Unit 9
Psychology and Sports
1. Personality; its definition & types (Jung Classification & Big Five Theory)
2. Motivation, its type & techniques.
3. Exercise Adherence: Reasons, Benefits & Strategies for Enhancing it
4. Meaning, Concept & Types of Aggressions in Sports
5. Psychological Attributes in Sports – Self-Esteem, Mental Imagery, Self-Talk, Goal Setting
Personality; its definition & types (Jung Classification & Big Five Theory)
Personality
The word ‘personality’ is derived from the Latin word ‘Persona’, which means ‘mask’.
Personality usually means that an individual is much more than his outer appearance.
Personality is the sum of inner and outer capabilities of an individual.
According to Allport, “Personality is the dynamic organisation of those psychophysical systems that
determine an individual’s adjustment to his environment.”
Types of Personality
The psychologists have divided the personality into four types, i.e., A, B, C and D.
1. Type ‘A’ Personality: The individuals with this type of personality are very competitive. They are
self-critical. They are characterized by high working involvement. They are easily excited and owing
to that they usually fall prey to hypertension. They experience a persistent sense of urgency. So, they
seem to be always struggling against the clock. They quickly become impatient with delays. Such
types of individuals can easily be aroused to anger, hostility and aggression. They are more prone to
heart ailments.
2. Type ‘B’ Personality: The individuals with this type of personality are not competitive in nature.
They are easy going and patient. They usually do not become angry and hostile. They are able to
express their emotions appropriately. They are able to cope with stress effectively. They are not
overachievers and overambitious in life. They are usually quite satisfied with their lives. They can be
called successful persons in life.
3. Type ‘C’ Personality: The individuals with this type of personality have pleasing and appeasing
nature. They are unable to express their emotions specially anger. They are able to suppress their
emotions efficiently. They are lethargic, passive, hopeless and pessimistic. Sometimes, they even
deny their own needs. They feel alone and their loneliness begins at an early age. They have such
behaviour pattern which may enhance the risk of cancer.
4. Type ‘D’ Personality: The individuals with this type of personality usually suffer from high degree of
distress. They persistently suppress their feelings. Such people don’t share their emotions with other
persons because they always have a fear of rejection or disapproval. Such individuals are usually
prone to heart ailments. They are susceptible to high blood pressure, inflammation and depression.
They have great risk of premature death. They usually lead a poor quality of life.
Jung’s Classification
C G Jung has classified personality on the basis of sociability character as introverts, extroverts and
ambiverts.
1. Introverts: These are the persons who share characteristics such as shyness, social withdrawal and
tendency to talk less. Owing to these characteristics such persons seem to be self-centered, unable
to adjust easily in society or social situations. They are very sensible, rigid in ideas and future
oriented.
2. Extroverts: Extroverts have a tendency to be friendly, outgoing, talkative and social in nature. They
usually prefer social contacts. They are generous, supportive and courageous. They may be called
happy, go, lucky persons. They show interest in present reality than future. They do not have
hesitation. They express their feelings openly. They take decision and act upon it quickly. They are
not affected easily by difficulties and troubles.
3. Ambiverts: There are only few persons who are pure introverts or pure extroverts. The remaining
majority of persons possess both the qualities or traits of introverts and extroverts such persons are
called as ambiverts.
Big Five Personality Theory
1. Openness: Persons who like to learn new things, new concepts and enjoy new experiences usually
remain on the top in openness. Openness includes traits like being imaginative, insightful and having
a variety of interests.
2. Conscientiousness: Persons who have a high degree of conscientiousness are reliable and prompt.
Such persons remain organised, systematic, laborious and complete in all respects.
3. Extroversion: Extroverts (often known as extravert) get their energy from interacting with other
individuals, whereas introverts get their energy from within themselves. Extroversion includes the
traits of being energetic, talkative and assertive.
4. Agreeableness: Such individuals are friendly, cooperative, compatible, kind and gentle. Persons
with too agreeableness may be more distant or aloof. They are usually kind, generous, affectionate
and sympathetic.
5. Neuroticism: This domain or dimension relates to one’s emotional stability and the degree of
negative emotions. Persons who have high neuroticism usually experience emotional instability and
negative emotions. Such individuals remain moody and tense.
Motivation, its type & techniques.
According to Crooks and Stein, “Any condition, that might energise and direct our actions” is called
motivation.
The term ‘Motivation’ is derived from the word ’Motive’. Motive is a combination of thought, feeling
or condition that causes one to act.
Types of Motivation
There are two types of motivation.
1. Intrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation is internal. It occurs when people are compelled to do
something out of pleasure, importance or desire. Motivation is always intrinsic when the force comes
from within oneself. For example, when a person indulges in any sports to have mastery, to display
superiority or to gain social approval, it is an intrinsic motivation. He/she participates in sports for
his/her own sake.
2. Extrinsic Motivation: Extrinsic motivation is external. It occurs when external factors compel the
person to do something. Motivation is always extrinsic, when external forces, positive or negative
produce a behavioural change. Reward, punishment, praise, blame or cash prize are examples of
extrinsic motivation. It has been found that such devices motivate some persons more strongly than
others. In fact, extrinsic motivation includes factors that motivate the individual in achieving the
goals.
Techniques of Motivation
1. Goal Setting: Goal setting is one of the most important techniques of motivation. If you do not set
a goal, you cannot achieve apex positions in your life.
2. Elaborate Arrangements of Competition: Elaborate arrangements of competition play a significant
role in motivation. Sportspersons perform better in competition when the arrangements of
competition are elaborate. Without extensive arrangements of competitions, good sportspersons
also cannot perform well in such competitions.
3. Spectators: If there is a huge number of spectators, it will have a positive effect on the players. But
its effectiveness depends upon the experience and maturity of athletes. If an inexperienced athlete
participates in competition, which is full of spectators, then he will not be able to perform better in
comparison to an experienced athlete. An inexperienced athlete is usually overpowered by fear.
4. Verbal Comments: Various factors of motivation are applied at various stages. Verbal comments
should be applied during competition. It also varies according to the past experience of the player.
5. Hypnotism: Motivation through hypnotism can be effective but, generally, it is discarded by the
public. It has its scientific base. Several studies show its positive effects. Simple and direct strength
may be improved through hypnotism if it is properly employed by a trained person.
6. Healthy Sports Environment: Healthy sports environment plays a vital role in motivating the
sportspersons. Healthy sports environment consists of good climate, proper weather, humidity and
temperature, smooth and clean sports fields, good quality of sports equipment and other facilities. In
such healthy sports environment, sportspersons can do sound sports training and can exhibit good
performance in competition.
7. Knowledge of Results: Experimental studies indicate that a person who has the knowledge of
his/her progress, will learn more rapidly than an equally motivated learner of comparable ability,
who is working in the dark. It can be said that an individual, who does not know where he/she is
standing cannot reach his/her destination. Knowledge of progress or results is must because progress
is also a reward in itself.
9. Cash Prizes, Certificates and Trophies: Indeed, it is a good incentive to the sportspersons. It
motivates the individual. Every government strives hard to achieve better in international
competitions.
10. Motivational Music: It is particularly a good way to motivate sportspersons in training and prior
to competition but it should be inspirational one.
11. Positive Attitude: For proper motivation, the coaches should try to encourage positive attitude
among sportspersons. They should lay proper emphasis on ‘can be‘ mindset of players. It means that
players must think that they can achieve anything.
12. Positive Self-talk: Positive self-talk is a technique that can be used to enhance motivation. With
proper repetition of self-talk can change a sportsperson’s belief system. Mohammed Ali, the world-
famous boxer of USA used to apply this technique. He used to repeat, “I am the greatest,”. He
repeated his claim that his opponents believed it.
Exercise Adherence: Reasons, Benefits & Strategies for Enhancing it
Exercise Adherence
Exercise Adherence is a combination of two words ‘exercise’ and ‘adherence’. Exercise means any
movement that makes your muscles work and requires your body to burn calories, whereas
adherence means “to stick”. In fact, exercise adherence refers to maintaining an exercise regimen for
a prolonged period of time following the initial adoption phase. It can also be said that exercise
adherence is sticking to your daily exercises and goals.
Reasons to Exercise
1. Enhanced Physical Appearance. Not only can exercise help you feel better, but it also helps us to
look better as well. However, genetics play a major role in our physical or overall appearance. As a
matter of fact, everybody wants to have a good as well as healthy physical appearance. Exercise can
enhance our physical as well as overall appearance. That is why exercise is important.
2. Improved Psychological/Emotional Health. Improved psychological/emotional health is also one of
the reasons to exercise. In fact, exercise has been proven to provide a mood booster as it releases
chemicals like endorphins into our brain that help us to feel happier and can ease the effects of
depression, ADHD and anxiety. It can also help in improving self-esteem and self-confidence. Exercise
also helps in reducing the levels of stress. For such reasons we tend to do exercise.
3. Feel More Energized. One of the reasons to exercise regularly is that it gives us more energy or we
feel more energized. Indeed, a workout can help oxygen flow more freely throughout the body and
give us a much needed burst of energy. This burst of energy not only occurs during exercise, but also
after exercise.
4. Decreased Risk of Diseases. Decreasing the risk of diseases is also one of the reasons to exercise.
As a matter of fact, exercise builds up and improves circulation of white blood cells, which we need
to get rid of harmful bacteria that cause us to fall sick. It boosts our immune system and makes us
more resilient to diseases or illnesses.
5. For Controlling Body Weight. Controlling body weight is another reason to exercise. If it is done
regularly, it helps to control and manage our body weight. In fact, exercise burns calories, which
results in shedding our extra body weight.
6. For Long-term Health. Gaining long-term health is also one of the reasons to exercise. Regular
exercise can avert various cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, etc., in the long term. Working out
regularly increases good cholesterol and decreases the risk of serious medical issues, especially those
pertaining to heart. Even it has been proved through research studies that exercise adds years to our
life.
7. For Improved Social Relations. Improved social relations is also one of the significant reasons to
exercise. For good social health, social relations are essential. By joining an exercise group or a class
such as dance, hiking club or volleyball team, our social relations are improved.
8. For Improved Physiological Health and Fitness. To attain improved physiological health and fitness
is a reason to exercise. In fact, regular exercise improves the physiological health. All the systems of
our body become efficient. The fitness of an individual is also improved by regular exercise.
Benefits of Exercise
1. Reduced Risk of Heart Diseases
2. Helps in Keeping Correct Body Posture
3. Improves Mood
4. Boosts Memory
5. Reduces Depression
6. Lowers Anxiety
7. Strengthens Bones and Muscles
8. Improves Mental Alertness
9. Reduces Stress
10. Enhances Self-esteem
11. Improves Self-confidence and Body Image
12. Delays Fatigue
13. Provides Health Benefits
14. Helps in Early Recovery from Injury
15. Improves Flexibility
16. Feeling Great Overall
STRATEGIES FOR ENHANCING ADHERENCE TO EXERCISE
1. Simple Exercise in the Beginning
2. Exercise in the Morning
3. Concentrate Only on Yourself
4. Set Appropriate Goal
5. Take Support of Others
6. Thank Yourself
7. Select Interesting Exercises
8. Be Punctual
9. Make a Schedule
10. Be Aware about your Progress
11. Variety in Exercise Programme
Meaning, Concept & Types of Aggressions in Sports
Meaning and Concept of Aggression
In psychology, the term aggression refers to a range of behaviours that can result in both physical
and psychological harm to oneself, others or objects in the environment. This type of social
interaction centers on harming another individual either physically or mentally.
“Aggression is noun that is generally defined as an act of aggressive behaviour.”
Types of Aggression in Sports
These are the following types of aggression in sports.
1. Hostile Aggression: Hostile aggression is inflicting or causing harm whether it is physical or
psychological on someone else. It is sometimes referred as reactive aggression and can be
accompanied by anger. In hostile aggression, the main aim is to cause injury to other sportsperson.
The intention is on causing pain and suffering. In simple words, hostile aggression is when the
primary aim is to cause physical harm or injury to your opponent. A good example of hostile
aggression is a bowler throwing a bouncer deliberately to shake up the concentration of a batsman.
Some cricketers have deliberately done this in the past with the intent towards causing injury.
2. Instrumental Aggression: Instrumental aggression is displaying aggressive behaviour in the pursuit
of a non-aggressive goal, It is also known as channelled aggression and is not accompanied by anger.
This type of aggression comes in contact sports. In other words, instrumental aggression is behaviour
that has the intent to hurt in order to achieve money, praise or victory. In case of instrumental
aggression an athlete may intend to injure the opponent, but the most important goal to be achieved
by the aggressive act is to win the competition. For example, a rugby player using aggression to
tackle his opponent to win the ball. Actually the player is not using his aggression to hurt the
opponent but rather to win the ball back.
3. Assertive Behaviour: Assertive behaviour is different type of aggression/ aggressive behaviour. This
is defined as behaviour that involves the use of legitimate physical or verbal force to achieve one’s
purpose. For example, sledging in cricket to cause psychological discomfort for the batsman. For an
act to be assertive it must be goal directed with no specific intention to harm with the use of
legitimate force with no rules broken. In assertive aggression or assertive behaviour, the intention is
to establish dominance rather than to harm the opponent. Any physical injury that may occur
through assertive behaviour is accidental and unintentional. In fact, assertive behaviour is related to
four main criteria i.e., it is goal oriented, not intended to harm, uses only legitimate force and does
not break any rule of the game or sport. Even when coaches say to their players to be aggressive they
mean to say that they be assertive.
Psychological Attributes in Sports – Self-Esteem, Mental Imagery, Self-Talk, Goal Setting
Self-Esteem
The concept of self-esteem generally refers to a person’s evaluation of, or attitude toward, him- or
herself. Self-esteem is centered around a belief in the self, respect for the self, and confidence in the
self. An equally important component of self-esteem is esteem from others. That is, the respect and
admiration others bestow on a performer is equally motivational. Because pursuit of excellence is a
comparative process, esteem by others is reflective of one’s performance. Hence, it is critical that the
performer seeks esteem from others.
Mental Imagery
Mental Imagery is a psychological skill used widely in sports for enhancing performance of wide
variety of motor skills. Mental Imagery may be defined as using one’s senses to create or recreate an
experience or visual image in the mind that at times may seem to be as real as seeing the image with
our physical eyes.
Self-Talk
Self-talk is defined as overt or covert personal dialogue in which the athlete interprets feelings,
perceptions, and convictions and gives himself instructions and reinforcement. Self-talk is an
effective technique to control thoughts and to influence feelings. Thoughts and feelings can influence
self-confidence as well as performance.
Goal Setting
Goal setting is a mental training technique that can be used to increase an individual’s commitment
towards achieving a specific standard of proficiency on a task within a specified time. It is a process
of establishing a level of performance proficiency which should be reached within a prescribed time
period is known as goal setting.
