent consent for all norms at
or dominant groups in society all times. You may have experienced
generally resist any social changes this in your own lives: rules or beliefs
that may alter their status, because which seem very natural and right at
they have a vested interest in stability. one point of time, don’t seem so
On the other hand, the subordinated obviously correct at other times. We
or oppressed groups have a vested question things we believed in the
interest in change. ‘Normal’ conditions past, and change our minds about
usually favour the rich and powerful, what we regard as right or wrong.
and they are able to resist change. Sometimes, we may even return to
This is another broad reason why beliefs we once held and then
societies are generally stable. abandoned, only to rediscover them
However, the notion of social order afresh at some later stage of life or in
is not restricted to the idea of different circumstances. So, while
resistance to change, it also has a socialisation does take on much of the
more positive meaning. It refers to the burden of producing social order, it is
active maintenance and reproduction never enough by itself.
of particular pattern of social relations Thus, most modern societies must
and of values and norms. Broadly also depend on some form of power or
speaking, social order can be achieved coercion to ensure that institutions
in one of two ways — when people and individuals conform to established
spontaneously wish to abide by a set social norms. Power is usually defined
of rules and norms; or when people as the ability to make others do what
are compelled in various ways to obey you want regardless of what they
such norms. Every society employs a themselves want. When a relationship
combination of these methods to of power is stable and settled, and the
sustain social order. parties involved have become
Spontaneous consent to social accustomed to their relative positions,
order derives ultimately from shared we have a situation of domination. If
values and nor ms which are a social entity (a person, institution
internalised by people through the or group) is routinely or habitually in
process of socialisation. (Revisit the a position of power, it is said to be
discussion of socialisation in dominant. In normal times, dominant
Introducing Sociology). Socialisation institutions, groups or individuals

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34 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

exercise a decisive influence on society. propriety and justice. We have already

It is not as though they are never seen how power is defined in society;
challenged, but this happens only in power in itself is simply a fact — it can
abnormal or extraordinary times. Even be either legitimate or not. Authority
though it implies that people are being is defined by Max Weber as legitimate
forced to do things they don’t power — that is, power considered to
necessarily want to do, domination in be justified or proper. For example, a
normal times can be quite ‘smooth’, in police officer, a judge, or a school
the sense of appearing to be without teacher all exercise different kinds of
friction or tension. (Revisit the authority as part of their jobs. This
discussion of ‘forced cooperation’ from authority is explicitly provided to them
Chapter 1. Why, for example, did by their official job description — there
women not want to claim their rights are written documents specifying their
in their families of birth? Why did they authority, and what they may and may
‘consent’ to the patriarchal norm?) not do.
The fact that they have authority
Domination, Authority and Law automatically implies that other
How is it that domination can be non- members of society — who have
confrontational even when it clearly agreed to abide by its rules and
involves unequal relationships where regulations — must obey this authority
costs and benefits are unevenly within its proper domain. The domain
distributed? Part of the answer we have of the judge is the court room, and
already got from the discussion of the when citizens are in the court, they are
previous chapter — dominant groups supposed to obey the judge or defer to
extract cooperation in unequal her/his authority. Outside the
relationships because of their power. courtroom, the judge is supposed to
But why does this power work? Does be like any other citizen. So, on the
it work purely because of the threat of street, S/he must obey the lawful
the use of force? This is where we come authority of the police officer. When
to an important concept in sociology, on duty, the policeman or woman has
that of legitimation. authority over the public actions of all
In social terms, legitimacy refers citizens except her/his superior
to the degree of acceptance that is officers. But police officers do not have
involved in power relations. Something jurisdiction over the private activities
that is legitimate is accepted as proper, of citizens as long as they are not
just and fitting. In the broadest sense, suspected of being unlawful. In
it is acknowledged to be part of the different way — different because the
social contract that is currently nature of the authority involved is less
prevailing. In short, legitimacy implies strictly or explicitly defined — the
conformity to existing norms of right, teacher has authority over her/his

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SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 35

pupils in the classroom. The authority apply to all citizens. Whether or not I
of the teacher does not extend into the as an individual agree with a particular
home of the pupil where parents or law, it has binding force on me as a
guardians have primary responsibility citizen, and on all other citizens
and authority over their children. similarly regardless of their beliefs.
There may be other for ms of So, domination works through
authority that are not so strictly power, but much of this power is
defined, but are nevertheless effective actually legitimate power or authority,
in eliciting consent and cooperation. a large part of which is codified in law.
A good example is the authority Consent and cooperation are obtained
wielded by a religious leader. Although on a regular and reliable basis because
some institutionalised religions may of the backing of this structure of
have partly formalised this authority, legitimation and formal institutional
but the leader of a sect or other less- support. This does not exhaust the
institutionalised minor religious group domain of power or domination —
may wield enor mous authority there are many kinds of power that are
without it being formalised. Similarly effective in society even though they
reputed scholars, artists, writers and are illegitimate, or if legitimate are not
other intellectuals may wield a lot of codified in law. It is the mix of
authority in their respective fields legitimate, lawful authority and other
without it being formalised. The same kinds of power that determines the
is true of a criminal gang leader — he nature of a social system and also its
or she may exercise absolute authority dynamics.
but without any formal specifications.
The difference between explicitly Contestation, Crime and Violence
codified and more informal authority
is relevant to the notion of the law. A The existence of domination, power,
law is an explicitly codified norm or legitimate authority and law does not
rule. It is usually written down, and imply that they always meet with
there are laws that specify how laws obedience and conformity. You have
are to be made or changed, or what is already read about the presence of
to be done if someone violates them. conflict and competition in society. In
A modern democratic society has a a similar way, we need to recognise
given body of laws created through its more general forms of contestation in
legislature, which consist of elected society. Contestation is used here as
representatives. The laws of the land simply a word for broad forms of
are enacted in the name of the people insistent disagreement. Competition
of that land by the people’s and conflict are more specific than
representatives. This law forms the this, and leave out other forms of
formal body of rules according to dissent that may not be well described
which society will be governed. Laws by such terms.

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36 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

One example is that of ‘counter Although it generally carries a

cultures’ among youth or ‘youth strong moral charge, the notion of
rebellion’. These are protests against crime is strictly derived from the law.
or refusal to conform to prevalent A crime is an act that violates an
social norms. The content of these existing law, nothing more, nothing
protests may involve anything from less. The moral worth of the act is not
hairstyles and clothing fashions to determined solely by the fact that it
language or lifestyle. More standard violates existing law. If the existing law
or conventional forms of contestation is believed to be unjust, for example,
include elections — which are a form a person may claim to be breaking it
of political competition. Contestations for the highest moral reasons. This is
also include dissent or protest against exactly what the leaders of the
laws or lawful authorities. Open and Freedom Movement in India were
democratic societies allow this kind of doing as part of their ‘Civil
dissent to different degrees. There are Disobedience’ campaign. When
both explicit and implicit boundaries Mahatma Gandhi broke the salt law
defined for such dissent; crossing of the British government at Dandi,
these boundaries invites some form of he was committing a crime, and he
reaction from society, usually from the was arrested for it. But he committed
law enforcement authorities. this crime deliberately and proudly,
As you know very well, being and the Indian people were also proud
united as Indians does not prevent us of him and what he stood for. Of
from disagreeing with each other. course, these are not the only kinds
Different political parties may have of crime that are committed! There are
very different agendas even though many other kinds of crime that cannot
they may respect the same claim any great moral virtue. But the
Constitution. Belief in or knowledge important point is that a crime is the
of the same set of traffic rules does breaking of the law — going beyond
not prevent heated arguments on the the boundary of legitimate dissent as
road. In other words, social order need defined by the law.
not mean sameness or unanimity. On The question of violence relates at
the other hand, how much difference the broadest level to the basic definition
or dissent is tolerated in society is an of the state. One of the defining features
important question. The answer to of the modern state is that it is
this question depends on social and supposed to have a monopoly over the
historical circumstances but it always use of legitimate violence within its
marks an important boundary in jurisdiction. In other words, only the
society, the boundary between the state (through its authorised
legitimate and the illegitimate, the functionaries) may lawfully use
legal and the illegal, and the violence — all other instances of
acceptable and the unacceptable. violence are by definition illegal. (There

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SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 37

are exceptions like self defense meant of the major changes in social
for extraordinary and rare situations). structure brought about by the
Thus, technically, every act of violence transition from nomadic ways of life
is seen as being directed against the based on hunting, gathering food and
state. Even if I assault or murder some transient agriculture to a more settled
other individual, it is the state that form of life. With the development of
prosecutes me for violating its sedentary forms of agriculture — or
monopoly over the legitimate use of forms that did not involve moving from
violence. place to place — social structure also
It is obvious that violence is the changed. Investment in land and
enemy of social order, and an extreme technological innovations in
form of contestation that transgresses agriculture created the possibility of
not only the law, but important social producing a surplus – something over
norms. Violence in society is the and above what was needed for
product of social tensions and survival. Thus, settled agriculture
indicates the presence of serious meant that wealth could be
problems. It is also a challenge to the accumulated and this also brought
authority of the state. In this sense it with it social differences. The more
also marks the failure of the regime of advanced division of labour also
legitimation and consent and the open created the need for occupational
outbreak of conflicts. specialisation. All of these changes
together shaped the emergence of the
SOCIAL ORDER AND CHANGE IN VILLAGE, village as a population settlement
TOWN AND CITY based on a particular form of social
Most societies can be divided into rural organisation.
and urban sectors. The conditions of In economic and administrative
life and therefore the forms of social terms, the distinction between rural
organisation in these sectors are very and urban settlements is usually made
different from each other. So also, on the basis of two major factors:
therefore, are the forms of social order population density and the proportion
that prevail in these sectors, and the of agriculture related economic
kinds of social change that are most activities. (Contrary to appearances,
significant in each. size is not always decisive; it becomes
We all think we know what is difficult to separate large villages and
meant by a village and by a town or small towns on the basis of population
city. But how exactly do we size alone.) Thus, cities and towns
differentiate between them? (see also have a much higher density of
the discussion in Chapter 5 on Village population — or the number of persons
Studies in the section on per unit area, such as a square km —
M.N. Srinivas). From a sociological than villages. Although they are
point of view, villages emerged as part smaller in terms of absolute numbers

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38 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

of people, villages are spread out over expected to increase to 66 per cent by
a relatively larger area. Villages are also 2050 (United Nations, Department of
distinguished from towns and cities by Economc and Social Affairs, Population
the larger share of agricultural activities Division, 2014, World Population
in their economic profile. In other prospects). Indian society is also
words, villages will have a significant experiencing urbanisation: the
proportion of its population engaged percentage of the population living in
in agriculture linked occupations, urban areas has increased from a little
much of what is produced there will be less than 11 per cent in 1901 to a little
agricultural products, and most of its more than17 per cent in 1951, soon
income will be from agriculture. after independence. The 2001 Census
The distinction between a town and shows that almost 28 per cent of the
city is much more a matter of population lives in urban areas.
administrative definition. A town and According to 2011 Census report,
city are basically the same sort of 37.7 per cent population of India lives
settlement, differentiated by size. An in urban areas.
‘urban agglomeration’ (a term used in
Censuses and official reports) refers to Social Order and Social Change in
a city along with its surrounding sub- Rural Areas
urban areas and satellite settlements. Because of the objective conditions in
A ‘metropolitan area’ includes more villages being different, we can expect
than one city, or a continuous urban the nature of social order and social
settlement many times the size of a change to be different as well. Villages
single city. are small in size so they usually permit
Given the directions in which more personalised relationships; it is
modern societies have developed, the not unusual for members of a village
process of urbanisation has been to know all or most other members by
experienced in most countries. This is sight. Moreover, the social structure
the process by which a progressively in villages tends to follow a more
larger and larger proportion of the traditional pattern: institutions like
country’s population lives in urban caste, religion, and other forms of
rather than rural areas. Most customary or traditional social practice
developed countries are now are stronger here. For these reasons,
overwhelmingly urban. Urbanisation unless there are special circumstances
is also the trend in developing that make for an exception, change is
countries; it can be faster or slower, but slower to arrive in villages than in towns.
unless there are special reasons There are also other reasons for this.
blocking it, the process does seem to A variety of factors ensure that the
occur in most contexts. According to subordinate sections of society have
United Nations report (2014), 54 per much less scope for expressing
cent of the world's population lives in themselves in rural areas than their
urban areas, a proportion that is counterparts in cities. The lack of

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SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 39

anonymity and distance in the village agrarian social relations have a very
makes it difficult for people to dissent major impact on rural societies. Thus,
because they can be easily identified measures like land reform which alter
and ‘taught a lesson’ by the dominant the structure of land ownership have
sections. Moreover, the relative power an immediate impact. In India, the first
of the dominant sections is much more phase of land reforms after
because they control most avenues of independence took away proprietary
employment, and most resources of all rights from absentee landlords and
kinds. So the poor have to depend on gave them to the groups that were
the dominant sections since there are actually managing the land and its
no alternative sources of employment cultivation in the village. Most of these
or support. Given the small population, groups belonged to intermediate castes,
it is also very difficult to gather large and though they were often not
numbers, particularly since efforts themselves the cultivators, they
towards this cannot be hidden from the acquired rights over land. In
powerful and are very quickly combination with their number, this
suppressed. So, in short, if there is a factor increased their social status and
strong power structure already in place
political power, because their votes
in a village, it is very difficult to dislodge
mattered for winning elections. M.N.
it. Change in the sense of shifts in power
Srinivas has named these groups as the
are thus slow and late to arrive in rural
‘dominant castes’. In many regional
areas because the social order is
contexts, the dominant castes became
stronger and more resilient.
very powerful in economic terms and
Change of other sorts is also slow
dominated the countryside and hence
to come because villages are scattered
also electoral politics. In more recent
and not as well connected to the rest of
times, these dominant castes are
the world as cities and towns are. Of
themselves facing opposition from the
course, new modes of communication,
assertive uprisings of castes further
particularly the telephone and the
television have changed this. So the below them, the lowest and the most
cultural ‘lag’ between villages and backward castes. This has led to major
towns is now much shorter or non- social upheavals in many states like
existent. Communication links of other Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh
sorts (road, rail) have also generally and Tamil Nadu.
improved over time so that few villages In the same way, changes in the
can really claim to be ‘isolated’ or technological organisation of
‘remote’, words often unthinkingly agriculture also has a large and
attached to villages in the past. This immediate impact on rural society.
has also accelerated the pace of change The introduction of new labour saving
somewhat. machinery or new cropping patterns
For obvious reasons changes may alter the demand for labour and
associated with agriculture or with thus change the relative bargaining

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40 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

strength of different social groups like natural advantage. So did cities that
landlords and labourers. Even if they were well located from the point of
don’t directly affect labour demand, view of military strategy. Finally,
technological or economic changes can religious places attracted large
change the economic power of different numbers of pilgrims and thus
groups and thus set in motion a chain supported an urban economy. In
of changes. Sudden fluctuations in India too we have examples of such
agricultural prices, droughts or floods old cities, including the well known
can cause havoc in rural society. The medieval trading towns of Tezpur on
recent spate of farmer suicides in India the Brahmaputra river in Assam or
is an example of this. On the other Kozhikode (formerly known as
hand, large scale development Calicut) on the Arabian Sea in
programmes aimed at the rural poor northern Kerala. We also have many
can also have an enormous impact. examples of temple towns and places
A good example of this is the of religious pilgrimage, such as Ajmer
Mahatma Gandhi National Rural in Rajasthan, Varanasi (also known as
Employment Guarantee Act of 2005 Benaras or Kashi) in Uttar Pradesh,
(MGNREGA). or Madurai in Tamil Nadu.
As sociologists have pointed out,
Activity 5 city life and modernity go very well
together; in fact, each may be
Find out more about the Mahatma considered an intimate expression of
Gandhi National Rural Employment
the other. Though it houses large and
Guarantee Act (MGNREGA). What
very dense populations, and though it
does it aim to do? Why is it considered
such an important development has been known throughout history
programme? What problems does it as the site for mass politics, the city is
face? What would be the likely also the domain of the modern
consequences if it succeeds? individual. In its combination of
anonymity and the amenities and
Social Order and Social Change in institutions that only large numbers
Urban Areas can support, the city of fers the
individual boundless possibilities for
It is well known that though the city fulfillment. Unlike the village, which
itself is very old — even ancient discourages individuality and cannot
societies had them — urbanism as a offer much, the city nurtures the
way of life for large segments of the individual.
population is a modern phenomenon. But while the many artists, writers,
Before the modern era, trade, religion and scholars who have celebrated the
and warfare were some of the major city as the haven of the individual are
factors that decided the location and not wrong, it is also true that freedom
importance of cities. Cities that were and opportunity are available only to
located on major trade routes, or had some individuals. More accurately,
suitable harbours and ports had a only a socially and economically

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SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 41

privileged minority can have the luxury Most of the important issues and
of a predominantly free and fulfilling life. problems of social order in towns and
Most people who live in cities have only cities are related to the question of
limited and relative freedoms within space. High population density places
larger constraints. These are the familiar a great premium on space and creates
economic and social constraints very complex problems of logistics. It
imposed by membership in social is the primary task of the urban social
groups of various kinds, already known order to ensure the spatial viability of
to you from the previous chapter. The the city. This means the organisation
city, too, fosters the development of and management of things like:
group identities — based on factors like housing and residential patterns; mass
race, religion, ethnicity, caste, region, transit systems for transporting large
and of course class — which are all well numbers of workers to and fro for work;
represented in urban life. In fact, the arranging for the coexistence of
concentration of large numbers in a residential, public and industrial land-
relatively small space intensifies use zones; and finally all the public
identities and makes them integral health, sanitation, policing, public safety
to strategies of survival, resistance and monitoring needs of urban
and assertion. governance. Each of these functions

A doctor checking a patient

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42 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

is a huge undertaking in itself and the emergence of slums. Though official

presents formidable challenges of definitions vary, a slum is a congested,
planning, implementation and overcrowded neighbourhood with no
maintenance. What adds to the proper civic facilities (sanitation, water
complexity is that all of these tasks have supply, electricity and so on) and
to be performed in a context where the homes made of all kinds of building
divisions and tensions of class, ethnicity, materials ranging from plastic sheets
religion, caste and so on are also present and cardboard to multi-storeyed
and active. concrete structures. Because of the
For example, the question of urban absence of ‘settled’ property rights of
housing brings with it a whole host of the kind seen elsewhere, slums are the
problems. Shortage of housing for the natural breeding ground for ‘dadas’
poor leads to homelessness, and the and strongmen who impose their
phenomenon of ‘street people’ — those authority on the people who live there.
who live and survive on the streets and Control over slum territory becomes
footpaths, under bridges and flyovers, the natural stepping stone to other
abandoned buildings and other empty kinds of extra-legal activities, including
spaces. It is also the leading cause for criminal and real estate-related gangs.

A girl child looking after the sibling

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SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 43

A commercial centre in a city

Women at work in cotton field

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44 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

The worldwide phenomenon of Activity 6

‘gated communities’ is also found in
Have you come across such ‘gated
Indian cities. This refers to the
communities’ in your town or city,
creation of affluent neighbourhoods or in one you have visited? Find
that are separated from their out from your elders about such a
surroundings by walls and gates, with community. When did the gates and
controlled entry and exit. Most such fences come up? Was there any
communities also have their own opposition, and if so by whom? What
parallel civic facilities, such as water reasons might people have for
wanting to live in such places?
and electricity supply, policing and
What effects do you think it has on
security. urban society and on the
neighbourhoods surrounding it?

Various kinds of transport in an urban area

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SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 45

Shopping in a city

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46 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

Finally, housing patterns are linked The form and content of social
to the economy of the city in crucial change in urban areas is also best
ways. The urban transport system is understood in relation to the central
directly and severely affected by the question of space. One very visible
location of residential areas relative to element of change is the ups and
industrial and commercial workplaces. downs experienced by particular
If these are far apart, as is often the case, neighbourhoods and localities. Across
an elaborate mass transit system must the world, the city centre – or the core
be created and maintained. area of the original city – has had many
Commuting becomes a way of life and changes of fortune. After being the
an ever present source of possible power centre of the city in the 19th
disruption. The transport system has and early 20th century, the city centre
a direct impact on the ‘quality of life’ of went through a period of decline in the
working people in the city. Reliance on latter half of the 20th century. This
road transport and specially on private was also the period of the growth of
rather than public modes (i.e., cars suburbs as the af fluent classes
rather than buses) creates problems of deserted the inner city for the suburbs
traffic congestion and vehicular for a variety of reasons. City centres
pollution. As will be clear to you from are experiencing a revival now in many
the above discussion, the apparently major western cities as attempts to
simple issue of distribution of living regenerate community life and the arts
space is actually a very complex and bear fruit. A related phenomenon is
multi-dimensional aspect of urban ‘gentrification’, which refers to the
society. conversion of a previously lower class
neighbourhood into a middle and
Daily long distance commuters can upper class one. As real estate prices
become an influential political rise, it becomes more and more
constituency and sometimes develop profitable for developers to try and
elaborate sub-cultures. For example, effect such a conversion. At some
the sub-urban trains of Mumbai —
point, the campaign becomes self-
popularly known as ‘locals’ — have
many informal associations of fulfilling as rental values increase and
commuters. Collective on-train the locality acquires a critical
activities include singing bhajans, minimum of prosperous businesses
celebrating festivals, chopping and residents. But sometimes the
vegetables, playing card and board effort may fail and the neighbourhood
games (including tournaments), or goes back down the class scale and
just general socialising. returns to its previous status.

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SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 47

city life and can shape the social

Activity 7 character of a city apart fr om
Have you noticed any ‘gentrification’ influencing its economic fortunes.
or ‘up-scaling’ taking place in your Many scholars have written on the
neighbourhood? Do you know of difference between cities based on
such instances? Find out what the public transport like London or New
locality was like before this
York and cities that depend mainly
happened. In what ways has it
changed? How have these changes on individualised car -based
affected different social groups and transport like Los Angeles. It remains
classes? Who benefits and who to be seen, for example, whether the
loses? Who decides about changes new Metro Rail in Delhi will
of this sort — is there voting, or some significantly change social life in that
form of public discussion? city. But the main issue regarding
social change in cities, specially in
Changes in modes of mass rapidly urbanising countries like
transport may also bring about India, is how the city will cope with
significant social change in cities. constant increase in population as
Affordable, efficient and safe public migrants keep streaming in to add to
transport makes a huge difference to its natural growth.

GLOSSARY

Customs Duties, Tariffs: Taxes imposed on goods entering or leaving a country,

which increase its price and make it less competitive relative to domestically
produced goods.
Dominant Castes: Term attributed to M.N. Srinivas; refers to landowning
intermediate castes that are numerically large and therefore enjoy political
dominance in a given region.
Gated Communities: Urban localities (usually upper class or affluent)
sealed off from its surroundings by fences, walls and gates, with controlled
entry and exit.
Gentrification: The term used to describe the conversion of a low class (urban)
neighbourhood into a middle or upper class neighbourhood.

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48 UNDERSTANDING SOCIETY

Ghetto, Ghettoisation: Originally from the term used for the locality where
Jews lived in medieval European cities, today refers to any neighbourhood
with a concentration of people of a particular religion, ethnicity, caste or other
common identity. Ghettoisation is the process of creation of ghettoes through
the conversion of mixed composition neighbourhoods into single community
neighbourhoods.
Legitimation: The process of making legitimate, or the grounds on which
something is considered legitimate, i.e., proper, just, right etc.
Mass Transit: Modes of fast city transport for large number of people.

EXERCISES

1. Would you agree with the statement that rapid social change is a
comparatively new phenomenon in human history? Give reasons for
your answer.
2. How is social change to be distinguished from other kinds of change?
3. What do you understand by ‘structural change’? Explain with examples
other than those in the text.
4. Describe some kinds of environment-related social change.
5. What are some kinds of changes brought about by technology and the
economy?
6. What is meant by social order and how is it maintained?
7. What is authority and how is it related to domination and the law?
8. How are a village, town and city distinguished from each other?
9. What are some features of social order in rural areas?
10. What are some of the challenges to social order in urban areas?

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SOCIAL CHANGE AND SOCIAL ORDER IN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETY 49

REFERENCES

GIDDENS, Antony. Sociology. 4th edition.

GERTH, HANS and C. WRIGHT MILLS. (eds) from Max Weber.
KHILNANI, SUNIL. 2002. The Idea of India, Penguin Books, New Delhi.
Patel, Sujata and Kushal Deb (eds). 2006. Urban Sociology, Readings in
Sociology and Social Anthropology series). Oxford University Press,
New Delhi.
SRINIVAS, M.N. Social Change in Modern India.

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