ZIMBABWE SCHOOL OF MINES

Serving the SADC Mining Industry

Enhancing jackhammer utilization and efficiency to meet drilling

targets at Ayrshire mine.

By

MUNYARADZI IGNATIOUS MANDEYA

STUDENT # Z22187

CANDIDATE # 1122107C00181

A Project Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for

the National Diploma In Mining

Zimbabwe School of Mines

RELEASE FORM
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Distinctive, indescribable recognition and gratitude are sent to my supervisor, Mr A.

Kwaramba and for his dedication, unquantifiable support, motivation, and direction
throughout. The remainder of the academic and non-academic staff of the Department of
Mining Engineering for their support and advice. Furthermore, I would like to thank my
family for everything they have done for me, with special thanks to my mother, Mrs A.C
Mandeya for the unwavering support and prayers and my father Mr D. Mandeya for the
wisdom and encouragement which kept me focused till the completion of this program.
Worthy of particular magnified thanks is to Mr. D. Mwanza for mentorship throughout the
period of internship. Special thanks goes to Mr A. Chimhanda, Mr L. Songore as well as the
staff and management at Pan African Mining, who assisted in mine walkthroughs, data
collection, and fostering an incredible contribution to this research thesis in particular. May
the good Lord bless you all.
DEDICATIONS
There is no substitute for hard work!!! This project is dedicated to the Lord almighty, my
loving and supportive parents, aunts, uncles, brothers, sisters, friends, acquaintances and
every single person who remotely contributed to its success.

‘…to Commander Blue, without you I would not be here…’

ABSTRACT

This project investigates the challenges and factors affecting jackhammer utilization and
efficiency in drilling operations at Ayrshire Mine, with the aim of improving production
outcomes. Despite a planned monthly target of 13 500m drilled meters, the mine has
consistently underperformed, averaging only 9 613.4m. This shortfall has direct implications
for subsequent mining processes, including tramming and hoisting, which are adversely
affected by the inefficiencies in drilling. Through a six-month field study involving
qualitative data collection methods, including interviews with key personnel, the research
identifies critical factors influencing drilling performance, such as equipment reliability,
resource management, and environmental conditions.

The study proposes targeted strategies to enhance jackhammer utilization, including

improved resource management systems, infrastructure upgrades, and preventive
maintenance programs. A cost-benefit analysis supports these recommendations,
demonstrating their potential to significantly increase drilling efficiency and meet production
targets. Ultimately, this project aims to provide actionable insights that will enable Ayrshire
Mine to optimize its operations, achieve its production goals, and enhance overall
profitability in the competitive mining sector. The findings contribute to the broader
discourse on mining efficiency and resource management, offering a roadmap for future
improvements in drilling practices
Table of Contents
RELEASE FORM...............................................................................................................................1
DECLARATION ON PLAGIARISM................................................................................................2
COPYRIGHT DECLARATION........................................................................................................3
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...................................................................................................................4
DEDICATIONS...................................................................................................................................5
ABSTRACT.........................................................................................................................................6
CHAPTER ONE................................................................................................................................10
1.0 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................10
1.1 HISTORY.....................................................................................................................................10
1.2 LOCATION.................................................................................................................................11
1.3 GEOLOGY..................................................................................................................................12
1.4 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE.........................................................................................14
1.5 MINING METHOD....................................................................................................................15
1.6 OVERVIEW OF OPERATIONS...............................................................................................16
1.7 PROBLEM STATEMENT.........................................................................................................17
1.8 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY...................................................................................................19
1.9 AIM...............................................................................................................................................19
1.9.1 OBJECTIVES...........................................................................................................................19
CHAPTER 2.....................................................................................................................................20
2.0 Introduction.................................................................................................................................20
2.1 Principles of drilling....................................................................................................................20
2.2 Jackhammer.................................................................................................................................20
2.3 Components of a jackhammer....................................................................................................21
2.4 Handheld rock drills....................................................................................................................21
2.5 Underground drilling - jackhammer with air leg......................................................................22
2.6 Rock breakage during drilling....................................................................................................22
2.7 Jamming of the drill bit...............................................................................................................23
2.8 Efficiency of Drilling...................................................................................................................24
2.8.1 Percussion..................................................................................................................................24
2.8.2 Feed............................................................................................................................................25
2.8.3 Rotation.....................................................................................................................................25
2.8.4 Flushing.....................................................................................................................................26
2.9 Penetration Rate..........................................................................................................................26
2.10 Recommended Air Pressures and Consumption of Appliances.............................................27
2.11 Compressed Air Leakage..........................................................................................................28
2.12 Transmission of Compressed Air.............................................................................................28
2.13 Transmission Line Hints...........................................................................................................29
2.14 Operator Efficiency...................................................................................................................29
2.15 Machine Availability.................................................................................................................29
2.16 Machine Utilisation....................................................................................................................30
2.17 Penetration and Drilling Rates.................................................................................................30
2.18 Net Penetration Rate.................................................................................................................30
2.19 Drilling Rate...............................................................................................................................31
2.20 Geology and Geotechnical factors during drilling..................................................................31
CHAPTER 3......................................................................................................................................31
3.0 INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................................31
3.1 Qualitative data collection;.........................................................................................................32
3.1.1 Interviews..................................................................................................................................32
3.1.2 Field Study;...............................................................................................................................33
3.2.1 To develop strategies for mitigating factors affecting the availability of sufficient water
supply and compressed air................................................................................................................35
3.2.2 To conduct a cost benefit analysis of the strategies aimed at improving the supply of
compressed air...................................................................................................................................36
3.3 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................37
CHAPTER 4......................................................................................................................................37
4.0 Introduction.................................................................................................................................37
4.1 Factors influencing jackhammer utilization in drilling operations.........................................37
4.2 To determine how much compressed air and water shortages affect utilization and the
efficiency of jackhammers during drilling.......................................................................................42
4.2.1 Analysis.....................................................................................................................................44
4.3 Strategies for mitigating the factors that affect the availability of water and compressed air
.............................................................................................................................................................48
4.3.1 Analysis of Mitigation Strategies.............................................................................................49
4.4 Cost-benefit analysis of the strategies aimed at improving the availability of water and
compressed air...................................................................................................................................51
4.5 Discussion of Findings.................................................................................................................53
4.6 Chapter Summary.......................................................................................................................56
5.0 Summary......................................................................................................................................57
5.1 Conclusions..................................................................................................................................57
5.2 Recommendations........................................................................................................................58
CHAPTER 6.....................................................................................................................................60
6.1 REFERENCES............................................................................................................................60
6.2 APPENDICES..............................................................................................................................61
CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Ayrshire mine is an ISO certified organisation (ISO 14001:2004 Environmental Management
System, OHSAS18001:2008 Occupational Safety and Health Management System and ISO
9001:2009 Quality Management System) that is involved in exploration, mining and
processing for gold. In this introductory chapter of the project, a background of the mine and
its history will be noted and an overview of the mines operations and the company’s
organisational structure. The objectives of the projects and what it aims to achieve will also
be highlighted.

1.1 HISTORY
Mining started as far back as the late 1800`s with the majority of the extracted ore being high
grade auriferous oxides this was after prospector John Cochrane discovered the
mineralization potential in 1890. However due to difficulties in processing the oxides
Cochrane discontinued mining in 1893 and sold his claims. The Matabeleland wars halted
mining activities for some time with renewed mining activities being started in the 1900s
under the name Ayrshire. Rapid mining up to 12 Level were done as they wanted to intersect
a `central zone` which they believed had very high grades, this ascension was based on
misguided incomplete exploration information. Edward shaft was commissioned in 1901 this
being the main shaft still in use today and building of a cyanide plant in 1904. Tragically the
owners soon discovered that there was no `central zone` and that high grade areas were near
bad ground such that mill supply could not be sustained hence mining was discontinued for
23 years. After this hiatus the mine was repurchased and operated as Last Shot & Macs Luck
with workings above 4 Level exploited. This time poor understanding of the geology
hindered and later halted mining activities.

Following an extensive geochemical investigation in 1987 by Cluff Mineral Exploration

Zimbabwe (Pvt) Ltd Pan African (Pvt) Ltd took over. The oxide hosted gold ore was
excavated from the main pit to approximately 50 meters. In 1993, extraction of fresh sulphide
–hosted gold ore from the main pit commenced, extending down to 2 level. Construction of
the new CIP plant was completed in 1994, and dewatering of the Edwards shaft started in
1995, in preparation of underground mining in 1996.

Currently Ayrshire produces an average of 30kgs of gold per month from fresh sulphide
bearing ore extracted from underground sections together with oxidised ore from the Macs
Luck Pit to the north. A smelt is performed every week and an average of 8kgs gold is
delivered to Fidelity

Access to the underground workings is through the Edward shaft with the bottom section
going as deep as 15 Level more than 570m under. The ore is processed in a fully functional
CIP plant with a capacity to mill over 450 tonnes a minute and consumes over 11.5kw of
power. Ayrshire employs over 350 people and most of the employees are locals. Ayrshire
mine has all basic amenities including schools, a clinic, safe water and daily transport to
Banket township.

1.2 LOCATION
The Ayrshire Mine Claims area lies approximately 30 km north-east of Banket town, and
approximately 105 km from Harare. The claims lie in the Ayrshire area in Mashonaland West
Province of Zimbabwe. And cover a total of approximately 574 ha at an estimate terrain
elevation of 1118 meters above sea level at latitude: -17°10'59.99" and longitude:
30°22'59.98”. Access is by a fairly good gravel road off the 80km peg of Harare-Chirundu
highway and by gravel road about 25km in Banket town.
 AYRSHIRE MINE

Figure 1.1 Location of the mine

1.3 GEOLOGY

Ayrshire mine is located in the Chinhoyi Guruve Greenstone belt which initiates about 15km
southwest of Chinhoyi town. The belt is split into two arms at Chinhoyi one extending
eastwards towards Banket, and the other extending northeast towards Guruve. Overall the
belt has a NNS-SSE strike over a 125km strike length and variable width averaging 30km.
Structurally the mine is located on a splay of the Eldorado Shear Zone as the locally viewed
Chambadzi fault potrays. The geology of the Chinhoyi Guruve Greenstone B consists of
rocks of the Bulawayan and shamvaian system.

The local geology compromises of the Shamvaian Metasediments to the north of the mine
claim area, these sediments appear as fine grained dark green massive sediments. The larger
bulk of the mine area is composed of diorite which can be of different varieties from coarse,
fine to the more prevalent guinea fowl type diorite. The diorites cover the central portion of
the mine claim area together with biotite-hornblende-schist acting as a contact between the
metasediments to the north and the Chilimanzi Suite granites to the south. The granite suits
are porphyritic having a sugary in texture sometimes comprising of mafic xenoliths
measuring from a few mm up to 4cm in length, the xenoliths appear mainly towards the
granite-diorite boundary which gives evidence to their younger nature as pictured below.

Fig 1.2 -photograph showing granite outcrop with mafic inclusion

Deformation wise the area has been affected by 4 deformation events with the first and main
event (D1) being the late Archean deformation that resulted in the NE striking regional
foliation which dips vertically or steeply to the northwest. The second deformation event
(D2) is marked by faulting and fracturing along which some variably oriented pegmatites and
aplite dykes were intruded. The third deformation event (D3) is marked by shearing and
folding that gave rise to the folded pegmatites, and S-C relationships between late secondary
quartz veinlet’s displaying a dextral sense of movement. The final deformation event (D4) is
characterised by a number of fracture sets cutting and displacing pegmatite veins.
Fig 1.3 -map showing local geology at Ayrshire mine

Mineralization is entirely confined in discrete zones of fine to medium grained, sheared Meta
diorite within the biotite-amphibole schist’s. Five zones of shearing have been identified in
the vicinity of the mine (Prendergast, 1988), all of which hold potential for mineralization.
The gold occurs as small free grains within the host rock and is associated with disseminated
iron-rich sulphide mineralization (pyrite, arsenopyrite, and pyrrhotite).

1.4 ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE

The organisation is structured with the mine manager at the top followed by other top
management officials all the way down to machine operators and other underground workers.
The diagram below denotes the structure of the organisation in further detail.
Fig 1.4 -Organogram

1.5 MINING METHOD

Ayrshire Mine exploits steeply dipping ore-bodies, which vary in widths (+/-5m to 30m). The
current mining method is of sub-level open stoping using short hole (2.0m) in narrow ore-
bodies. The mine has 2 main shafts namely Edward shaft and Susan Mariah shaft. Mining
involves driving the main haulages at 30 meters intervals and sub drives at 8 meters. Hand
held jackhammers are used for short holes. When stoping with jackhammers, underhand
bench stoping is the preferred method. The ore bodies are generally steeply dipping at 60-70
degree and drilling, blasting, loading and ore transportation is conducted in drives and
crosscuts developed within the ore body. The ore bodies are sub-divided into two
intermediate sublevels (sub1, sub2) for easy access and effective extraction of ore. Sublevels
are drilled at a distance of 8m from the main drive below or above. The distance between
main levels is approximately 30m-40m and that of sub-levels being around 20m though this
may vary due to factors such as reef and orebody direction. They are connected via opening
raises (slot/starting raise) at the stoping end. The ore is drilled and blasted in vertical slices
and trailing method which is horizontal mining within the stope. The drawpoints are in the
form of boxes below the subdrives and ore is mainly mined in 13 and 14 level and gravitates
through open stopes and ore passes which are mainly box raises into cousin jack boxes. The
boxes are opened into cocopans and trammed by the locomotive to the grizzly. The grizzly is
in 13 level and a main ore pass which connects to the radial door chutes below 14 level. The
blasted ore falls into an ore pass then collected into cousin jack boxes. Coco-pans are loaded
from the cousin jack boxes. Some crown pillars are left as support system within the stopes.

1.6 OVERVIEW OF OPERATIONS

Drilling

Blasting
Processing
(changing)

Lashing (manual
Hoisting
and mechanical )

Tramming
(manual and Loading
mechanical)

Figure 1.6 shows the mining cycle of Ayrshire mine

A. DRILLING: drilling is done by jackhammers i.e. S25, S23, and S215. There is
development drilling and production drilling. In development drilling haulages, drives,
sub drives, raises and winzes are drilled and in production there is stope drilling. Thus
 drilling is the 1st stage to the above operations and no blasting can take place without
drilling having been done.
B. BLASTING: in the second stage there is blasting, this takes place after drilling has
occurred and usually this is done in development ends and production ends. It should be
noted that blasting can be divided into two i.e. primary and secondary blasting. Primary
blasting involves the breaking of virgin ground whereas secondary blasting involves
breaking of the ground that has already been broken i.e. boulders
Blasting at Ayrshire mine is done by the following accessories

 Blasting cartridges (megamite 22 & 25)

 Safety fuses (stope fuse)
 Ignitor cords (slow, fast)
 Anfex
 Shur starters et cetera
C. LASHING: After blasting has been done movement of broken ground has to be done
(lashing). Two systems are employed at the mine i.e. Mechanical lashing: use of air
loaders and Hand lashing: use of shovels and wheelbarrows. Mechanical lashing is used
in haulages where there are tracks whereas hand lashing is applied in sub – drives and in
stopes where air loaders can’t be used. Broken ground in stopes is lashed into oar passes
i.e. auxiliary and main ore passes into the loading or collecting chutes.
D. LOADING: This is the 4th stage in the operation cycle. Ore lashed into the ore passes is
collected into chutes at the tramming level. Different type of chutes is employed namely
the cousin jack, Radial doors and the Pneumatic doors. The Cousin jack being the most
commonly used.
E. TRAMMING: ore from chutes is located into coco pans (2t) which are hauled away
using locomotives (6t and 2.5t)
F. HOISTING: ore trammed from different loading points is tipped into the main loading
bay at 13L and 19L which feeds into the skips that are hoisted to the surface

1.7 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The problem to be explored in the study targets to identify and address the causes of failure to
fully utilise jackhammers during drilling which has resulted in the intended drilling and
production targets not being met. From the period of June to December the overall drilling
targets of 25 jackhammers was to be 13 500m but the actual was 9 613,4m when averaged. The
absence of any form or system of monitoring and measuring jackhammer utilisation has resulted
in the prolonged periods of experiencing repetitive failure to meet drilling targets month after
month and in the study this will be rectified.

25000

20000
drilled meters

15000

10000

5000

0
June July August September October November December
months

Planned meters actual drilled meters

Figure 1.7: Graph showing drilling targets against planned in meters from June to
December.

S215 S25

Total hours 720 hours/8 hours daily 720 hours/8 hours daily

Downtime hours 184.5 hours/2 hours 15min daily228 hours/2 hours 30min daily
average average

Standby hours 157 hours 30min 108 hours

Utilization 70 % 65 %

Table 1.7 showing utilization of S215 and S25 jackhammer

Fig 1.7 and table 1.7 show a graphical representation of the noted utilization as a percentage
of the S215 and S25 jackhammers currently in use at Ayrshire mine recorded over a period of
3 months in correlation to the planned metres to be drilled and the metres that were actually
drilled with the noted utilization levels.

1.8 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY

Drilling targets were not met during jackhammer drilling in different ends daily. As
jackhammers fail to meet their drilling targets, tramming and hoisting are affected directly as
they fail to meet their targets. The planned drilling target was expected to produce 14010t of
ore per month but the average actual ore produced was 11800t per month. My project will
help Ayrshire mine to increase in production by meeting the intended drilling target in
meters. For the monthly target, Ayrshire mine was targeting to produce 50kgs of gold if the
drillers meet their monthly drilling target but due to failure in meeting the monthly drilling
target production was affected leading to a decline in production to an average of 39kgs per
month. The monthly drilled targets are in variance with planned drilling targets by 46%
according to mine database as shown in the table above, this affects the successive mining
process. With the view of future mine expansion and achieving company goals, the current
drilling targets has to be met. This enables the mine to achieve its set gold produce targets
therefore increasing revenue

1.9 AIM
The aim of the project is to achieve drilling targets by means of increasing jackhammer
utilization and efficiency.

1.9.1 OBJECTIVES
 To identify the factors affecting jackhammer utilization in drilling
 To determine how much compressed air and water supply shortages affect utilisation and
efficiency of jackhammers in drilling
 To develop strategies for mitigating factors affecting the availability of sufficient water
supply and compressed air
 To conduct a cost benefit analysis of the strategies aimed at improving the supply of
compressed air and water supply
CHAPTER 2

2.0 Introduction
A major setback in the mining industry is failure to meet drilling targets. Various publications
have been made that have tried to eliminate the problem of failing to meet drilling targets,
however problems continue to arise. In this second chapter an overview on terminology related
to jackhammer drilling including some related formulas, basic principles, the air leg, efficiency,
recommended air pressures, machine utilisation, penetration rates amongst other existing terms.

2.1 Principles of drilling

There are 3 principles of rock breakage; cutting, crushing and shearing. Safari R. and
Mokhtari S. M (2020). Rock breakage by drilling is based on the formation of a uniform
stress field under a concentrated load produced by the drill bit. The rock behaves in a varied
manner depending on the stress level generated on the rock material in the immediate vicinity
of the drill bit the rock is crushed to fines due to deformation and collapse of the rock
structure. The common drill systems in use today are rotary, percussive, and rotary-
percussive

2.2 Jackhammer
Jackhammer is defined as a potable pneumatic or electric machine used for rock drilling Lee H.
S (2019) the jackhammer have different types such as S23, S215 drifter, S25 to mention a few
and each jackhammer have different purpose and different specification
Fig 2.1 shows jackhammer parts: source: http://enginemechanics.tpub.com

2.3 Components of a jackhammer

Throttle valve -------------------------------- Airstream and Air nut

Water stem ------------------------------------ Back head

Side rods --------------------------------------- Cylinder with muffle

Front head ------------------------------------- Chuck complete

Steel retainer ---------------------------------- Valve box

Riffle bar --------------------------------------- Piston

Ratchet ring ------------------------------------- Water tube

Spade handle ----------------------------------- Handling

2.4 Handheld rock drills

A jackhammer operates by driving an internal hammer up and down. The hammer is first driven
down to strike the chisel and then back up to return the hammer to the original position to repeat
the cycle. The effectiveness of the jackhammer is dependent on how much force is applied to the
tool. Singh, T.R (2018) It is generally used like a hammer to break the hard surface or rock in
construction works and it is not considered under earth moving equipment, along with its
accessories (i.e., pusher leg, lubricator).
2.5 Underground drilling - jackhammer with air leg
Jackhammers mounted on air legs (jacklegs) weighing between 18-25kg are widely used in
underground SSM. The machine is usually operated by one driller and an assistant and is
powered by compressed air of 6-7 bars. Given the confined working space in underground mines
and poor ventilation, these machines use water to flush out the cuttings, suppress dust and cool
the drill bit and steel. Depending on rock hardness, they have performances of 15-25m in hard
rock, to 40-50m in dolomite rock per machine shift. Stopper drills mounted with fixed air legs
are also available for drilling vertical holes, e.g., in raising legs. Rath S. S (2017). Because of the
fixed air legs, these machines weigh more than jackhammers that are mounted on removable air.

2.6 Rock breakage during drilling

Causing a rock to break during drilling is a matter of applying sufficient force with the
jackhammer to exceed the strength of the rock. R Lewis (1994) states that rock breakage during
drilling depends on the formation of stress fields under the tip of the bit, the reaction of the rock
thereafter depends on the stress levels generated. Tests that have been carried out have proven
that rock crushed to a fine powder is close to the buttons of the bit. Prevailing stresses cause
deformation and local compaction leading to cracks that are a result of stress. When these cracks
expand into the free face at the hole bottom, chipping occurs.
 Impact

Rotation
Bit

Chip loosening crack

Rock
Cracked zone

Initial failure
Crushed rock powder

Fig 2.1 showing how rock is broken source: http://enginemechanics.tpub.com

The fines that are produced are largely dependent on the energy consumption efficiency of the
rock drill. When the ratio of fines to the total breakage is minimised then optimum efficiency is
attained. The rock breakage efficiency can be attained by optimising the following factors

i. The load in the bit

ii. Bit geometry (size, shape and layout)
iii. Flushing
The property of the rock determines the most efficient drilling method required to break the rock.
However, rock breakage is largely dependent on thrust and torque of the machine.

2.7 Jamming of the drill bit

Bit jamming is when the drill bit fails to penetrate or move forward upon application of a
force, in this case force is supplied by the machine. When forward movement does not occur
it means no energy is transmitted into the rock.

A rock must avoid having a free or jammed rod at the drill bit. In hard rocks a high force is
required to overcome the resistance offered by the rock, however little penetration is
achieved. Koppe, H. (2014). The opposite can be said for soft rock were little force can
produce high penetration.
2.8 Efficiency of Drilling
Drilling is never 100% efficient, this is to say that all energy which is not used for breaking
the rock plays a role in damaging the drilling equipment. Unused energy is lost at the joints,
separations, or at the piston end. Some energy is also lost through friction between different
components.
In general drilling equipment with high levels of efficiency have longer service life as
compared to drilling equipment with low efficiency. This is true if the penetration rates are
the same and given that the machines in question are the same. Power of the rock drill does
not determine the efficiency of the rock drill. An increase in power could mean increased
amount of wasted energy as more heat is generated at the joints. In time a point is reached
were the heat generated by the machine causes notable reduction in projected service life of
the machine. Taking all the above facts into consideration, practically it is possible to
determine the power that can be used by a machine by merely noting at the energy that is lost.
The energy that is not lost is used to attain maximum penetration rate possible.

The Percussion energy produced by the piston in the rock drill is transmitted to the rock through
the drill steel. Rock is loosened from the bottom of the hole by a combination of indentation
depth, chip loosening and secondary crushing of chips. In top-hammer drilling, the piston inside
the rock drill is accelerated to the desired velocity before striking a shank adapter or the rod. This
kinetic energy is transmitted in the form of compressive stress wave through the drill steel to the
drill bit and finally to the rock itself. The transmitted force enables bit indentation and rock
breakage. A portion of the stress is reflected back up the drill steel.

The four basic functions of percussion drilling according to Singh, S. K. (2015) are:

2.8.1 Percussion
The combination of impact force, impact frequency and bit indentation power is transmitted to
the drill string. The piston and the drill steel geometry determine the shape of the stress waves,
impact and stress wave reflected from the bit. Pneumatic drilling has a typical impact frequency
of between 1600 and 3400 blows/minute.

One restriction in all percussion drilling, especially in top-hammer drilling, is the capacity of the
drill steel to transmit energy. Only a given maximum kinetic energy is transmitted through a
certain drill steel before excessive drill steel deterioration occurs. Percussion settings are
therefore always a compromise between penetration rates and drill steel economy.

2.8.2 Feed
Feed force is required to keep the shank contact with the rock drill and the drill bit in contact
with the rock. This maximizes the transfer of percussion impact force from the drill bit to the
rock. When percussion pressure is increased, feed pressure must also be increased. The optimum
feed force depends on percussion pressure levels used, rock condition, hole depth and the size
and type of the drill steels. Broken rock should be drilled with low percussion and feed pressure.

Optimal feed pressure can easily be observed by monitoring penetration, bits wear and steel
threads wear. Visual monitoring of feed and rotational smoothness during drilling is sufficient to
determine the optimum feed pressure. Low feed force results in:

a. Poor transmission of percussion energy, damage to shank and increased wear on

the threads since the couplings are too loosen
b. Reduced penetration rates due to poor percussion energy transfer through the drill
steel
c. Almost no resistance to rotation and low torque
d. Increased wear on inner bit.
Excessively high feed force leads to

a. Unnecessary bending and wear of drill steel and shank

b. Difficulties with flushing
c. Rapid bit wears due to increased drag against the hole bottom for a longer period
of time and because the bit is forced to work in an inclined position when the drill
steel bends
d. Increased hole deviation
e. Difficulties in uncoupling.

2.8.3 Rotation
The foremost function of rotation in percussion drilling is to turn the drill bit to a new position
after each blow. Optimum rotation speed is a function of bit geometry, bit size, hole length and
rock drill ability among other factors. Optimizing the indexing of the bit indentation per blow
with respect to chip loosening can optimize net penetration. Too low rotation speeds results in
energy losses due to re-cutting and therefore lowers penetration rates. Too high rotational speed
results in excessive bit wear since the rock is forced to break by rotation instead of percussion.

2.8.4 Flushing
The purpose of flushing is to remove rock cuttings from the drill hole and to cool the drill bit so
as to prevent premature failure. The flushing medium, which can be water, air, mist or foam, is
forced through the flushing hole in the drill steel to the hole bottom during drilling. The loose
rock cuttings mix with the flushing agent and are forced out of the hole through the space
between the drill steel and the hole wall.

Poor flushing leads to low penetration rate due to increased re-cutting, decreased drill steel life,
due to bit wear and jamming of the drill steels, and excessive bit wear. The amount of flushing
needed per unit time in order too efficiently remove the chips from the hole are a function of the
hole size, amount of cutting produced per unit time and the length of the hole. Practical
experiments have shown that the minimum flushing velocity needed for a successful cutting
removal from the drill hole is 0.5m/s of water. The amount of water needed in tunnelling is
approximately 2.3L/min for each rock drill.

2.9 Penetration Rate

In pneumatic drilling systems the pressures at the machines can vary significantly and is more
dependent on air demand throughout the whole mine. According to [Johnson, K. (2017)
Advances in Handheld Rock Drill Technology] under normal circumstances pneumatic
lightweight drill at about 250-300mm/min (15-18m/hr) using 22mm hexagonal drill steels. The
penetration rates of the light drills increase with the drilling pressure up to an optimal value
beyond this pressure the penetration rates begins to fall. This simply illustrates that the increase
in penetration rates with increase in drilling pressure is to within some optimal limit range
outside this point the penetration rates decreases.
 Penetration rate (m/hr) PENETRATION RATE AGAINST DRILLING PRESSURE

30

25

20

15

10
0.9 1 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5

Drilling pressure (MPa)

Fig 2.2 shows penetration rate versus the drilling pressure [source; Johnson, K. (2017)]

According to Johnson, the rate of penetration is proportional to the rate of rock volume removed.
In drilling the volume of rock broken has long been known to be directly proportional to the
energy applied neglecting the threshold energy to initiate penetration. It is therefore yielded that
penetration power is directly proportional to drill power. The direct proportion of the penetration
rate is with the optimal limit from Fig above

2.10 Recommended Air Pressures and Consumption of

Appliances
Knowledge of pressure requirements of machinery used in the mine, which relies on compressed
air as a source of power, is essential for planning on the reticulation system and air production
quantities. Cognisance should be taken of the factors that can influence compressed air pressure
at various working areas. These include the natural increase in gauge pressure as air flows down
in deep level mines, and the losses due to frictional resistance along the air columns and leakage.

When deciding on drilling pressures to be maintained during the drilling shift, it is important to
bear in mind that the rate of production of a mine depends to a large extend on the number and
depth of blast holes drilled daily. According to Zhou, C. (2019) the rate of penetration of a
pneumatic rock drill is depended to a large extend on the air pressure available at the machine. It
is apparent that increased drilling pressures can result in more holes being drilled with fewer
machines, using less labour and less amount of compressed air. As the main reason for making
compressed air available at the various working places is to ensure the effective operation of
 rock drills, no effort should be spared in ensuring that adequate supply and pressure is available
during the drilling shift.

2.11 Compressed Air Leakage

Measurements of air leakage reveal very high figures in industrial compressed air plants that are
not properly maintained. Mwema, J. M. (2020) said that leakages of up to 30% of the installed
capacity have been recorded. With reasonable expenditure the leakages can generally be held at
5-10%. The cost of reconditioning of old installations to reduce the leakages is very small
compared to the possible economical gains associated with it. Generally compressed air users do
not realise what quantities of air that may escape through even small leaks. Mwema J. M. (2020)
also came up with air leakage volume and the corresponding power loss that are shown in the
table;

Table 1.0:

Hole diameter Air leakage at 6 bar (m3/min) Power required for compression (kW)

(mm)

1 0.06 0.3

3 0.60 3.1

5 1.62 8.3

10 6.30 33.0

The volume rate of air loss with hole diameter

2.12 Transmission of Compressed Air

Transmission is in wrought iron and steel pipe. Pipe joints are made of sleeve coupling or by
flanges into which the pipe ends are expanded or threaded. Sleeve couplings, suitable for all
except for large sizes, should be put on with white or red lead especially where leaks might occur
due to shifting ground. Gaskets are used for flange couplings to create a seal: asbestos near the
receiver, fibre type elsewhere. Expansion joints are necessary on long lines. Welded pipe is
widely used, for its convenience and elimination of joints. Liang, Y. C. (2016)
2.13 Transmission Line Hints
Losses from leaky joints or unsound pipes often exceed all other transmission losses. Pipes
should be inspected regularly to eliminate power losses. Pipes of too small diameter reduces the
effective pressure by causing high velocity and undue friction. Velocity in the mains should not
exceed 6.1-7.6m/s, in short branch pipe it may be 12.2-15.2m/s. Liang, Y. C. (2016) Pipe with
rough interior causes excessive friction losses. Each length should be cleaned of foreign
substances before coupling. Lead forced into the pipe at coupling makes obstructive ridges. Tees,
elbows, and other fittings should be avoided to reduce friction losses.

2.14 Operator Efficiency

The fact that most drilling equipment operated manually is an extra variable that must be
included in efficiency calculations. The ease of operation and the accuracy of the rock drills have
an impact on the drilling results. A good training programme is necessary in order to achieve
high levels if skill in operating the rock drills. Singh, T.R (2018).

2.15 Machine Availability

Availability can be defined as the proportion of time the equipment is able to be used for its
intended purpose. Availability is expressed as a percentage.

Formula 2.0

Total Hours – Down Time Hours

Availability = x 100%
Total Hours

Source: http://enginemechanics.tpub.com

Availability depends on several factors, some of them listed below:

 Working arrangements and availability of drilling face

 Equipment serviceability, service facility and schedule
  Simplicity of machine construction
 Operator training experience
 Working conditions
If the working place is available, the operator possesses the necessary skills, and the machine is
new, equipment availability should be exceeding 90%. In cases of Buffelsfontein Gold Mine and
Ergo Gold Mine according to South African Mining Industry Association (SAMIA) older
machines should have an availability of between 70%-80% if they are functioning well.

2.16 Machine Utilisation

Utilisation is defined as the proportion of time that the equipment is available and is used for its
intended purpose. It is a widely used metric in industries for measuring equipment productivity
which dates back to the early 20th century.

Formula 2.1:

Total Hours – Down Time Hours – Standby Hours

Utilisation = x 100%
Total Hours – Down Time Hours

Source: http://enginemechanics.tpub.com

2.17 Penetration and Drilling Rates

It is an often practice to interchange the terms drilling rate and penetration rate when discussing
these subjects in different occasions, for this reason it is reasonable to explain the context in
which these terms are applied in this document.

2.18 Net Penetration Rate

Net penetration rate is defined as the speed at which the drill steel travel in the drill hole as it
bores the hole: given as

Formula 2.2:

Drill Hole Depth(m)

Net Penetration rate = Drill the Hole ¿
Time Taken ¿
Source: Y. Zhang (2019)

2.19 Drilling Rate

Drilling rate is the depth of hole that is drilled per unit time. Time in this case is inclusive of the
stoppage time, that is, time to change from one drill hole to another or the time to extend the drill
steel. Drilling rate is given as:

Formula 2.3:

Hole Depth (m)

Drilling Rate =
DrillingTimnme – StoppageTime

Source: Y. Zhang (2019)

2.20 Geology and Geotechnical factors during drilling

Geological and geotechnical issues can significantly impact drilling efficiency in underground
mining and according to H.S Lee (2019) Geological issues such as the rocks hardness and
abrasivity can reduce drilling speed and efficiency by increasing wear on drilling tools and
equipment. Fractures and faults can cause drilling deviations, reducing accuracy and efficiency.
Lithological variations or changes in rock type can affect drilling speed and efficiency.
Alteration zones can lead to reduced drilling efficiency due to changes in rock properties.

Geotechnical Issues such as high rock stress can cause drilling difficulties and reduce efficiency.
Groundwater, water ingress can reduce drilling efficiency and cause safety issues. Poor rock
fragmentation can lead to reduced drilling efficiency and increased costs.
CHAPTER 3
3.0 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides and describe the methods used to collect, obtain data from the field and the
procedures followed in data collection. This process involved six months of physical
involvement in production work. There was also involvement in the planning and management
meetings where these and other challenges were being discussed which provided a depth
knowledge into the planned target, possible targets and the deviation.

3.1 Qualitative data collection;

3.1.1 Interviews
In order to gather information on factors affecting jackhammer drilling interviews were done
with different personnel who supervised the sectional drilling operations. An interview is
when notes are taken while talking with respondents. Interviews were conducted in order to
obtain a project with both quantitative and qualitative analysis of the sectional.

The structure of the questions that were used to interview the workers were as follows:

1. What is your work place?

2. How many years of working at Ayrshire mine?
3. Factors affecting drilling operations at Ayrshire mine?
4. Recommendations and suggestions

The interviews were conducted with the following workers

 Gang leader
 Miners
 Shift boss
  Jackhammer operators

Effectiveness of the conducted interviews

The interviews helped to gather information from various sources who work on different ends
under slightly different conditions however they were time consuming due to the need to go
to different ends and difficulties in getting feedback from personnel that will be busy. There
was also difficulty in analysing and comparing some of the collected data as some of the
interviewees experiences differed.

3.1.2 Field Study;

To investigate on the effects of compressed air and water supply on drilling efficiency.

i) Compressed air pressure

The jackhammer is driven by compressed air, therefore compressed air supplies power to the
jackhammer. This establishes a relationship between the penetration rates and compressed air
pressure. A visual inspection to look for signs of damage, corrosion and wear on the
compressed air pipes was conducted and the notably corroded parts of the pipe were
earmarked.

Fig 3.1 showing some of the damaged pipes

After this a leak detection test was done whilst the compressed air was being pumped using
soap to identify parts of the pipe that potentially had leaks and cracks.

Tools and Materials:

- Soap solution (dish soap mixed with water)

- Brush or spray bottle for applying soap solution

- Safety glasses and gloves

- Pressure gauge

- Compressed air source

Procedure:

1. Prepare the Pipe: Ensure the compressed air pipe is clean and dry. Remove any debris, dirt,
or old lubricants.

2. Pressurize the Pipe: Connect the compressed air source to the pipe, if not already
connected. Pressurize the pipe.

3. Use a brush or spray bottle to apply a thin, even layer of soap solution to the entire length
of the pipe, including fittings, connections, and valves.
4. Visually inspect the pipe for signs of leaks, such as:

- Bubbles or foam forming on the soap solution

- Soap solution being blown away from the pipe surface

- Increased pressure drop on the pressure gauge (if used)

5. Check fittings, connections, and valves, as these are common leak areas.

6. Repeat Test: If no leaks are found, repeat the test to ensure accuracy.

Compressed air pressure values were taken and recorded from the pressure gauges that were
available at the compressor. The compressed air pressure was compared with the
corresponding penetration rate through the aid of graphs.

ii) Water flow rates

A bucket test was used to measure the water supplied by the jackhammer during drilling. A 5liter
container and a stopwatch were used to measure the volume flow rates of water that is used as
the flushing medium during the drilling operation. Water coming out from the water stem was
directed into the container, the volume of the container was divided by the time period it took to
fill the container to come up with the volume flow rate of water in litres per minute. This was
repeated until an average was attained. The source of water for drilling was a water tank located
at surface.

Effectiveness of the conducted Field Study

The field study managed to provide a broader understanding particularly on how the effects of
water flow rates and compressed air pressure had on the drilling effectiveness in real time and
how drilling targets would fail to be met though this also came as a very time consuming
exercise.

3.2.1 To develop strategies for mitigating factors affecting the

availability of sufficient water supply and compressed air.

A structured approach that includes assessment, planning, and evaluation was used as the
methodology for mitigating factors affecting water and compressed air availability
assessment of current conditions.

Data Collection:
Gather data on water and compressed air usage, availability, and shortages.

Infrastructure Assessment:
Evaluate the current state of infrastructure by conducting leak detection tests on the pipelines,
and taking readings from compressors, and counting the number of leakages within the water
pipes and storage systems identifying weaknesses and areas for improvement. Considering
the lifespan of the current infrastructure in place and how long it has been in use.

Identification of Key Factors

Analyse the collected data to identify key factors affecting the availability of water and
compressed air by highlighting the most frequent factors during the testing. Establishing and
prioritising the factors with the highest recurrence and highest impact.

Effectiveness
The structured approach to mitigating the factors affecting the availability of water and
compressed air at Ayrshire Mine by following these steps helped enhance resource management
practices, improve operational efficiency, and ensure a reliable supply of essential resources for
drilling operations however was time consuming and difficult to conduct due to the vast amounts
of information which were required.

3.2.2 To conduct a cost benefit analysis of the strategies aimed at

improving the supply of compressed air

Conducting a desktop study for a cost-benefit analysis (CBA) involved a systematic

methodology to gather and analyze existing data without the need for primary data collection.
-Conduct a comprehensive review of existing literature related to the project including industry
publications, case studies and previous CBAs

-Identifying and categorizing costs and benefits, listing all potential costs associated with the
project, including:
Direct Costs: Costs directly attributable to the project.
Indirect Costs: Overhead and ancillary costs
External Costs: Costs imposed on third parties

-List all potential benefits, including:

Direct Benefits: Financial gains directly resulting from the project.
Indirect Benefits: Secondary advantages.
Intangible Benefits: Non-monetary benefits
External Benefits: Positive impacts on third parties.

-Quantify costs and benefits using monetary valuation and assign monetary values to the
identified costs and benefits with the use of existing financial data and market prices.

-Establish the relevant time period for the analysis.

Effectiveness
The desktop study was effective however difficulties in obtaining some prices and estimated
costs were faced as some of the material required would be in large amounts which require
custom orders.

3.3 Conclusion
This chapter summarizes all the methods of data collection that were used for this study. In
trying to compare these factors all the other factors were kept constant so as to observe the
effect of compressed air on drilling, the same jackhammer was used on the same drilling face
using the same operator over a period of time. In the same way other factors were kept
constant when considering other factors.
CHAPTER 4
4.0 Introduction
This chapter showcases the collected data, focusing on interpreting and understanding the
results related to exploring the achievement of drilling targets utilizing increasing
jackhammer utilization and efficiency. The analysis aims to identify trends, correlations, and
possible challenges encountered during the deepening process, providing a foundation for
informed decision-making and further recommendations. Through a systematic approach, this
chapter will ensure that the findings are accurate, reliable, and relevant to the overall
objectives of the study.

4.1 Factors influencing jackhammer utilization in drilling

operations
The first objective of the study was to identify the factors affecting jackhammer utilization in
drilling. The data collected from Ayrshire Mine, particularly from the usage of the S215 and
S25 jackhammers, is presented and analyzed to determine these factors.

Table 4.1 Interview responses

Factors affecting drilling Number of responses

Shortage compressed air 15
Shortage of water supply 14
Operator skill and experience 6
Maintenance and repairs (breakdowns) 11
Rock hardness and conditions 8

Shift scheduling and planning 6

Bit quality 5

Drilling technique and pattern 4

Table 4.1 shows the results of the conducted interviews with various mine personnel where a
total of 69 responses were collected and the shortage of compressed air and the shortage of
water supply were the highest stated.

Operator skill and experience

In the 12 level east and western section where reclamation efforts were being made a total of
8 drilling personnel had an average of 9 years working experience whilst at 13 west sublevels
where the top and bottom end had a total of 8 drillers with an average of 29 years working
experience where a lower rate of downtimes were noted as compared to the less experienced
staff showing how proficiency in handling the jackhammer affected utilization as
inexperienced operators would note more jackhammer related downtimes than areas with
more experienced workers.

Table 4.1 showing a comparison of worker experience to breakdowns

Section Number of workers Average experience Average number of

[years] breakdowns
[monthly]
12 level east 4 9 20
12 level west 4
13 west bottom 4 29 11
13 west top 4

Maintenance and repair

Irregular maintenance and failure to execute prompt repairs contributed to an increase in

downtimes as jackhammers were left for repairs without any proper communication on how
exactly the jackhammer is performing and what exactly may be needing repairs where 3 out
of every 5 jackhammers which have come in for repairs return within the next 2 days with the
same problem.
Fig 4.1 Showing a disassembled jackhammer

Fig 4.1

Fig 4.1 shows a disassembled S25 jackhammer which had come in for repairs where the
build-up on the springs which did not need repairing but indicated a lack of regular
maintenance due to jackhammers only coming in for repairs after breakdowns and not for
standard maintenance.

Bit quality

Lower quality bit types proved to be less effective than others due to higher rates of wear and
tear. The use of button bit proved to be associated with more downtimes as compared to
when chisel drill bits were used with the button bit being in use in 73% of bit related
downtimes and chisel bits accounting for the remaining 27%.

Drilling technique and pattern

Use of poor drilling techniques and patterns contributed to poor utilization of jackhammers as
some areas were noted to not be following standard task procedures of drilling such as the use
of wider diameter drilling rods to collar and in such areas more downtimes were noted.
Rock hardness and conditions

Difficult drilling conditions in areas where harder rock conditions were found had a reduced
impact on utilization. In deep areas such as the 15 east harder rock conditions with rock mass
ratings above 80% were noted as these areas are characterized by harder rock with less
natural fracturing recording 35% more downtimes as compared to areas such as 11 level with
rock mass ratings from 30% to 40%.

Shift scheduling and planning

Poorly planned shifts and schedules caused lost time and lowered utilization levels with
delays being caused by low workforce levels and not enough time for effective hand-lashing
after blasting which results in delayed commencement of drilling operations.

Basic drilling Shift schedule

Drilling and charging – 2100hours – 0500hours

Blasting time - 0700hours

Due to an undercapacitated hoisting system which has 2 hour provisions for transportation of
men before and during shifts sometimes causes up to 4 hour delays in commencement of
work as the man carrying skip has a maximum capacity of carrying only 6 people at a time
and the ore hoist can only be made available for carrying men for very limited amounts of
time to avoid disrupting hoisting targets resulting in lowered utilization as people cannot get
to required ends in time for various activities. Without the delays the drilling shift has a
potential start time which adds +2hours without compromising blasting time.

Drilling and charging – 1900hours – 0630hours

Blasting time - 0700hours

After this slow entry of workers pre-drilling shift preparation procedures such as the safety
talk, hazard and risk identification, marking of face, machine calibration also add up to
around 45 minutes of delay to the time that has already been lost during the slowed entry
process.

Compressed air

Shortages of compressed air in the use of pneumatic jackhammers significantly decreased the
utilization and efficiency of the equipment.
Water supply

Low water supply levels in drilling operations resulted in lowered jackhammer utilization and
efficiency.

Fig 4.1.1 Showing responses from the conducted interviews expressed as a percentage of
each other

Results from interviews in percentage

6%
7%
22% Shortage compressed air
Shortage of water supply
9% Operator experience
maintenance and repairs
Rock type and conditions
shift scheduling and planning
bit quality
13% drilling technique and pattern
20%

14%
9%

Fig 4.2

Figure 4.2 illustrates the proportion of downtime due to the various aforementioned factors
expressed as a percentage of responses in the interviews that were conducted. Compressed air
and water supply shortages contributed to a higher percentage of total downtime compared to
the rest of the factors, reflecting their significant impact on utilization and operational
efficiency.
4.2 To determine how much compressed air and water shortages
affect utilization and the efficiency of jackhammers during
drilling
The second objective was to evaluate how compressed air and water shortages affected the
utilization and efficiency of jackhammers during drilling operations at Ayrshire Mine.
Compressed air availability is a critical factor in determining the functionality and
efficiencyof jackhammers, and its shortage directly impacts productivity.

Figure 4.2.1: Impact of Compressed Air Shortages on Drilled Meters

impact of compressed air shortages on drilled meters

4.10%

150m

6.60%
240m
6.90%

250m

82.40%
3000m

compressed air shortages water shortages mechanical failures other miscellaneous

Figure 4.3 shows the proportion of stoppages during drilling operations at Ayrshire Mine due
to various reasons:
 1. Compressed Air Shortages: Representing the largest portion of stoppages at 82.4%
(3000 meters). This indicates that compressed air shortages are the most significant
factor affecting jackhammer utilization and drilling efficiency.

2. Water Shortages: Accounting for 6.9% (250 meters) of the stoppages, water
shortages are another notable reason impacting operations.

3. Mechanical Failures: Making up 6.6% (240 meters) of the stoppages, mechanical

failures also contribute to reduced drilling productivity.

4. Other Miscellaneous Reasons: Representing 4.1% (150 meters), these could

include factors like minor equipment malfunctions, administrative delays, or other
unclassified reasons.

This pie chart effectively visualizes the significant impact of compressed air shortages on
drilling operations compared to other factors, underlining the importance of ensuring
consistent compressed air supply for optimal productivity.

4.2.1 Analysis
Compressed air availability steadily decreased from 85% in June to 70% in November,
leading to a corresponding decline in actual drilling efficiency from 68% to 53%. The
planned drilling target for each month was 2,250 meters, but the actual drilled meters
consistently fell short, with the shortfall growing as compressed air availability decreased.

Efficiency Degradation Over Time: The efficiency of jackhammers declined over time,
with a difference of up to 27% between the target and actual drilling efficiency by November.

The analysis demonstrated that compressed air shortages had a pronounced impact on
jackhammer efficiency during drilling operations. The decline in compressed air availability
from June to November was accompanied by reduced drilling efficiency and a growing
shortfall in the drilled meters. The findings emphasize the necessity of maintaining a steady
and sufficient supply of compressed air to ensure optimal jackhammer performance and
minimize productivity losses.

Graph 4.2 highlights the shortfall in drilled meters as compressed air availability declined.
The compressed air shortage resulted in a consistent increase in the shortfall of drilled meters
from 340 meters in June to 680 meters in November. This indicates that compressed air
availability is directly correlated with jackhammer productivity.
Table 4.2: Water Supply Availability and Jackhammer Performance

Metric S215 S25

Total Operational Hours 720 hours (8 hours/day) 720 hours (8 hours/day)

Water Supply Availability 90% (648 hours) 80% (576 hours)

Downtime Due to Water 72 hours (10% of total 144 hours (20% of total
Shortage hours) hours)

Functional Downtime 184.5 hours 228 hours

90% - (10% + 2.5%) = 80% - (20% + 2.5%) =

Efficiency Calculation
77.5% 57.5%

Table 4.2 presents a comparison of water supply availability and its impact on the
performance of two jackhammers, S215 and S25. It includes metrics such as total operational
hours, water supply availability, downtime due to water shortages, functional downtime, and
efficiency calculations. The efficiency calculation adjusts the operational efficiency of each
jackhammer based on the downtime caused by water shortages. The results indicate that
S215, with higher water availability, achieved better efficiency (77.5%) compared to S25
(57.5%), highlighting the critical role of water supply in jackhammer performance.
Figure 4.3: Monthly Drilling Targets vs. Actual Performance Due to Water Shortages

meters expressed as percentages

meters successfully drilled 67.40%

9100m

shortfall due to water shortages 32.60%

4400m

0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% 70.00% 80.00%

Column1 meters expressed as a percentage

Figure 4.3 provides a detailed breakdown of the impact of water shortages on drilled meters
at Ayrshire Mine:

Shortfall Due to Water Shortages: This accounts for 32.6% (4,400 meters) of the total
planned drilled meters over the study period. This significant proportion indicates the
detrimental effect of water shortages on achieving drilling targets.

Meters Successfully Drilled: Despite the challenges posed by water shortages, 67.4% (9,100
meters) of the planned drilling was successfully completed. This portion represents the
meters drilled under the constraints of water availability.

The chart clearly illustrates the substantial impact that water shortages had on drilling
performance.
Table 4.2.4: Correlation Between Water Availability and Jackhammer Productivity

Metric S215 S25

Average Monthly Drilling 1,800 m 1,500 m

Water Shortage Hours 72 hours 144 hours

% Water Availability 90% 80%

Potential Drilled Meters

2,250 m 2,250 m
(Projected)

% Efficiency Loss 22.5% 42.5%

Production Goal Impact Loss of 450 m Loss of 750 m

Table 4.2.4 correlates water availability with jackhammer productivity for S215 and S25. It
includes metrics such as average monthly drilling, water shortage hours, percentage of water
availability, potential drilled meters, percentage efficiency loss, and production goal impact.
The findings illustrate that S215, benefiting from higher water availability (90%), achieved
greater average monthly drilling (1,800 m) compared to S25 (1,500 m). The table emphasizes
the negative impact of water shortages on productivity, with S25 experiencing a higher
percentage efficiency loss (42.5%) compared to S215 (22.5%).

The above tables provide a detailed analysis of how water supply shortages impacted
jackhammer performance at Ayrshire Mine:
Jackhammer S215 operated under a higher water availability percentage (90%), compared to
S25 (80%). Consequently, S215 demonstrated a significantly higher efficiency (77.5%) than
S25 (57.5%), which reflects how water availability directly influenced operational
productivity.

Both S215 and S25 experienced considerable downtime due to water shortages, with S25
suffering more (144 hours or 20% of total hours). This notable downtime translated to lower
overall efficiency and productivity, affirming that water supply is a critical parameter for
effective drilling operations.

The percentage of drilling targets met varied significantly, correlating with periods of
insufficient water supply. The overall shortfall of 4,400 meters demonstrates a substantial
impact on the planned objectives for the study period. These results indicate that water supply
management is essential for achieving desired production outcomes. The results confirmed
that water supply shortages significantly impacted the efficiency of jackhammers used for
drilling operations at Ayrshire Mine. With clear correlations established between water
availability and operational performance, the study indicates that effective management of
water resources is vital for meeting drilling targets and enhancing production outcomes.

4.3 Strategies for mitigating the factors that affect the availability
of water and compressed air
The third objective was to develop strategies for mitigating the factors that impacted the
availability of water and compressed air at Ayrshire Mine. These resources are crucial for
smooth mining operations, and their shortages can significantly reduce operational efficiency.
The analysis aimed to identify the key factors contributing to these shortages and propose
strategies to mitigate them.
 Table 4.3: Key Factors Affecting the Availability of Water and Compressed Air and
Proposed Mitigation Strategies

Factor Impact on Impact on Proposed Expected BOQ (Bill Quantified

Compressed Water Mitigation Outcome Of Impact
Air Availability Strategies Quantity) Figures
Availability
Aging Frequent leaks, Water leaks Phased Improved 500 meters Air loss:
Infrastructure pressure drops reducing replacement resource of new ~5000 cubic
leading to air flow of pipes and flow, piping, 2x meters/day
loss, Low compressors reduced 10 cubic (36%); Water
compressor , regular losses, meters/min leaks: ~460
availability 2X maintenance enhanced compressors, liters/hour
10 cubic system 1000 fittings (41%)
meters/min reliability for leak-
with leaks proof joints
Power Compressor Reduced Installation Continuous 3 backup Downtime: 4
Supply shutdowns pump of backup operation generators, hours/day
Instability leading to efficiency power during 50 solar (16.67%);
downtime during systems outages, panels, 200 Pump
outages (generators, improved meters of efficiency
solar uptime electrical drop: ~1000
systems) wiring liters/hour
(10%)
4.3.1 Analysis of Mitigation Strategies
Aging Infrastructure

The study identified aging infrastructure as a major factor affecting the availability of both
water and compressed air. Leaks in pipelines and compressors led to inefficiencies. The
proposed strategy of phased replacement and regular maintenance would minimize leaks,
ensuring a more reliable supply of compressed air and water.

Power Supply Instability

Instability in the power supply caused interruptions in the operation of compressors and water
pumps, leading to downtime. The installation of backup power systems, such as generators or
solar power, was recommended to provide a stable energy source.

The study identified several critical factors affecting the availability of compressed air and
water at Ayrshire Mine. The proposed strategies—ranging from infrastructure upgrades to
resource management systems—are expected to mitigate these factors, leading to improved
operational efficiency. Regular maintenance and real-time monitoring emerged as key
solutions to address both air and water shortages. Implementing these strategies would ensure
a consistent resource supply, reducing downtime and improving drilling efficiency.

Mitigation of Compressed Air Shortages:

Compressed air shortages, accounting for 16.3% to 27.2% of downtime, had a direct impact
on drilling targets. As air availability declined, the actual drilled meters showed an increasing
shortfall. By implementing strategies such as infrastructure upgrades, preventive
maintenance, and real-time monitoring, the mine could minimize leaks and optimize air
pressure regulation, improving jackhammer utilization.

Mitigation of Water Shortages:

Water availability was crucial, particularly during dry periods. The proposed strategies, such
as rainwater harvesting and storage systems, would mitigate the impact of seasonal droughts
on water supply.

The study identified several critical factors affecting the availability of compressed air and
water at Ayrshire Mine. The proposed strategies—ranging from infrastructure upgrades to
resource management systems—are expected to mitigate these factors, leading to improved
operational efficiency. Regular maintenance and real-time monitoring emerged as key
solutions to address both air and water shortages. Implementing these strategies would ensure
a consistent resource supply, reducing downtime and improving drilling efficiency.

4.4 Cost-benefit analysis of the strategies aimed at improving the

availability of water and compressed air
The final objective of this study was to conduct a cost-benefit analysis of the strategies aimed
at improving the availability of water and compressed air. The cost-benefit analysis evaluated
the financial investment required to implement each strategy and weighed it against the
expected benefits, including reduced downtime, increased drilling efficiency, and overall
operational improvements.

Table 4.4: Cost-Benefit Analysis of Proposed Strategies

Expected Benefit Net Benefit Payback

Strategy Cost (USD)
Benefit (USD) (USD) Period
Infrastructur
Reduction of
e
water/air
Replacement $150,000 $225,000 $75,000 8 months
leaks by
&
60%,
Maintenance
Continuity
Backup during power
Power outages,
$120,000 $180,000 $60,000 10 months
Systems 24%
(Generators) increased
uptime
Real-Time $100,000 15% $175,000 $75,000 6 months
Monitoring & reduction in
Digital resource
Management waste,
improved
 allocation
25% water
Water
availability
Storage and
$75,000 improvement $130,000 $55,000 12 months
Conservation
during dry
Systems
months
18%
reduction in
Preventive
equipment
Maintenance $50,000 $110,000 $60,000 5 months
failures,
Scheduling
increased
uptime
Resource 10% more
Usage efficient
Forecasting & $60,000 resource use, $100,000 $40,000 7 months
Balancing reduced
Demand shortages

Infrastructure Replacement and Maintenance: The cost of replacing outdated pipelines

and compressors was estimated at $150,000. This strategy was expected to reduce leaks and
increase the reliability of both compressed air and water supplies, resulting in a 20%
reduction in resource shortages and a 10% improvement in uptime. The benefit of increased
productivity was valued at $225,000, yielding a net benefit of $75,000. The payback period
for this strategy was calculated to be 8 months.

Backup Power Systems (Generators): Installing backup power systems at a cost of

$120,000 was expected to ensure continuity during power outages, leading to an 8%
improvement in uptime. The increased availability of compressed air and water was projected
to result in an additional $180,000 in operational benefits, with a net benefit of $60,000. The
payback period was calculated to be 10 months.

Real-Time Monitoring and Digital Management: Investing $100,000 in real-time

monitoring systems and digital management solutions was projected to reduce resource waste
by 15% and improve allocation. This strategy was expected to yield a benefit of $175,000,
resulting in a net benefit of $75,000 and a payback period of 6 months.

Water Storage and Conservation Systems: The installation of water storage and
conservation systems at a cost of $75,000 was designed to mitigate the impact of seasonal
droughts, improving water availability by 25% during dry months. The expected benefit was
$130,000, resulting in a net benefit of $55,000 and a payback period of 12 months.

Preventive Maintenance Scheduling: Implementing a preventive maintenance schedule at a

cost of $50,000 was expected to reduce equipment failures by 18%, resulting in increased
uptime. The expected benefit was $110,000, yielding a net benefit of $60,000 with a payback
period of 5 months.

Resource Usage Forecasting and Balancing Demand: This strategy, with an initial cost of
$60,000, aimed to improve resource utilization efficiency by 10% through accurate
forecasting and balancing supply with demand. The expected benefit was $100,000, resulting
in a net benefit of $40,000 and a payback period of 7 months.

Overall, the cost-benefit analysis of strategies aimed at improving water and compressed air
availability revealed that all strategies provided substantial benefits relative to their costs.
Preventive maintenance scheduling had the shortest payback period (5 months), while
infrastructure replacement offered the highest net benefit ($75,000). Real-time monitoring
systems also proved highly effective, with a net benefit of $75,000 and a payback period of 6
months. Backup power systems and water storage were critical to ensuring operational
continuity during power outages and droughts.

4.5 Discussion of Findings

The first objective of the study was to identify the factors affecting jackhammer utilization in
drilling. The data collected from the Ayrshire Mine, particularly from the usage of the S215
and S25 jackhammers, is presented and analyzed to determine these factors. The analysis
revealed that compressed air availability and water supply shortages were critical factors
affecting jackhammer utilization at Ayrshire Mine. As compressed air availability declined
from 85% to 70%, drilling efficiency fell proportionally, consistent with studies on the direct
influence of air supply on mining operations (Osborne, 2020). The growing percentage of
downtime attributable to air shortages, which reached 27.2% by November, reinforced this
finding.

Similarly, water supply availability had a significant impact on jackhammer performance.

Jackhammer S215, which had higher water availability (90%), outperformed S25 (80%
availability) in terms of efficiency. This is consistent with Kamau and Wanjohi (2022), who
demonstrated that adequate water supply is essential for maintaining optimal machine
performance in harsh mining environments.

Efficiency Loss: Both jackhammers experienced notable efficiency losses due to downtime,
with S25 facing a greater reduction (42.5% loss) compared to S215 (22.5% loss). The
compounding effect of reduced air and water availability led to these performance shortfalls.
This aligns with findings from Ekundayo (2021), who noted that equipment underutilization
is exacerbated by operational delays related to resource shortages.

The second objective was to evaluate how compressed air shortages affected the efficiency of
jackhammers during drilling operations at Ayrshire Mine. The findings revealed a significant
impact of compressed air shortages on jackhammer efficiency during drilling operations.
Compressed air availability steadily decreased from 85% in June to 70% in November,
leading to a corresponding decline in actual drilling efficiency from 68% to 53%. The
planned drilling target for each month was 2,250 meters, but the actual drilled meters
consistently fell short, with the shortfall growing as compressed air availability decreased.
Compressed air is essential for powering jackhammers, and its availability directly influences
drilling performance. As observed in the data, when compressed air availability dropped, the
actual drilling efficiency also declined. Literature supports the critical role of compressed air
in mining operations. According to Schraufnagel et al. (2019), compressed air shortages lead
to reduced equipment productivity and increased downtime, both of which were evident in
this study. The shortfall in drilled meters increased as compressed air availability worsened.
This shortfall not only affects production targets but also adds additional operational costs
due to inefficiencies. As Davidson et al. (2020) point out, operational inefficiencies due to
equipment constraints like compressed air shortages can lead to financial losses and delays in
project completion. The efficiency of jackhammers declined over time, with a difference of
up to 27% between the target and actual drilling efficiency by November. This aligns with
studies by Chen et al. (2021), who found that persistent resource shortages, such as
compressed air, can exacerbate operational inefficiencies, leading to decreased equipment
performance over time.

The third objective was to develop strategies for mitigating the factors that impacted the
availability of water and compressed air at Ayrshire Mine. These resources are crucial for
smooth mining operations, and their shortages can significantly reduce operational efficiency.
The analysis revealed that compressed air shortages and water supply issues significantly
affected jackhammer efficiency during drilling operations. As compressed air availability
dropped from 85% in June to 70% in November, drilling efficiency decreased
correspondingly from 68% to 53%. This correlation underscores the critical role of
compressed air in maintaining drilling operations. Compressed air shortages, accounting for
16.3% to 27.2% of downtime, had a direct impact on drilling targets. As air availability
declined, the actual drilled meters showed an increasing shortfall (Table 4.2.1). By
implementing strategies such as infrastructure upgrades, preventive maintenance, and real-
time monitoring, the mine could minimize leaks and optimize air pressure regulation,
improving jackhammer utilization. Studies by Roberts et al. (2020) and Ntuli et al. (2019)
support these findings, highlighting that better resource management and backup systems
significantly reduce operational disruptions. Water availability was crucial, particularly
during dry periods. The proposed strategies, such as rainwater harvesting and storage
systems, would mitigate the impact of seasonal droughts on water supply. Chibanda et al.
(2018) demonstrated that water storage systems could buffer against drought impacts,
ensuring stable water flow even during dry periods.

The final objective of this study was to conduct a cost-benefit analysis of the strategies aimed
at improving the availability of water and compressed air. The cost-benefit analysis evaluated
the financial investment required to implement each strategy and weighed it against the
expected benefits, including reduced downtime, increased drilling efficiency, and overall
operational improvements The cost of replacing outdated pipelines and compressors was
estimated at $150,000. This strategy was expected to reduce leaks and increase the reliability
of both compressed air and water supplies, resulting in a 20% reduction in resource shortages
and a 10% improvement in uptime. The benefit of increased productivity was valued at
$225,000, yielding a net benefit of $75,000. The payback period for this strategy was
calculated to be 8 months. According to Greene and Hastings (2021), infrastructure upgrades
typically lead to significant reductions in operational inefficiencies and improved system
reliability. Installing backup power systems at a cost of $120,000 was expected to ensure
continuity during power outages, leading to an 8% improvement in uptime. The increased
availability of compressed air and water was projected to result in an additional $180,000 in
operational benefits, with a net benefit of $60,000. The payback period was calculated to be
10 months. Ntuli et al. (2019) demonstrated that backup systems are essential for maintaining
consistent resource availability, particularly in areas with unstable power supplies. Investing
$100,000 in real-time monitoring systems and digital management solutions was projected to
reduce resource waste by 15% and improve allocation. This strategy was expected to yield a
benefit of $175,000, resulting in a net benefit of $75,000 and a payback period of 6 months.
As observed by Roberts et al. (2020), digital monitoring systems enhance decision-making by
providing real-time data on resource usage, thereby optimizing operations and minimizing
waste. The installation of water storage and conservation systems at a cost of $75,000 was
designed to mitigate the impact of seasonal droughts, improving water availability by 25%
during dry months. The expected benefit was $130,000, resulting in a net benefit of $55,000
and a payback period of 12 months. Chibanda et al. (2018) found that water conservation and
storage strategies can significantly enhance water availability, especially in resource-scarce
environments. Implementing a preventive maintenance schedule at a cost of $50,000 was
expected to reduce equipment failures by 18%, resulting in increased uptime. The expected
benefit was $110,000, yielding a net benefit of $60,000 with a payback period of 5 months.
Preventive maintenance has been shown to reduce operational disruptions and extend the
lifespan of equipment, as noted by Greene and Hastings (2021). This strategy, with an initial
cost of $60,000, aimed to improve resource utilization efficiency by 10% through accurate
forecasting and balancing supply with demand. The expected benefit was $100,000, resulting
in a net benefit of $40,000 and a payback period of 7 months. According to Roberts et al.
(2020), resource usage forecasting helps avoid overuse and underutilization, leading to more
efficient operations.

4.6 Chapter Summary

This chapter examined the collected data, focusing on interpreting and understanding the
results related to exploring the achievement of drilling targets utilizing increasing
jackhammer utilization and efficiency. The analysis identified trends, correlations, and
possible challenges encountered during the deepening process, providing a foundation for
informed decision-making and further recommendations.
Chapter 5

5.0 Summary
Chapter 4 presented a comprehensive analysis of the factors influencing jackhammer
utilization and efficiency during drilling operations at Ayrshire Mine. The study identified
critical factors such as compressed air and water supply shortages, operator skill and
experience, maintenance practices, rock conditions, and drilling techniques that significantly
impacted drilling performance. The data revealed that compressed air shortages accounted for
the majority of downtime, leading to a substantial shortfall in drilled meters and reduced
operational efficiency.

The analysis also highlighted the importance of water supply in maintaining jackhammer
performance, with findings indicating that higher water availability correlated with improved
efficiency. The study proposed various strategies to mitigate the identified challenges,
including infrastructure upgrades, preventive maintenance, and the implementation of real-
time monitoring systems. A cost-benefit analysis of these strategies demonstrated their
potential for enhancing operational efficiency and reducing downtime, with favorable net
benefits and reasonable payback periods.

5.1 Conclusions
The findings of this study underscore the critical role of resource availability—specifically
compressed air and water—in optimizing jackhammer utilization and overall drilling
efficiency at Ayrshire Mine. The consistent decline in drilling performance as compressed air
availability decreased from 85% to 70% illustrates the direct relationship between resource
supply and operational productivity. Similarly, the analysis confirmed that water shortages
significantly hindered drilling performance, emphasizing the need for effective water
management strategies.

Moreover, the study revealed that operator experience and maintenance practices are essential
for minimizing equipment downtimes. Areas with more experienced personnel exhibited
lower breakdown rates, reinforcing the importance of training and skill development in the
workforce. The proposed mitigation strategies, supported by a favorable cost-benefit analysis,
provide a roadmap for addressing the identified challenges and enhancing drilling operations.

5.2 Recommendations
Based on the findings and conclusions of this study, the following recommendations are
proposed to improve jackhammer utilization and overall drilling efficiency at Ayrshire Mine:

1. Enhance Resource Management: Implement robust resource management systems to

monitor and optimize the availability of compressed air and water. This includes real-time
tracking of resource usage and predictive maintenance scheduling to prevent shortages.

2. Upgrade Infrastructure: Prioritize the phased replacement of aging infrastructure,

including pipelines found in the production levels which have exceeded their lifespan and
compressors, to minimize leaks and ensure a reliable supply of compressed air and water.
Regular maintenance should be scheduled to maintain system integrity.

3. Invest in Backup Power Systems: Install backup power systems which include solar
panels and backup generators to mitigate the impact of power outages on compressor and
pump operations. This will help maintain continuous resource availability and reduce
downtime.
4. Implement Preventive Maintenance: Establish a preventive maintenance program to
address equipment issues before they lead to breakdowns. This should include regular
inspections and servicing of jackhammers and associated equipment.

5. Training and Development: A more skilled workforce can lead to improved operational
efficiency and reduced downtimes. The mine should pair drillers with new and more
experienced staff combined as a way to enhance this process.

6. Water Conservation Strategies: Develop and implement water conservation strategies,

such as rainwater harvesting on surface and storage systems such as a surface level dam
which will feed into underground dams and sumps, to ensure a stable water supply during dry
periods. This will help mitigate the impact of seasonal water shortages on drilling operations.

7. Regular Performance Reviews: Conduct regular performance reviews and audits of

drilling operations on a monthly basis to identify areas for improvement and ensure that best
practices are being followed and to actively monitor trends.

By implementing these recommendations, Ayrshire Mine can enhance jackhammer

utilization, improve drilling efficiency, and ultimately achieve its production targets more
effectively. Continuous monitoring and adaptation of strategies will be essential to respond to
changing operational conditions and resource availability.
CHAPTER 6
6.1 REFERENCES

Johnson, K. (2017) Advances in Handheld Rock Drill Technology. Journal of Mining

Engineering, 19(2), 12-20.

Koppe, H. (2014) Optimization of Drilling Parameters for Improved Efficiency. Journal of

Drilling and Excavation, 10(1), 34-42.

Lee, H. S. (2019) Handbook of Rock Drilling and Excavation. CRC Press.

Liang, Y. C. (2016) Compressed Air Systems for Mining Applications. International Journal
of Mining Science and Technology, 26(4), 631-638.

Lewis, R. (1994) Rock Mechanics and Drilling. Butterworth-Heinemann.

Mwema, J. M. (2020) Energy Efficiency in Compressed Air Systems for Mining. Journal of
Energy Efficiency, 13(1), 1-12.

Rath, S. S. (2017) Underground Drilling and Loading. International Journal of Rock

Mechanics and Mining Sciences, 94, 137-145.

Safari, R., & Mokhtari, S. M. (2020) Principles of Rock Breakage by Drilling. Journal of
Rock Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering, 12(4), 833-842.

Singh, S. K. (2015) Percussion Drilling: Mechanics and Applications. Journal of Drilling and
Excavation, 11(2), 12-25.

Singh, T. R. (2018) Handbook of Drilling and Blasting. CRC Press

South African Mining Industry Association (SAMIA) (2019) Mining Industry Facts and
Figures.
 Y. Zhang (2019) Drilling Rate and Penetration Rate in Hard Rock Drilling. Journal of Mining
Science, 55(2), 257-265.

Zhou, C. (2019) Optimization of Air Pressure for Pneumatic Rock Drills. Journal of Energy
Efficiency, 12(2), 1-14.

6.2 APPENDICES

Appendix A

S215 S25

Total hours 720 hours/8 hours daily 720 hours/8 hours daily

Downtime hours 184.5 hours/2 hours 15min daily228 hours/2 hours 30min
average
daily average

Standby hours 157 hours 30min 108 hours

Utilization 70 % 65 %

Appendix B

Hole diameter Air leakage at 6 bar (m3/min) Power required for compression (kW)

(mm)

1 0.06 0.3

3 0.60 3.1

5 1.62 8.3

10 6.30 33.0

Appendix C
Factors affecting drilling Number of responses
Shortage compressed air 15
Shortage of water supply 14
Operator skill and experience 6
Maintenance and repairs (breakdowns) 11
Rock hardness and conditions 8

Shift scheduling and planning 6

Bit quality 5

Drilling technique and pattern 4

Appendix D
Section Number of workers Average experience Average number of
[years] breakdowns
[monthly]
12 level east 4 9 20
12 level west 4
13 west bottom 4 29 11
13 west top 4

Appendix E
Metric S215 S25

Total Operational Hours 720 hours (8 hours/day) 720 hours (8 hours/day)

Water Supply Availability 90% (648 hours) 80% (576 hours)

Downtime Due to Water 72 hours (10% of total 144 hours (20% of total
Shortage hours) hours)

Functional Downtime 184.5 hours 228 hours

90% - (10% + 2.5%) = 80% - (20% + 2.5%) =

Efficiency Calculation
77.5% 57.5%
 Appendix F
Metric S215 S25

Average Monthly Drilling 1,800 m 1,500 m

Water Shortage Hours 72 hours 144 hours

% Water Availability 90% 80%

Potential Drilled Meters

2,250 m 2,250 m
(Projected)

% Efficiency Loss 22.5% 42.5%

Production Goal Impact Loss of 450 m Loss of 750 m

Appendix G
Factor Impact on Impact on Proposed Expected BOQ (Bill Quantified
Compressed Water Mitigation Outcome Of Impact
Air Availability Strategies Quantity) Figures
Availability
Aging Frequent leaks, Water leaks Phased Improved 500 meters Air loss:
Infrastructure pressure drops reducing replacement resource of new ~5000 cubic
leading to air flow of pipes and flow, piping, 2x meters/day
loss, Low compressors reduced 10 cubic (36%); Water
compressor , regular losses, meters/min leaks: ~460
availability 2X maintenance enhanced compressors, liters/hour
10 cubic system 1000 fittings (41%)
meters/min reliability for leak-
with leaks proof joints
Power Compressor Reduced Installation Continuous 3 backup Downtime: 4
Supply shutdowns pump of backup operation generators, hours/day
Instability leading to efficiency power during 50 solar (16.67%);
downtime during systems outages, panels, 200 Pump
outages (generators, improved meters of efficiency
 solar uptime electrical drop: ~1000
systems) wiring liters/hour
(10%)

Appendix H
Expected Benefit Net Benefit Payback
Strategy Cost (USD)
Benefit (USD) (USD) Period
Infrastructur
Reduction of
e
water/air
Replacement $150,000 $225,000 $75,000 8 months
leaks by
&
60%,
Maintenance
Continuity
Backup during power
Power outages,
$120,000 $180,000 $60,000 10 months
Systems 24%
(Generators) increased
uptime
15%
Real-Time reduction in
Monitoring & resource
$100,000 $175,000 $75,000 6 months
Digital waste,
Management improved
allocation
25% water
Water
availability
Storage and
$75,000 improvement $130,000 $55,000 12 months
Conservation
during dry
Systems
months